I. Early 1890s – 1905 1892 Code of laws of the Russian Empire: “the obligation of complete obedience to the tsar,” whose power was declared “autocratic and unlimited.” Industrial production is developing rapidly. The social consciousness of a new class, the proletariat, is growing. The first political strike at the Orekhovo-Zuevskaya manufactory. The court recognized the workers' demands as fair. Emperor Nicholas II. The first ones were formed political parties: 1898 – Social Democrats, 1905 – Constitutional Democrats, 1901 – Social Revolutionaries

Genre: story and short story. Weakened story line. He is interested in the subconscious, and not in the “dialetics of the soul”, the dark, instinctive sides of the personality, spontaneous feelings that are not understood by the person himself. The author’s image comes to the fore; the task is to show one’s own, subjective perception of life. There is no direct author's position - everything goes into subtext (philosophical, ideological). The role of detail increases. Poetic devices turn into prose. Realism (neorealism)

Modernism. Symbolism of the year. In the article by D.S. Merezhkovsky “On the causes of the decline and new trends in modern Russian literature,” modernism receives a theoretical justification. The older generation of symbolists: Merezhkovsky, Gippius, Bryusov, Balmont, Fyodor Sologub. Young Symbolists: Blok, A. Bely Magazine “World of Art” Ed. Princess M.K. Tenisheva and S.I. Mamontov, eds. S. P. Diaghilev, A. N. Benois (St. Petersburg) K. Balmont V. Bryusov Merezhkovsky D

Symbolism Focuses primarily through symbol on intuited entities and ideas, vague feelings and visions; The desire to penetrate into the secrets of existence and consciousness, to see through visible reality the supra-temporal ideal essence of the world and its Beauty. Eternal Femininity World Soul“Mirror to mirror, compare two mirror images, and place a candle between them. Two depths without a bottom, colored by the candle flame, will deepen themselves, mutually deepen each other, enrich the candle flame and unite with it into one. This is the image of the verse." (K. Balmont) Dear friend, don’t you see that everything we see is only a reflection, only shadows From what is invisible with our eyes? Dear friend, don’t you hear that the crackling noise of life is only a distorted response of triumphant harmonies (Soloviev) A pale young man with a burning gaze, Now I give you three covenants: First accept: do not live in the present, Only the future is the domain of the poet. Remember the second thing: don’t sympathize with anyone, love yourself infinitely. Keep the third: worship art, only it, undividedly, aimlessly (Bryusov)

1905 is one of the key years in the history of Russia. This year the revolution took place, which began with “Bloody Sunday” on January 9, the first royal manifesto, limiting the power of the monarchy in favor of its subjects, proclaiming the Duma to be the legislative body of government, approving civil liberties, the creation of a council of ministers headed by Witte, an armed uprising in Moscow, which was the peak of the revolution, an uprising in Sevastopol, etc.

Years. Russo-Japanese War

III – 1920s

Crisis of symbolism year. Article by A. Blok “On the current state of Russian symbolism” 1911. The most radical direction appears, denying all previous culture, the avant-garde - futurism. In Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, I. Severyanin.

Futurism is the desire to create “the art of the future”, the denial of the heritage of the “past” - cultural traditions. language experimentation “zaum” Estate at night, Genghis Khan! Make noise, blue birches. Dawn of the night, dawn of dawn! And the sky is blue, Mozart! And, dusk of the cloud, be Goya! You at night, cloud, roops!.

A slap in the face to public taste Reading our New First Unexpected. Only we are the face of our Time. The horn of time blows for us in the art of words. The past is tight. The Academy and Pushkin are more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs. Abandon Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, etc. from the Steamship of Modernity. Whoever does not forget his first love will not know his last. Who, gullible, will turn last love to Balmont's perfume fornication? Is it a reflection of a courageous soul? today? Who, the coward, would be afraid to steal the paper armor from the black coat of the warrior Bryusov? Or are they the dawns of unknown beauties? Wash your hands that have touched the dirty slime of the books written by these countless Leonid Andreevs. To all these Maxim Gorkys, Kuprins, Bloks, Sollogubs, Remizovs, Averchenks, Chernys, Kuzmins, Bunins and so on. and so on. All you need is a dacha on the river. This is the reward that fate gives to tailors. From the heights of skyscrapers we look at their insignificance!... We order to honor the rights of poets: 1. To increase the vocabulary in its volume with arbitrary and derivative words (Word-innovation). 2. An insurmountable hatred of the language that existed before them. 3. With horror, remove from your proud brow the wreath of penny glory you made from the bath brooms. 4. Stand on the rock of the word “we” amid a sea of ​​whistles and indignation. And if the dirty stigmas of your “common sense” and “good taste” still remain in our lines, then for the first time the Lightnings of the New Coming Beauty of the Self-Valuable (Self-Valuable) Word are already fluttering on them. D. Burliuk, Alexander Kruchenykh, V. Mayakovsky, Viktor Khlebnikov Moscow December

Peculiarities " silver age» 1. The elitism of literature, designed for a narrow circle of readers. Reminiscences and allusions. 2. The development of literature is connected with other types of art: 1. Theatre: its own direction in the world theater - Stanislavsky, Meyerhold, Vakhtangov, M. Chekhov, Tairov 2. Painting: futurism (Malevich), symbolism (Vrubel), realism (Serov), acmeism (“World of Art”) 3. The enormous influence of philosophy, many new world trends: N. Berdyaev, P. Florensky, S. Bulgakov, V. Solovyov; Nietzsche, Schopenhauer. 4. Discovery in psychology - Freud's theory of the subconscious. 5.Primary development of poetry. Discovery in the field of verse. – Musical sound verse. – Revival of genres – sonnet, madrigal, ballad, etc. 6. Innovation in prose: novel-symphony (A. Bely), modernist novel (F. Sollogub) 7. Isoteric teachings (spiritism, occultism) – elements of mysticism in literature.

Konstantin Sergeevich Stanislavsky Key concepts of his famous system: the stages of an artist’s work on a role, the method of transformation into a character, playing by an “ensemble” under the direction of a director who plays a “role” similar to a conductor in an orchestra, a troupe as a living organism going through different stages of development; and most importantly, the theory of cause-and-effect relationships of character. An actor, going on stage, performs a certain task within the framework of the logic of his character. But at the same time, each character exists in the general logic of the work laid down by the author. The author created the work in accordance with some purpose, having some main idea. And the actor, in addition to performing a specific task related to the character, must strive to convey the main idea to the viewer, try to achieve the main goal. the main idea a work or its main goal is a super task. Acting is divided into three technologies: - craft (based on the use of ready-made cliches, by which the viewer can clearly understand what emotions the actor has in mind), - performance (during long rehearsals, the actor experiences genuine experiences, which automatically create a form of manifestation of these experiences , but during the performance itself the actor does not experience these feelings, but only reproduces the form, the ready-made external drawing of the role). -experience (the actor experiences genuine experiences during the play, and this gives birth to the life of the image on stage).

Alexander Yakovlevich Tairov The idea of ​​a Free Theater, which was supposed to combine tragedy and operetta, drama and farce, opera and pantomime. The actor had to be a true creator, not constrained by other people's thoughts or other people's words. The principle of “emotional gesture” instead of figurative or everyday authentic gesture. The performance should not follow the play in everything, because the performance itself “ valuable work art." the main task the director - to give the performer the opportunity to liberate himself, to free the actor from everyday life. An eternal holiday should reign in the theater, it doesn’t matter whether it’s a holiday of tragedy or comedy, just so as not to let everyday life into the theater - “theatricalization of the theater”

Vsevolod Emilievich Meyerhold Craving for line, pattern, for a kind of visualization of music, turning the acting into a phantasmogorical symphony of lines and colors. “Biomechanics seeks to experimentally establish the laws of movement of an actor on the stage, working on the basis of the norms of human behavior training exercises actor's performance." (psychological concept of W. James (about the primacy physical reaction in relation to the emotional reaction), to the reflexology of V. M. Bekhterev and the experiments of I. P. Pavlov.

Evgeniy Bagrationovich Vakhtangov searches " modern methods to allow the performance in a form that would sound theatrical” the idea of ​​​​the inextricable unity of the ethical and aesthetic purpose of the theater, the unity of the artist and the people, a keen sense of modernity that corresponds to the content dramatic work, his artistic features, defining the unique stage form

The highest type of realism

A writer, if only he
The wave, and the ocean is Russia,
Can't help but be outraged
When the elements are outraged.

A writer, if only he
There is a nerve of a great people,
Can't help but be amazed
When freedom is defeated.

Y. P. Polonsky (1819-1898)

The works of critical realists who came to literature in 1890-1900 were deprived of that enormous generalizing power that distinguished the great works of Russian classics. But these writers also deeply and truthfully depicted certain aspects of their contemporary reality.

Gloomy pictures of poverty and ruin of the Russian countryside, hunger and savagery of the peasantry emerge from the pages of the stories of I. A. Bunin (1870 - 1953). Photo 1.

L. N. Andreev (1871-1919) depicted the joyless, hopeless life of “little people” in many of his stories. Photo 2.

Many works protested against all kinds of arbitrariness and violenceA. I. Kuprina (1870-1938):
"Moloch", "Gambrinus" and especially the famous story "The Duel", which sharply criticized the tsarist army.

The traditions of the Russian classics were continued and developed by the emerging proletarian literature, which reflected the most important thing in the life of Russia at that time - the struggle of the working class for its liberation. This revolutionary literature was united in its desire to make art “part of the common proletarian cause,” as demanded
V. I. Lenin in the article “Party organization and party literature.”

The ranks of proletarian writers were led by Gorky, with enormous artistic power expressed heroic character new era.

Having started your literary activity from bright, revolutionary-romantic works,

And at the same time, in the opposite, in the bourgeois-noble camp, confusion and fear of life, a desire to get away from it, to hide from the approaching storms, grew. The expression of these sentiments was the so-called decadent (or decadent) art, which arose back in the 90s, but became especially fashionable after the revolution of 1905, in an era that Gorky called “the most shameful decade in the history of the Russian intelligentsia.”

Openly renouncing the best traditions of Russian literature: realism, nationalism, humanism, the search for truth, the decadents preached individualism, “pure” art, detached from life. Unified in essence, decadence was outwardly very colorful. It broke up into many schools and movements at war with each other.

The most important of them were:

symbolism(K. Balmont, A. Bely, F. Sologub);

acmeism(N. Gumilev, O. Mandelstam, A. Akhmatova);

futurism(V. Khlebnikov, D. Burliuk).

The work of two major Russian poets was associated with symbolism: Blok and Bryusov, who deeply felt the inevitability of the death of the ugly old world, the inevitability of impending social upheavals. Both of them managed to break out of the narrow circle of decadent moods and break with decadence.
Their mature creativity was permeated with deep, excited thoughts about the fate of their homeland and people.

He began his career in the ranks of the futurists creative path Vladimir Mayakovsky, but very soon he overcame their influence.
In his pre-October poetry, hatred of the old world and joyful anticipation of the coming revolution resounded with enormous force.

Imbued with revolutionary romance and a deep understanding of the laws of life, the work of Gorky, the subtle lyricism of the anxiously passionate poetry of Blok, the rebellious pathos of the poems of the young Mayakovsky, the irreconcilable partisanship of proletarian writers - all these diverse achievements of Russian literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were perceived by the literature of socialist society.

To be continued.

Story foreign literature s of the late XIX – early XX centuries Zhuk Maxim Ivanovich

Specifics of the literary process of the late 19th – early 20th centuries

All the complexity and contradictory nature of the historical and cultural development of the turn of the century was reflected in the art of this era and, in particular, in literature. There are several specific features, characterizing literary process of the late XIX – early XX centuries.

The literary panorama of the turn of the century is distinguished by its exceptional richness, brightness, artistic and aesthetic innovation. Such literary trends and trends are developing as realism, naturalism, symbolism, aestheticism And neo-romanticism. The emergence of a large number of new trends and methods in art was a consequence of changes in human consciousness at the turn of the century. As you know, art is one of the ways to explain the world. In the turbulent era of the late 20th and early 20th centuries, artists, writers, and poets are developing new ways and techniques for depicting people and the world in order to describe and interpret a rapidly changing reality.

Themes and problems of verbal art expand thanks to discoveries made in different fields of knowledge(C. Darwin, C. Bernard, W. James). Philosophical and social concepts of the world and man (O. Comte, I. Taine, G. Spencer, A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche) were actively transferred by many writers to the field of literature and determined their worldview and poetics.

Literature at the turn of the century enriched in terms of genre. A great variety of forms is observed in the field of the novel, which was represented by a wide range of genre varieties: science fiction (G. Wells), socio-psychological (G. de Maupassant, Comrade Dreiser, D. Galsworthy), philosophical (A. France, O . Wilde), social-utopian (G. Wells, D. London). The popularity of the short story genre is being revived (G. de Maupassant, R. Kipling, T. Mann, D. London, O. Henry, A.P. Chekhov), drama is on the rise (G. Ibsen, B. Shaw, G. Hauptmann, A. Strindberg, M. Maeterlinck, A.P. Chekhov, M. Gorky).

The emergence of the epic novel is indicative of new trends in the novel genre. The desire of writers to comprehend the complex spiritual and social processes of their time contributed to the creation of dilogies, trilogies, tetralogies, multi-volume epics (“Rougon-Macquart”, “Three Cities” and “The Four Gospels” by E. Zola, a dilogy about Abbot Jerome Coignard and “ Modern history"A. France, "Trilogy of Desire" by Comrade Dreiser, cycle about the Forsytes by D. Galsworthy).

An essential feature of the literary development of the turn of the century era was interaction of national literatures. In the last third of the 19th century, a dialogue between Russian and Western European literature emerged: the work of l.n. Tolstoy, I.S. Turgeneva, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov, M. Gorky had a fruitful influence on such foreign artists, like G. de Maupassant, D. Galsworthy, K. Hamsun, Comrade Dreiser and many others. The problematics, aesthetics and universal pathos of Russian literature turned out to be relevant for Western society at the turn of the century. It is no coincidence that during this period, direct contacts between Russian and foreign writers deepened and expanded: personal meetings, correspondence.

In turn, Russian prose writers, poets and playwrights followed European and American literature, adopted creative experience foreign writers. As you know, A.P. Chekhov relied on the achievements of G. Ibsen and G. Hauptmann, and in his novelistic prose - on G. de Maupassant. There is no doubt the influence of French symbolist poetry on the work of Russian symbolist poets (K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, A. Blok).

Another important part of the turn-of-the-century literary process is involvement of writers in events of socio-political life. In this regard, the participation of E. Zola and A. France in the Dreyfus affair, M. Twain’s protest against the Spanish-American War, R. Kipling’s support for the Anglo-Boer War, and B. Shaw’s anti-war position in relation to the First World War are indicative.

The unique feature of this literary era is perception of existence in paradoxes, which was especially clearly reflected in the works of O. Wilde, B. Shaw, M. Twain. Paradox has become not only a favorite artistic device of writers, but also an element of their worldview. Paradox has the ability to reflect the complexity and ambiguity of the world, so it is no coincidence that it became such a sought-after element of a work of art at the turn of the century. An example of a paradoxical perception of reality can be seen in many of B. Shaw's plays ("The Widower's Houses", "Mrs. Warren's Profession", etc.), M. Twain's short stories ("How I Was Elected for Governor", "The Clock", etc.), and the aphorisms of O. Wilde.

Writers expand the scope of what is depicted in a work of art. First of all, this concerns naturalist writers (J. and E. de Goncourt, E. Zola). They turn to depicting the life of the lower classes of society (prostitutes, beggars, tramps, criminals, alcoholics), to describing the physiological aspects of human life. In addition to naturalists, the realm of what is depicted is expanded by symbolist poets (P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarmé), who sought to express lyrical work the inexpressible content of existence.

An important feature of the literature of this period is transition from an objective image of reality to a subjective one. For the work of many writers of this era (G. James, J. Conrad, J.-C. Huysmans, R. M. Rilke, the late G. de Maupassant), the primary thing is not the recreation of objective reality, but the depiction of a person’s subjective perception of the world.

It is important to note that interest in the area of ​​the subjective was first identified in such a direction of painting at the end of the 19th century as impressionism, which had a great influence on the work of many writers and poets of the turn of the century (for example, E. Zola, G. de Maupassant, P. Verlaine, S. Mallarmé, O. Wilde, etc.).

Impressionism(from French. impression- impression) - a direction in art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, based on the artist’s desire to convey his subjective impressions, to depict reality in its endless mobility, variability, and to capture the wealth of nuances. The largest impressionist artists were Ed. Manet, C. Monet, E. Degas, O. Renoir, A. Sisley, P. Cezanne, C. Pissaro and others.

Impressionist artists tried not to depict an object, but to convey your impression of the object, those. express a subjective perception of reality. The masters of this movement sought to capture, unbiasedly and as naturally and freshly as possible, the fleeting impression of a rapidly flowing, constantly changing life. The subjects of the paintings were of secondary importance for the artists; they took them from Everyday life, which was well known: city streets, artisans at work, rural landscapes, familiar and familiar buildings, etc. The impressionists rejected the canons of beauty that weighed heavily on academic painting and created their own.

The most important literary and cultural concept of the turn of the century era is decadence(late lat. decadentia- decline) is a general name for crisis, pessimistic, decadent moods and destructive tendencies in art and culture. Decadence does not represent a specific direction, movement or style, it is a general depressive state of culture, it is the spirit of the era expressed in art.

Decadent traits include: pessimism, rejection of reality, cult of sensual pleasures, loss of moral values, aestheticization of extreme individualism, unlimited personal freedom, fear of life, increased interest in the processes of dying, decay, poeticization of suffering and death. An important sign of decadence is the indistinction or confusion of such categories as the beautiful and the ugly, pleasure and pain, morality and immorality, art and life.

In the most distinct form, the motifs of decadence in the art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries can be seen in the novel by J.-C. Huysmans “On the contrary” (1883), the play by O. Wilde “Salome” (1893), and the graphics by O. Beardsley. The work of D.G. is marked by certain features of decadence. Rossetti, P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarmé, M. Maeterlinck and others.

The list of names shows that the mentality of decadence affected the work of a significant part of the artists at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, including many major masters of art, whose work as a whole cannot be reduced to decadence. Decadent tendencies are revealed in transitional eras, when one ideology, having exhausted its historical possibilities, is replaced by another. The outdated type of thinking no longer meets the requirements of reality, and the other has not yet formed enough to satisfy social and intellectual needs. This gives rise to feelings of anxiety, uncertainty, and disappointment. this was the case during the decline of the Roman Empire, in Italy at the end of the 16th century and in European countries at turn of the 19th century and XX centuries.

The source of the crisis mentality of the intelligentsia at the turn of the century was the confusion of many artists before the sharp contradictions of the era, before the rapidly and paradoxically developing civilization, which was in an intermediate position between the past and the future, between the outgoing 19th century and the yet to come 20th century.

Concluding the review specific features literature of the turn of the century, it should be noted that the diversity of literary trends, genres, forms, styles, the expansion of themes, issues and spheres of what is depicted, innovative changes in poetics - all this was a consequence of the complex paradoxical nature of the era. Experimenting in new areas artistic techniques and methods, developing traditional ones, the art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries tried to explain rapidly changing life, to select the most adequate words and forms for a dynamic reality.