Since ancient times, Japanese art has been characterized by active creativity. Despite their dependence on China, where new artistic and aesthetic trends constantly emerged, Japanese artists always introduced new features and changed the art of their teachers, giving it a Japanese look.

The history of Japan as such begins to take on certain forms only at the end of the 5th century. Relatively few objects dating back to previous centuries (the Archaic period) have been discovered, although some finds made during excavations or during construction work indicate remarkable artistic talent.

Archaic period.

The oldest works of Japanese art are clay pots of the jomon type (cord impression). The name comes from the decoration of the surface with spiral impressions of cord wrapped around the sticks that the craftsman used to make the vessel. Perhaps at first the craftsmen accidentally discovered the braided prints, but then they began to use them deliberately. Sometimes cord-like clay curls were stuck onto the surface, creating a more complex decorative effect, almost relief. The first Japanese sculpture arose in the Jomon culture. Dogu (lit. "clay image") of a person or animal probably had some religious significance. The images of people, mostly women, are very similar to the clay goddesses of other primitive cultures.

Radiocarbon dating suggests that some finds from the Jomon culture may date back to 6-5 thousand BC, but dating so early is not generally accepted. Of course, such dishes were made over a long period of time, and although exact dating cannot yet be established, three periods can be distinguished. The oldest examples have a pointed base and are almost unornamented, except for traces of a potter's tool. The vessels of the middle period are more richly ornamented, sometimes with molded elements, creating the impression of volume. The shapes of the vessels of the third period are very diverse, but the decoration again flattens and becomes more restrained.

Around the 2nd century. BC. Jomon ceramics gave way to Yayoi ceramics, characterized by graceful forms, simplicity of design and high technical quality. The vessel sherd became thinner and the ornament less fancy. This type prevailed until the 3rd century. AD

From an artistic point of view, perhaps the best works of the early period are the haniwa, clay cylinders dating from the 3rd to 5th centuries. AD Characteristic monuments of this era are huge hills, or mounds, burial structures of emperors and powerful nobility. Often very big size, they are evidence of the power and wealth of the imperial family and courtiers. The construction of such a structure for Emperor Nintoku-tenno (c. 395-427 AD) took 40 years. The most notable feature of these mounds was the clay cylinders, haniwa, surrounding them like a fence. Usually these cylinders were completely simple, but sometimes they were decorated with human figures, less often with figurines of horses, houses or roosters. Their purpose was twofold: to prevent the erosion of huge masses of land and to supply the deceased with the necessities that he used in earthly life. Naturally, the cylinders were manufactured immediately in large quantities. The variety of themes, facial expressions and gestures of the figures decorating them is largely the result of the master’s improvisation. Despite the fact that these are more likely the works of artisans rather than artists and sculptors, they have great importance as a proper Japanese art form. The buildings, blanketed horses, prim ladies and warriors present an interesting picture of the military life of early feudal Japan. It is possible that the prototypes of these cylinders appeared in China, where various objects were placed directly into burials, but the design and method of using haniwa belong to local tradition.

The Archaic period is often seen as a time devoid of works of high artistic level, a time of dominance of things of mainly archaeological and ethnological value. However, it should be remembered that the works of this early culture generally possessed great vitality, since their forms survived and continued to exist as specific national features of Japanese art in later periods.

Asuka period

(552-710 AD). Introduction of Buddhism in the mid-6th century. made significant changes in the way of life and thinking of the Japanese and became an impetus for the development of art of this and subsequent periods. The arrival of Buddhism from China via Korea is traditionally dated to 552 AD, but it was probably known earlier. In the early years, Buddhism faced political opposition, with opposition to the national religion Shinto, but just a few decades later the new faith received official approval and was finally established. In the early years of its introduction to Japan, Buddhism was a relatively simple religion with a small number of deities that needed images, but after about a hundred years it gained strength and the pantheon grew enormously.
During this period, temples were founded, which served not only the purposes of propagating the faith, but were centers of art and education. The monastery-temple at Horyuji is one of the most important for the study of early Buddhist art. Among other treasures, there is a statue of the great triad Syaka-Nerai (623 AD). This work by Tori Bussi, the first great Japanese sculptor known to us, is a stylized bronze image similar to similar groups in large cave temples China. The pose of the seated Shaky (Japanese transcription of the word "Shakyamuni", the historical Buddha) and the two figures standing on either side of him is strictly frontal. The forms of the human figure are hidden by heavy symmetrical folds of schematically rendered clothes, and in the smooth elongated faces one can feel dreamy self-absorption and contemplation. The sculpture of this first Buddhist period is based on the style and prototypes from the mainland fifty years earlier; it faithfully follows the Chinese tradition that came to Japan through Korea.

Some of the most important sculptures of this time were made of bronze, but wood was also used. The two most famous wooden sculptures are those of the goddess Kannon: Yumedono Kannon and Kudara Kannon, both in Horyuji. They are a more attractive object of worship than the Shaki triad, with their archaic smiles and dreamy expressions. Although the Kannon figures also have a schematic and symmetrical arrangement of folds of clothing, they are lighter and full of movement. Tall, slender figures emphasize the spirituality of the faces, their abstract kindness, distant from all worldly concerns, but sensitive to the prayers of the suffering. The sculptor paid some attention to the contours of the figure of Kudara Kannon, hidden by the folds of clothing, and in contrast to the jagged silhouette of Yumedono, the movement of both figure and fabric is directed into depth. In profile, Kudara Kannon has a graceful S-shaped outline.

The only surviving example of painting that gives an idea of ​​the style of the early 7th century is the painting of Tamamushi Zushi, the “winged shrine”. This miniature shrine takes its name from the iridescent beetle wings set into a perforated metal frame; later it was decorated with religious compositions and figures of individual characters made with colored varnish. Like the sculpture of this period, some images show great freedom of design.

Nara period

(710-784). In 710 the capital was moved to Nara, new town, modeled after the Chinese capital Chang'an. There were wide streets, large palaces, and numerous Buddhist temples. Not only Buddhism in all its aspects, but the entire Chinese cultural and political life was perceived as a model to follow. No other country has perhaps felt more inadequate in its own culture or been so susceptible to outside influences. Scholars and pilgrims moved freely between Japan and the mainland, and government and palace life were modeled after Tang Dynasty China. However, we must remember that, despite imitating the examples of Tang China, especially in art, perceiving its influence and style, the Japanese almost always adapted foreign forms to their own.

In sculpture, the strict frontality and symmetry of the previous Asuka period gave way to freer forms. The development of ideas about the gods, increased technical skill and freedom of use of material allowed artists to create more intimate and accessible cult images. The founding of new Buddhist sects expanded the pantheon to include even the saints and founders of Buddhism. In addition to bronze sculpture, a large number of works made of wood, clay and varnish are known. Stone was rare and almost never used for sculpture. Dry varnish was especially popular, perhaps because, despite the complexity of the process of preparing the composition, works made from it looked more impressive than wooden ones and were stronger than clay products that were easier to make. Lacquer figures were formed on a wooden or clay base, which was then removed, or on wooden or wire reinforcement; they were light and durable. Although this technique dictated some rigidity in poses, great freedom was allowed in the depiction of faces, which partially contributed to the development of what can be called portrait sculpture proper. The depiction of the deity's face was performed in accordance with the strict requirements of Buddhist canons, but the popularity and even deification of some of the founders and preachers of the faith provided excellent opportunities for conveying portrait likeness. This similarity can be seen in the sculpture made of dry varnish of the Chinese patriarch Genjin, revered in Japan, located in the Toshodaiji Temple. Genjin was blind when he arrived in Japan in 753, and his sightless eyes and enlightened state of inner contemplation are beautifully captured by the unknown sculptor. This realistic tendency was most clearly expressed in the wooden sculpture of the preacher Kuya, created by the sculptor Kosho in the 13th and 14th centuries. The preacher is dressed as a wandering beggar with a staff, gong and mallet, and small Buddha figures emerge from his half-open mouth. Not satisfied with the image of the singing monk, the sculptor made an attempt to express the innermost meaning of his words.
The images of Buddha from the Nara period are also distinguished by great realism. Created for an ever-increasing number of temples, they are not as imperturbably cold and reserved as their predecessors, have a more graceful beauty and nobility, and are addressed with greater favor to the people who worship them.

Very few paintings from this time have survived. The multi-colored design on paper depicts the past and present lives of the Buddha. This is one of the few ancient examples of emakimono, or scroll painting. The scrolls slowly unwound from right to left, and the viewer could only enjoy that part of the picture that was located between the hands unrolling the scroll. The illustrations were placed directly above the text, unlike later scrolls where a section of text alternated with an explanatory image. In these oldest surviving examples of scroll painting, outlined figures are set against a barely outlined landscape, with the central character, in this case Shaka, appearing in various scenes.

Early Heian

(784-897). In 784 the capital was temporarily moved to Nagaoka, partly to avoid the dominance of Nara's Buddhist clergy. In 794 she moved to Heian (now Kyoto) for a longer period. Late 8th and 9th centuries were a period when Japan successfully assimilated, adapting to its own characteristics, many foreign innovations. The Buddhist religion also experienced a time of change, the emergence of new sects of esoteric Buddhism, with its developed ritual and etiquette. Of these, the most influential were the Tendai and Shingon sects, which originated in India, reached China and from there were brought to Japan by two scientists who returned to their homeland after a long apprenticeship. The Shingon (“True Words”) sect was especially popular at court and quickly assumed a dominant position. Its main monasteries were located on Mount Koya near Kyoto; like other important Buddhist centers, they became repositories of huge collections of art.

9th century sculpture was mostly wooden. The images of deities were distinguished by their severity and inaccessible grandeur, which was emphasized by the solemnity of their appearance and massiveness. Draperies were skillfully cut out according to standard patterns, and scarves lay in waves. The standing figure of Shaki from the Muroji Temple is an example of this style. For this and similar images from the 9th century. characterized by rigid carvings with deeper, crisp folds and other details.

The increase in the number of gods created great difficulties for artists. In complex, map-like mandalas (geometric designs with magical meanings), the deities were arranged in a hierarchy around the central Buddha, who was himself only one manifestation of the absolute. At this time, a new manner of depicting figures of guardian deities surrounded by flames, terrible in appearance, but beneficent in nature, appeared. These deities were located asymmetrically and were depicted in moving poses, with formidable facial features, fiercely defending faith from possible dangers.

Middle and Late Heian, or Fujiwara period

(898-1185). The transfer of the capital to Heian, which was intended to evade the difficult demands of the clergy, also caused changes in the political system. The nobility was a dominant force, and its most representative representatives were the Fujiwara family. Period 10-12 centuries. often associated with this name. A period of special power began when real emperors were “strongly advised” to leave aside the affairs of the state for the more pleasant pursuits of poetry and painting. Until he came of age, the emperor was led by a strict regent - usually from the Fujiwara family. It was an age of luxury and remarkable achievements in literature, calligraphy and art; There was a languor and emotionality throughout, which rarely reached depth, but on the whole was charming. Elegant sophistication and escapism were reflected in the art of this time. Even adherents of Buddhism were looking for easier ways, and the worship of the heavenly Buddha, Amida, became especially popular. Ideas about the compassion and saving grace of Amida Buddha were deeply reflected in the painting and sculpture of this period. The massiveness and restraint of the 9th century statues. in the 10th-11th centuries. gave way to bliss and charm. The deities are depicted as dreamy, thoughtfully calm, the carving becomes less deep, the surface becomes more colorful, with a richly developed texture. The most important monuments of this period belong to the sculptor Jocho.
The works of artists also acquired softer features, reminiscent of drawings on fabric, and even the terrible deities - defenders of the faith - became less frightening. Sutras (Buddhist texts) were written in gold and silver on deep paper blue tone, the beautiful calligraphy of the text was often preceded by a small illustration. The most popular strands of Buddhism and their associated deities reflect the preferences of the aristocracy and a gradual shift away from the austere ideals of early Buddhism.

The atmosphere of this time and his works are partly connected with the cessation of formal relations with China in 894. Buddhism in China at this time was persecuted, and the corrupt Tang court was in a state of decline. The secluded island existence that followed this severance encouraged the Japanese to turn to their own culture and develop a new, purer Japanese style. Indeed, secular painting of the 10th-12th centuries. was almost entirely Japanese - both in technique and in composition and subjects. Distinctive feature These Japanese scrolls, called yamato-e, had a predominance of engi (origin, history) subjects. While Chinese scrolls most often depicted vast, amazing nature, panoramas of mountains, streams, rocks and trees, and people seemed relatively insignificant, on Japanese narrative scrolls the main thing in the drawing and text was the person. The landscape played only the role of a background for the story being told, subordinate to the main character or persons. Many scrolls were hand-drawn chronicles of the lives of famous Buddhist preachers or historical figures, their travels and military campaigns. Others told about romantic episodes from the lives of nobles and courtiers.

The apparently distinctive style of the early scrolls came from simple ink sketches on the pages of Buddhist notebooks. These are skillful drawings that caricature human behavior through animal images: a monkey in monastic robes worshiping an inflated frog, competitions between hares, monkeys and frogs. These and other late Heian scrolls served as the basis for the more complex narrative scrolls of the developed style of the 13th and 14th centuries.

Kamakura period

(1185-1392). Late 12th century brought major changes to the political and religious life of Japan and, of course, to its art. The elegance and aestheticism of the Kyoto court was replaced or, in the tradition of "special" rule, "received an addition" in the form of a new, harsh and courageous rule - the Kamakura shogunate. Although the capital remained nominally Kyoto, shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147-1199) established his headquarters in the city of Kamakura and in just 25 years established a rigid system of military dictatorship and feudalism. Buddhism, which had become so complex and ritualized that it was little understood by ordinary lay people, also underwent major changes that did not at all promise patronage of the arts. The Yodo (Pure Land) sect, a form of veneration of Amida Buddha, under the leadership of Honen Shonin (1133-1212) reformed the hierarchy of Buddhas and deities and gave hope of salvation to all who simply believed in Amida. This doctrine of an easily attainable paradise was later simplified by another monk, Shinran (1173-1262), founder of the Shin sect, who recognized that Amida's condescension was so great that there was no need to perform religious acts, simply repeating the incantation "Namu Amida Butsu" (the first word means “to obey”; the second two are “Buddha Amida”). This simple method of saving the soul was extremely attractive, and is now used by millions. A generation later, the militant preacher Nichiren (1222-1282), after whom the sect is named, abandoned this simplified form of religion. His followers revered the Lotus Sutra, which did not promise instant and unconditional salvation. His sermons often touched on political topics, and his beliefs and proposed reforms of church and state appealed to the new military class in Kamakura. Finally, Zen philosophy, which emerged as early as the 8th century, began to play an increasingly important role in Buddhist thought during this period. Zen emphasized the importance of meditation and disdain for any images that might hinder man in his quest to unite with God.

So, this was a time when religious thought limited the number of works of painting and sculpture previously necessary for the cult. Nevertheless, some of the finest works of Japanese art were created during the Kamakura period. The incentive was the inherent Japanese love of art, but the key to the solution lies in the attitude of the people to new creeds, and not in dogmas as such. Indeed, the works themselves suggest the reason for their creation, because many of these sculptures and paintings full of life and energy are portraits. Although Zen philosophy might consider ordinary religious objects an obstacle to enlightenment, the tradition of honoring teachers was quite acceptable. A portrait in itself could not be an object of worship. This attitude towards the portrait was characteristic not only of Zen Buddhism: many ministers of the Pure Land sect were revered almost like Buddhist deities. Thanks to the portrait, a new architectural form even appeared - mieido, or portrait chapel. The rapid development of realism was completely in the spirit of the times.
Although the picturesque portraits of the priests were obviously indeed images of specific people, they were often reworkings of paintings depicting the Chinese founders of Buddhism. They were depicted preaching, their mouths open, their hands gesticulating; sometimes mendicant monks were depicted making a difficult journey for the glory of faith.

One of the most popular subjects was raigo (desired arrival), which depicted Buddha Amida with his companions descending on a cloud to save the soul of a believer on his deathbed and transfer it to heaven. The colors of such images were often enhanced by applied gold, and the wavy lines, flowing capes, and swirling clouds gave a sense of movement to the descent of the Buddha.

Unkei, active in the second half of the 12th and early 13th centuries, was the author of an innovation that facilitated wood carving, which remained the favorite material of sculptors during the Kamakura period. Previously, the master was limited by the size and shape of the log or log from which the figure was cut. The arms and clothing elements were applied separately, but the finished piece often resembled the original cylindrical shape. In the new technique, dozens of small pieces were carefully fitted together to form a hollow pyramid, from which apprentices could then roughly carve out a shape. The sculptor had at his disposal a more pliable material and the ability to create more complex forms. The muscular temple guards and deities in flowing capes and robes seemed more alive also because crystal or glass began to be inserted into their eye sockets; statues began to be decorated with gilded bronze. They became lighter and cracked less often as the wood dried. The aforementioned wooden statue of Kuya Shonin, by Kosho, Unkei's son, demonstrates the highest achievement of Kamakura-era realism in portrait sculpture. Indeed, sculpture at this time reached its apogee in its development, and subsequently it no longer occupied such a prominent place in art.

Secular painting also reflected the spirit of the times. Narrative scrolls of the late Heian period, with restrained colors and graceful lines, told about the romantic escapades of Prince Genji or the entertainments of the reclusive court ladies. Now, with bright colors and energetic brushstrokes, artists of the Kamakura era depicted battles of warring clans, palaces engulfed in flames and frightened people fleeing from attacking troops. Even as religious history unfolded on the scroll, the image was not so much an icon as it was a historical record of the travels of holy men and the miracles they performed. In the design of these scenes one can detect a growing love for nature and admiration for native landscapes.

Muromachi or Ashikaga period

(1392-1568). In 1392, after more than 50 years of strife, the third shogun of the Ashikaga family, Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), reunited the country. The seat of government again became the nominal capital of Kyoto, where the Ashikaga shoguns built their palaces in the Muromachi quarter. (This period is sometimes called Muromachi or Ashikaga.) Wartime did not spare many temples - repositories of Japanese art, which were burned along with the treasures located there. The country was brutally ruined, and even peace did not bring much relief, since the warring clans, achieving success, distributed favors at their whim. It would seem that the situation was extremely unfavorable for the development of art, but in reality the Ashikaga shoguns patronized it, especially in the 15th and 16th centuries, when painting flourished.

The most significant artistic phenomenon of this time was the monochrome poetic ink paintings encouraged by Zen Buddhism and influenced by Chinese examples of the Song and Yuan dynasties. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), contacts with China were renewed, and Yoshimitsu, a collector and patron of the arts, encouraged the collecting and study of Chinese paintings. It became a model and starting point for gifted artists who painted landscapes, birds, flowers, images of clergy and sages with light and fluent brush strokes. Japanese painting of this time is characterized by economy of line; the artist seems to extract the quintessence of the depicted plot, allowing the viewer to fill it with details. The transitions of gray and shiny black ink in these paintings are very close to the Zen philosophy, which certainly inspired their authors. Although this belief achieved considerable influence under the military rule of Kamakura, it continued to spread rapidly in the 15th and 16th centuries, when numerous Zen monasteries arose. Preaching mainly the idea of ​​"self-salvation", it did not link salvation to the Buddha, but relied more on a person's severe self-discipline to achieve a sudden intuitive "enlightenment" that unites him with the absolute. The economical but bold use of ink and the asymmetrical composition, in which unpainted parts of the paper played a significant role in depictions of idealized landscapes, sages and scientists, were consistent with this philosophy.

One of the most famous exponents of sumi-e, a style of monochrome ink painting, was Sesshu (1420-1506), a Zen priest whose long and fruitful life earned him long-lasting veneration. At the end of his life, he began to use the haboku (quick ink) style, which, in contrast to the mature style, which required clear, economical strokes, brought the tradition of monochrome painting almost to abstraction.
The same period marks the activity of the Kano family of artists and the development of their style. In terms of the choice of subjects and the use of ink, it was close to Chinese, but in terms of expressive means it remained Japanese. Kano, with the support of the shogunate, became the "official" school or artistic style of painting and flourished well into the 19th century.

The naive Yamato-e tradition continued to live on in the works of the Tosa school, the second important movement Japanese painting. In fact, at this time both schools, Kano and Tosa, were closely connected, they were united by an interest in modern life. Motonobu Kano (1476-1559), one of the outstanding artists of this period, not only married his daughter to the famous artist Tosa, but also painted in his manner.

In the 15-16th centuries. Only a few noteworthy works of sculpture appeared. It should be noted, however, that the development of noo drama, with its variety of moods and emotions, opened up a new field of activity for sculptors - they carved masks for actors. In classical Japanese drama, performed by and for the aristocracy, the actors (one or more) wore masks. They conveyed a range of feelings from fear, anxiety and confusion to restrained joy. Some masks were so beautifully carved that the slightest turn of the actor's head caused subtle changes in the expression of feelings. Remarkable examples of these masks were kept for years in the families for whose members they were made.

Momoyama period

(1568-1615). In 1593, the great military dictator Hideyoshi built his castle on Momoyama, "Peach Hill", and by this name the period of 47 years from the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate to the establishment of the Tokugawa, or Edo, period in 1615 was generally accepted. This was the time of the dominance of an entirely new military class, whose great wealth contributed to the flourishing of art. Impressive castles with vast audience halls and long corridors came into fashion in the late 16th century. and demanded decorations appropriate to their greatness. It was a time of harsh and courageous people, and the new patrons, unlike the previous aristocracy, were not particularly interested in intellectual pursuits or the subtleties of craftsmanship. Fortunately, the new generation of artists was quite consistent with their patrons. During this period, wonderful screens and movable panels appeared in bright crimson, emerald, green, purple and blue colors. Such exuberant colors and decorative forms, often on gold or silver backgrounds, were very popular for a hundred years, and their creators were rightly called “the great decorators.” Thanks to the subtle Japanese taste, the opulent style did not develop into vulgarity, and even when restraint and understatement gave way to luxury and decorative excesses, the Japanese managed to maintain elegance.

Eitoku Kano (1543-1590), one of the first great artists of this period, worked in the style of Kano and Tosa, expanding the drawing concepts of the former and combining them with the richness of colors of the latter. Although only a few works survive that can be confidently attributed to Eitoku, he is considered one of the founders of the Momoyama style, and most of the artists of this period were his students or were influenced by him.

Edo or Tokugawa period

(1615-1867). The long period of peace that followed the newly united Japan is called either the time of Tokugawa, after the surname of the ruler, or Edo (modern Tokyo), since in 1603 this city became the new center of power. Two famous generals of the short Momoyama period, Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), through military action and diplomacy, finally managed to reconcile powerful clans and militant clergy. With the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, power passed to Ieyasu Tokugawa (1542-1616), who completed the activities begun jointly. The decisive battle of Sekigahara in 1600 strengthened Ieyasu's position; the fall of Oska Castle in 1615 was accompanied by the final collapse of the house of Hideyoshi and the establishment of the undivided rule of the Tokugawa shogunate.

The peaceful reign of the Tokugawa lasted 15 generations and ended only in the 19th century. This was largely a period of “closed door” policy. Decree 1640 prohibited foreigners from entering Japan, and Japanese were unable to travel abroad. The only commercial and cultural connection was with the Dutch and Chinese through the port of Nagasaki. As in other periods of isolation, there was a rise in national feelings and the emergence at the end of the 17th century. so-called school genre painting and engravings.
The rapidly growing capital of Edo became the center not only of the political and business life of the island empire, but also a center of arts and crafts. The requirement that the daimyo, the provincial feudal lords, be in the capital for a certain part of each year gave rise to the need for new buildings, including palaces, and therefore for artists to decorate them. At the same time, the emerging class of wealthy but non-aristocratic merchants provided new and often unprofessional patronage to artists.

The art of the early Edo period partly continues and develops the Momoyama style, strengthening its tendencies towards luxury and splendor. The richness of bizarre images and polychrome inherited from the previous period continues to develop. This decorative style reached its peak in the last quarter of the 17th century. in the so-called Genroku era of the Tokugawa period (1688-1703). In Japanese decorative art, it has no parallel in the extravagance and richness of color and decorative motifs in painting, fabrics, varnish, and artistic details - attributes of a luxurious lifestyle.

Since we are talking about relatively late period history, it is not surprising that the names of many artists and their works have been preserved; Here it is possible to name only a few of the most outstanding. Representatives of the decorative school who lived and worked during the Momoyama and Edo periods include Honnami Koetsu (1558-1637) and Nonomura Sotatsu (d. 1643). Their work demonstrates a remarkable sense of design, composition and color. Koetsu, a talented ceramicist and lacquer artist, was renowned for the beauty of his calligraphy. Together with Sotatsu, they created poems on scrolls, which were fashionable at that time. In this combination of literature, calligraphy and painting, the images were not simple illustrations: they created or suggested a mood corresponding to the perception of the text. Ogata Korin (1658-1716) was one of the heirs of the decorative style and, together with his younger brother Ogata Kenzan (1663-1743), brought its technique to perfection. Kenzan, better known as a ceramist than as an artist, fired vessels with designs of his famous older brother on them. The revival of this school at the beginning of the 19th century. poet and artist Sakai Hoitsu (1761-1828) was the last surge of decorative style. Horitsu's beautiful scrolls and screens combined Korin's sense of design with the interest in nature inherent in the naturalism of the Maruyama school, expressed in the richness of color and decorative motifs characteristic of the earlier period, which was tempered by the splendor and grace of brushwork.

Along with the polychrome decorative style, the traditional ink drawing of the Kano school continued to be popular. In 1622, Kanō Tan'yu (1602-1674) was appointed court painter to the shogun and summoned to Edo. With his appointment to this position and the establishment of the Kano school of painting in Edo, in Kobikito, a half-century period of artistic leadership of this tradition began, which restored the Kano family to a position of prominence and made the works of the Edo period the most significant in Kano painting. Despite the popularity of screens painted with gold and bright colors created by the “great decorators” and rivals, Tanyu, thanks to the strength of his talent and official position, was able to make the painting of the revived Kano school popular among the nobility. To the traditional features of the Kano school, Tanyu added power and simplicity based on a rigid broken line and a thoughtful arrangement of compositional elements on a large free surface.

A new direction in which main feature there was an interest in nature that began to prevail at the end of the 18th century. Maruyama Okyo (1733-1795), head new school, was a peasant, then became a clergyman and finally an artist. The first two studies did not bring him either happiness or success, but as an artist he achieved great heights and is considered the founder of the realistic school of Maruyama. He studied with the Kano school master Ishida Yutei (d. ca. 1785); Based on imported Dutch engravings, he learned the Western technique of perspective depiction, and sometimes simply copied these engravings. He also studied Chinese styles from the Song and Yuan dynasties, including the subtle and realistic style of Chen Xuan (1235-1290) and Shen Nanping; the latter lived in Nagasaki at the beginning of the 18th century. Ōkyo made many works from life, and his scientific observations served as the basis for the perception of nature on which the Maruyama school was based.

In addition to the interest in naturalism in the 18th century. the influence of the Chinese artistic tradition was renewed. Representatives of this movement gravitated towards the pictorial school of artist-scientists of the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) eras, although, probably, their ideas about the modern state of art in China were limited. The art of this Japanese school was called bujinga (the art of educated people). One of the most influential masters who worked in the bujinga style was Ikeno Taiga (1723-1776), a famous artist and calligrapher. His mature style is characterized by thick contour lines filled with light feathery strokes of light tones and ink; He also painted with wide, free strokes of black ink, depicting bamboo trunks bent in the wind and rain. With short, curved lines, he achieved an engraving-like effect in his depiction of misty mountains above a lake surrounded by forest.
17th century gave birth to another remarkable movement of art of the Edo period. These are the so-called ukiyo-e (pictures of a changing world) - genre scenes created by and for ordinary people. Early ukiyo-e appeared in the old capital of Kyoto and were mainly picturesque. But the center of their production soon moved to Edo, and the attention of the craftsmen focused on wood engraving. The close association of woodblock prints with ukiyo-e has led to the misconception that woodblock prints were a discovery of this period; in fact, it originated back in the 11th century. Such early images were votive in nature, depicting the founders of Buddhism and deities, and during the Kamakura period, some narrative scrolls were reproduced from carved blocks. However, the art of engraving became especially popular in the period from the mid-17th to the 19th century.

The subjects of ukiyo-e prints were beautiful courtesans of cheerful neighborhoods, favorite actors and scenes from dramas. Early, so-called Primitive engravings were executed in black, with strong rhythmic wavy lines, and were characterized by simple designs. They were sometimes hand-painted in an orange-red color called tan-e (bright red paintings), with markings of mustard yellow and green. Some of the "primitive" artists used hand painting called urushu-e ( lacquer painting), in which the dark areas were enhanced and brightened by the addition of glue. An early multi-color print, appearing in 1741 or 1742, was called benizuri-e (raspberry print) and usually used three colors - rose-red, green and sometimes yellow. Truly multi-color prints, using the entire palette and called nishiki-e (brocade images), appeared in 1765.

In addition to creating individual prints, many of the engravers illustrated books and made money by producing erotic illustrations in books and on scrolls. It should be borne in mind that ukiyo-e engraving consisted of three types of activity: it was the work of the draftsman, whose name was on the print, the carver and the printer.

Hishikawa Moronobu (c. 1625-1694) is considered to be the founder of the tradition of creating ukiyo-e prints. Other "primitive" artists of this movement are Kiyomasu (1694-1716) and the Kaigetsudo group (a strange community of artists whose existence remains unclear), as well as Okumura Masanobu (1686-1764).

The transitional artists who created benizuri-e prints were Ishikawa Toyonobu (1711-1785), Torii Kiyohiro (active c. 1751-1760), and Torii Kiyomitsu (1735-1785).

The works of Suzuki Harunobu (1725-1770) ushered in the era of polychrome engraving. Filled with soft, almost neutral colors, populated by graceful ladies and gallant lovers, Harunobu's prints were a great success. Katsukawa Shunsho (1726-1792), Torii Kienaga (1752-1815) and Kitagawa Utamaro (1753-1806) worked with him around the same time. Each of them contributed to the development of this genre; masters completed engravings depicting graceful beauties and famous actors to perfection. Over the course of a few months in 1794-1795, the mysterious Tosusai Saraku created stunningly powerful and frankly brutal portraits of actors of the day.

In the first decades of the 19th century. the genre had reached maturity and was beginning to decline. Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) and Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858) are the greatest masters of the era, whose work connects the decline of the art of engraving in the 19th century. and its new revival at the beginning of the 20th century. Both were primarily landscape painters who recorded the events of modern life in their engravings. The brilliant mastery of the technique of carvers and printers made it possible to convey in engraving whimsical lines and the slightest shades of the setting sun or the fog rising at dawn.

Meiji Restoration and modern period.

It often happens that the ancient art of a particular people is poor in names, dates and surviving works, so any judgments can be made only with great caution and conditionality. However, it is no less difficult to judge contemporary art, since we are deprived of a historical perspective to correctly assess the scale of any movement or artist and his work. The study of Japanese art is no exception, and the most that can be done is to present a panorama of contemporary art and draw some tentative preliminary conclusions.

In the second half of the 19th century. Japanese ports were reopened for trade, and major changes took place on the political scene. In 1868, the shogunate was abolished and the rule of Emperor Meiji was restored. The official capital and residence of the emperor were moved to Edo, and the city itself became known as Tokyo (the eastern capital).

As had happened in the past, the end of national isolation generated great interest in the achievements of other nations. At this time, the Japanese made a huge leap in the field of science and technology. Artistically, the beginning of the Meiji era (1868-1912) demonstrates the acceptance of everything Western, including technology. However, this zeal did not last long, and it was followed by a period of assimilation, the emergence of new forms that combined a return to their own traditions and new Western trends.

Notable artists included Kano Hogai (1828-1888), Shimomura Kanzan (1873-1916), Takeuchi Seiho (1864-1924) and Tomioka Tessai (1836-1942). The first three adhered to traditional Japanese style and subject matter, although they strived to be original in mood and technique. Seiho, for example, worked in the calm and conservative atmosphere of Kyoto. His early works were created in the naturalistic Maruyama style, but later he traveled extensively in China and was deeply influenced by Chinese ink painting. His trips to museums and leading art centers in Europe also left a mark on his work. Of all the outstanding artists of this time, only one Tomioka Tessai came close to developing a new style. His energetic and powerful works combine rough, twisted, jagged lines and smudges of black ink with finely rendered areas of color. In later years, some young oil painters succeeded where their grandfathers had failed. The first attempts to work with this unusual material were reminiscent of Parisian canvases and were not distinguished by either special value or specifically Japanese features. However, works of exceptional appeal are now being created in which the characteristic Japanese sense of color and poise shines through abstract themes. Other artists, working with more natural and traditional ink and sometimes using calligraphy as an initial motif, create energetic abstract works in brilliant blacks with shades of gray.

As in the Edo period, in the 19th and 20th centuries. the sculpture was not popular. But even in this area, representatives of the modern generation, who studied in America and Europe, experimented very successfully. The small bronze sculptures, abstract in form and with strange names, show the Japanese sense of line and color, evident in the use of soft green or warm brown patinas; Wood carving testifies to the Japanese love for the texture of the material.

Sosaku hanga, the Japanese "creative print", appeared only in the first decade of the 20th century, but as a special art movement it eclipsed all other areas of modern art. This modern woodblock print is not, strictly speaking, a successor to the older ukiyo-e woodblock print; they differ in style, subjects and methods of creation. Artists, many of whom were heavily influenced by Western painting, recognized the importance of their own artistic heritage and found in wood a suitable material for expressing their creative ideals. Hanga masters not only draw, but also carve images on wooden blocks and print them themselves. Although the highest achievements in this art form are associated with woodwork, all modern Western engraving techniques are used. Experimenting with leaves, string and “found objects” can in some cases create unique surface texture effects. At first, the masters of this movement were forced to seek recognition: after all, even the best achievements of the ukiyo-e school were associated by intellectual artists with the illiterate crowd and considered plebeian art. Artists such as Onchi Koshiro, Hiratsuka Unichi and Maekawa Senpan did much to restore respect for printmaking and establish this movement as a worthy branch fine arts. They attracted many young artists to their group, and the engravers now number in the hundreds. Among the masters of this generation who achieved recognition in Japan and the West are Azechi Umetaro, Munakata Shiko, Yamaguchi Gen and Saito Kiyoshi. These are masters whose innovation and undeniable talent have earned them their rightful position among Japan's leading artists. Many of their peers and other younger hanga artists also produced wonderful prints; The fact that we do not mention their names here does not mean a low assessment of their work.

DECORATIVE ARTS, ARCHITECTURE AND GARDENS

The previous sections dealt primarily with painting and sculpture, which in most countries are considered the main types of fine art. It may be unfair to include at the end of the article decorative arts and folk crafts, garden art and architecture - forms that formed an important and integral part of Japanese art. However, with the possible exception of architecture, they require special consideration outside of the general periodization of Japanese art and changes in style.

Ceramics and porcelain.

The most important types of decorative applied arts in Japan include ceramics and porcelain. Ceramic art naturally falls into two categories. The fine polychrome Imari, Nabeshima and Kakiemon porcelain took its name from the places of production, and its rich painting on a cream or bluish-white surface was intended for the nobility and court circles. The process of making true porcelain became known in Japan in the late 16th or early 17th century; plates and bowls with a smooth glaze, with an asymmetrical or brocade-like pattern, are prized both at home and in the West.

Unlike porcelain, in coarse dishes made of clay or stone mass of low quality, characteristic of Shino, Oribe and Bizen, attention is focused on the material, the seemingly careless, but thoughtful arrangement of decorative elements. Influenced by the concepts of Zen Buddhism, such vessels were very popular in intellectual circles and were widely used, especially in tea ceremonies. Many cups, teapots and teapots, attributes of the art of the tea ceremony, embodied the very essence of Zen Buddhism: strict self-discipline and strict simplicity. During the heyday of Japanese decorative art, talented artists Korin and Kenzan were engaged in the decoration of ceramic products. It should be remembered that Kenzan's fame is associated more with his talent as a ceramist rather than as a painter. Some of the simplest vessel types and techniques come from traditions folk craft. Modern workshops, continuing old traditions, produce beautiful products that delight with their elegant simplicity.

Lacquer products.

Already in the 7-8 centuries. varnish was famous in Japan. From this time, the lids of the boxes have been preserved, decorated with images of people and geometric motifs applied with thin gold lines. We have already talked about the importance of the dry varnish technique for sculpture in the 8th and 9th centuries; at the same time and later, decorative objects such as boxes for letters or boxes for incense were made. During the Edo period, these products were made in large quantities and with the most luxurious decoration. Luxuriously decorated boxes for lunch, cakes, incense and medicine, called inro, reflected the wealth and love of luxury inherent in this time. The surface of objects was decorated with patterns of gold and silver powder, pieces of gold foil, separately or in combination with inlays with shells, mother-of-pearl, an alloy of tin and lead, etc.; these patterns contrasted with lacquered red, black or brown surfaces. Sometimes drawings for varnishes were made by artists, for example Korin and Koetsu, but it is unlikely that they personally participated in these works.

Swords.

The Japanese, as has already been said, were for a considerable period of their history a people of warriors; weapons and armor were considered necessities for a large part of the population. The sword was a man's pride; both the blade itself and all other parts of the sword, especially the handle (tsuba), were decorated using various techniques. Tsuba made of iron or bronze were decorated with inlays of gold and silver, covered with carvings, or trimmed with both. They depicted landscapes or human figures, flowers or family coats of arms (mon). All this complemented the work of sword makers.

Fabrics.

The richly patterned silks and other fabrics favored by the court and clergy in times of opulence and abundance, as well as the simple fabrics with the almost primitive designs characteristic of folk art, are also expressions of the national Japanese talent. Having reached its peak during the opulent Genroku era, the art of textiles has flourished again in modern Japan. It successfully combines ideas and artificial fibers from the West with traditional colors and decorative motifs.

Gardens.

In recent decades, interest in Japanese gardens and architecture has increased due to the Western public's increased exposure to these art forms. Gardens have a special place in Japan; they are the expression and symbol of high religious and philosophical truths, and these obscure, symbolic overtones, combined with the obvious beauty of the gardens, attract the interest of the Western world. It cannot be said that religious or philosophical ideas were the main reason for the creation of gardens, but when planning and creating a garden, the artist-planner considered such elements, the contemplation of which would lead the viewer to think about various philosophical truths. Here the contemplative aspect of Zen Buddhism is embodied in a group of unusual stones, waves of raked sand and gravel combined with turf, or plants arranged so that a stream behind them disappears and then reappears - all this encourages the viewer to independently complete the plans laid down during the construction garden ideas. The preference for vague hints over clear explanations is characteristic of Zen philosophy. A continuation of these ideas are dwarf bonsai trees and tiny gardens in pots, now popular in the West.

Architecture.

The main architectural monuments of Japan are temples, monastery complexes, feudal castles and palaces. From ancient times to this day, wood has been the main building material and in to a large extent determines design features. The most ancient religious buildings are the shrines of the national Japanese religion Shinto; judging by the texts and drawings, they were relatively simple structures with a thatched roof, like ancient dwellings. Temple buildings erected after the spread of Buddhism and associated with it were based on Chinese prototypes in style and layout. Buddhist temple architecture varied over time, and the decoration and arrangement of buildings varied among different sects. Japanese buildings are distinguished by vast halls with high roofs and complex systems of consoles, and their decor reflected the taste of their time. The simple and majestic architecture of the Horyuji complex, built near Nara in the early 7th century, is as characteristic of the Asuka period as the beauty and elegance of the proportions of Hoodo, the “Phoenix Hall” at Uji, reflected in the Lotus Lake, is of the Heian period. The more elaborate buildings of the Edo period acquired additional decoration in the form of richly painted sliding doors and screens made by the same "great decorators" who decorated the interiors of moated castles and feudal palaces.

The architecture and gardens of Japan are so closely connected that they can be considered parts of each other. This is especially true for buildings and garden houses for the tea ceremony. Their openness, simplicity and carefully considered relationship with the landscape and perspective have a great influence on modern architecture West.

THE INFLUENCE OF JAPANESE ART ON THE WEST

Within just one century, the art of Japan became known in the West and had a significant influence on it. There were earlier contacts (for example, the Dutch traded with Japan through the port of Nagasaki), but the objects that reached Europe in the 17th century were mainly works of applied art - porcelain and lacquerware. They were eagerly collected as curiosities and copied in various ways, but these decorative exports did not reflect the essence and quality of Japanese art and even gave the Japanese an unflattering idea of ​​Western taste.

The first time Western painting was directly influenced by Japanese art in Europe was in 1862 during the huge International Exhibition in London. When presented at the Paris Exhibition five years later, Japanese woodblock prints again aroused great interest. Several private collections of engravings immediately emerged. Degas, Manet, Monet, Gauguin, Van Gogh and others perceived Japanese color prints as a revelation; The slight but always recognizable influence of Japanese prints on the Impressionists is often noted. The Americans Whistler and Mary Cassatt were attracted by the restraint of line and bright color spots of ukiyo-e prints and paintings.

The opening of Japan to foreigners in 1868 created a craze for all things Western and caused the Japanese to turn away from their own rich culture and artistic heritage. At this time, many beautiful paintings and sculptures were sold and ended up in Western museums and private collections. Exhibitions of these objects introduced the West to Japan and stimulated interest in travel to Japan. Far East. Of course, the occupation of Japan by American troops at the end of World War II opened up greater opportunities than before for exploring and learning more about Japanese temples and their treasures. This interest was reflected in attendance at American museums. Interest in the East in general aroused the organization of exhibitions of works of Japanese art, selected from Japanese public and private collections and brought to America and Europe.

Scientific research in recent decades has done much to refute the notion that Japanese art is merely a reflection of Chinese art, and numerous Japanese publications in English have introduced the West to the ideals of the East.

Japan is a very interesting state, known for a wide variety of traditions and customs. Geographical position The country of the Rising Sun made it somewhat isolated from other states, thanks to which it developed without regard to European countries. The culture of Japan is extremely rich and diverse. Unique Japanese traditions were formed under the influence of historically important events. Japan gradually turned into a powerful, united state with characteristic features and a certain mentality of the population.

Basic Aspects of Japanese Culture

The country's culture is manifested in many spheres of society. In Japan its aspects are;

For the Japanese, the process of drinking tea is not a simple satisfaction of the physiological needs of the body, but a real cult. The tea ceremony in Japan is accompanied by special attributes and contains a lot of traditions. Such a reverent attitude, it would seem, to the everyday process took its development from the meditation of Buddhist monks. They are the ones who brought so much significance to the tea drinking process.

For Europeans, the concept of “kimono” characterizes the national clothing of Japan. However, in the country itself rising sun There are two meanings of this word - in the narrow and in a broad sense. The word "kimono" in Japan means not only National Costume, but also all clothes in general. Under the kimono, as a rule, a special robe and seven belts are worn. The kimono worn in summer is called yukata. Depending on the age of the woman, the model of clothing may vary.

In Japan, two religious movements are successfully preached at once - Shintoism and Buddhism. Shintoism appeared in ancient Japan; it is based on the worship of various creatures. Buddhism, in turn, is divided into several varieties. In Japan there are many schools promoting one or another movement of Buddhism.

Rock gardens are of particular importance to Japanese culture. They are not only an architectural creation that attracts the attention of tourists, but also a place of spiritual growth. Here the Japanese find enlightenment from contemplating stone structures arranged in a special order. Rock gardens include a specific design that only an enlightened person can unravel.

Tango no sekku is a celebration of boys. It is dedicated not just to all small male representatives, but also to the masculinity and strength of the entire Japanese people. It is customary to celebrate the holiday in the spring, when nature wakes up and delights with its beauty. On Tango no Sekku day, boys are cared for by their parents. A father must tell his son about all the Japanese warriors and their exploits. And his mother sets the table for him with delicious food.

Cherry blossoms are considered the most beautiful natural phenomenon. Many tourists come here precisely to enjoy the contemplation of a flowering plant. In spring, large crowds of people can be seen in Japanese parks. Many families go on picnics and watch the beauty of Japanese cherry trees.

One of the unique traditions of the country includes bowing. They personify the rules of good manners. It is not customary for the Japanese to say goodbye; instead, they bow as many times as the interlocutor did.

Samurai represent a certain class of society, which was formed under the influence of traditions and customs. It has a direct connection with the culture of the country. Samurai are warriors who perform a certain service, which can be military, security or domestic. In any of these cases, samurai personify the bravery, masculinity and nobility of the Japanese people.

The process of formation of the culture of ancient Japan

The culture of ancient Japan began to develop with the birth of the Japanese language and writing. The land of the rising sun borrowed the basis for this from China. Japanese writing also contains hieroglyphs, which you can understand to a foreign citizen will not be possible. After some time in Japanese New words, sounds and phrases began to be added. So it was completely transformed, but common features with China can still be traced.

The country's religiosity also dates back to ancient times. Shintoism was a consequence of the development of various mythologies. At the moment, this teaching promotes the cult of leaders and dead people. Buddhism has such deep roots that the opinions of scientists and historians about the emergence of this type of religion vary greatly.

Japanese art

Almost all types of art practiced in Japan carry one main idea - calm and relaxation. It is precisely the harmony of a person with himself that contains art, regardless of the method of presenting information. Many types of art known throughout the world began their development in Japan. Among them we can highlight origami - the ability to fold various shapes from paper.

Another popular part of Japanese art is ikebana. This is the skill of forming bouquets of flowers using special technology. From here came an equally popular activity called bonsai. This is the creation of various compositions from dwarf trees. In Omiya, not far from Tokyo, there is a whole Bonsai park. Each dwarf tree presented here is unique and beautiful in its own way.

Japanese painting deserves special significance, since each painting carries a hidden meaning. As a rule, bright colors, contrasting transitions and clear lines are used as a design. Japan also has the art of calligraphy. This is the skill of aesthetically beautiful writing of hieroglyphs. Applied art is also widespread in Japan. There is an entire museum in Tokyo dedicated to this craft. Here you can see products made of paper, glass or metal. And this is not a complete list of materials used for this purpose.

The Japanese style of interior design also deserves special attention. It includes functionality and simplicity, along with originality of execution. In addition, interior design carries a religious philosophy, just like any other form of Japanese art.

Architecture of Japan

Architectural structures in Japan are, in one way or another, associated with religion. At first, temple buildings were most often devoid of any flowers. This was due to the use of unpainted wood in construction. Later they began to use red and blue shades.

Wood is considered the main material for architectural buildings in Japan. This is due to the fact that the reserve of this resource in the country is quite large. In addition to the fact that wood conducts heat well and absorbs moisture, it is also practical during earthquakes, which occur quite often in Japan. If a stone house is very difficult to recreate after destruction, then a wooden one is much easier.

The main feature of Japanese architecture is the presence of even geometric shapes. Most often, these are triangles and rectangles. It is almost impossible to find smooth and round lines in any structure. The main principle on which the Japanese arrange their homes is the inseparable existence of the inside and the outside of the house. This applies to Japanese gardens. They should be decorated in exactly the same style as the house itself. Otherwise, it is considered bad form and complete bad taste. The Japanese pay special attention to their gardens.

Japanese music

In respect of musical development Japan looked to other countries to use any musical instruments. But later she modernized them under the influence of local tastes and traditions. The first to influence the formation of classical music in Japan was the local folklore of Dengaku, mixed with foreign influences and giving birth to the music that is currently familiar to Japan.

The religious side of the issue also made its contribution to the musical origins. Thanks to Christianity, playing the organ began to spread. And Buddhism promoted playing the flute.

Currently, classical music has gained popularity in Japan. Many representatives of this creative cell travel abroad in Japan. These include Goto Midori, Ozawa Seiji and Uchida Mitsuko. Relatively recently, halls designed for comfortable listening to classical music were opened in Japan. These include Kiyo Hall, Osaka Symphony Hall, Orchard, etc.

Household traditions of Japan

The Japanese are a well-mannered people who observe their traditions and customs. Treating yourself and others with respect is considered the norm in Japan. From childhood, children are taught good manners, the basic values ​​of the Japanese people are explained to them, and they are educated in every possible way. And it all benefits society. Any tourist who comes to the land of the rising sun from another country is surprised at how friendly, friendly and well-mannered the Japanese are.

Unlike European countries, Japan has long had a ban on smoking in public places. This also applies to private property. Smoking near other people is only permitted if they have given their consent.

Among other things, the Japanese strictly follow all the rules of hygiene that society dictates to them. For example, in any room, including religious buildings, there are special straw mats. You cannot walk on them in shoes; they are considered not only an interior decoration, but also a real sacrilege. Also, the Japanese decided to protect themselves from possible bacteria that come from the toilet on their feet. In any public place and in apartments there are special slippers for the toilet, which do not allow harmful germs to be transferred to other rooms.

For the Japanese, eating is not considered a process of life, but a real cult. Before eating, the Japanese always wipe their hands with a special towel moistened with water, which is called oshibori. Table setting does not occur in any random order, but according to a special pattern. Even each device has its place. The Japanese divide them into male and female, and this is very important for them. In Japan, spoons are used only for eating o-zoni soup, which is prepared for the New Year; the Japanese prefer to drink the rest of the first courses exclusively from special bowls. Moreover, smacking your lips during a meal is not considered bad manners. It is believed that this way the taste of the dish is better revealed.

The relevance of good manners in Japan is proven by the following rules:

• It is necessary to discuss the place and time of the meeting in advance. In Japan, being late is considered impudence beyond the bounds of decency.
• You cannot interrupt your interlocutor; you need to wait patiently for the person to speak out, then begin to express your opinion.
• If you call the wrong number, you must apologize.
• If someone came to your aid, then you definitely need to thank him.
• Some guests of the Japanese may be considered honorary. They are even allocated a special place at the table, which, as a rule, is located farthest from the entrance to the room.
• When giving a gift to Japanese people, you should apologize for being modest, despite what it represents. These are the rules, they should not be broken.
• While sitting at the dinner table, men can cross their legs, but women are strictly forbidden to do this. The legs should be tucked and pointed in one direction.

Also among the traditions in everyday life in Japan is the veneration of older people. It doesn’t matter what a person’s profession, income, appearance or character traits are, if he is older, then he must be treated with respect. Old age in Japan evokes respect and pride. This means that the person has passed long haul and now he deserves honor.

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Hello, dear readers – seekers of knowledge and truth!

Today we invite you to touch the beauty and talk about the art of Ancient Japan. In the article below we will briefly look at the stages of history that influenced the formation of Japanese art, and then we will dwell in more detail on each of its components. You will learn about the features of not only traditional types, for example, architecture, painting, but also about the art of battles, miniatures, theater, parks and much more.

So, the article promises to be interesting, and most importantly – educational!

Historical periods

The Land of the Rising Sun has a unique culture, embodied in traditional original buildings and temples, paintings, sculptures, jewelry, gardens, and literary works. In recent centuries, such non-trivial directions as woodcuts, poetry, origami, bonsai, ikebana and even manga and anime have been gaining popularity. All of them took a long time to develop, going back to ancient times.

Very little was known about this time until the beginning of the last century, because Japan was a rather closed country to the rest of the world. However, since then, numerous studies have been carried out, the archaeological finds of which are amazing. They show that already in the second millennium BC there was a cultural Japanese society, and primitive tribes lived on the islands 15-12 thousand years ago.

Japanese culture began to take shape around the 4th millennium BC, but reached its peak of development in the Middle Ages - from the 6th to the 18th centuries.

Ancient Japanese history begins with prehistoric times and ends with the Heian stage in the 8th-9th centuries, although many researchers also include later periods here. In this regard, three large stages are distinguished, which, in turn, are divided into smaller periods, or Jidai. Each of them is characterized by the emergence of new products, structures, and styles.

1. Primitive communal system

Primitive society in Japan existed during the Neolithic era, when people developed the first stone tools, and also during the Jomon and Yayoi periods. Jomon is believed to have lasted from the 10th millennium to the 4th century BC. Then the first ceramic products began to appear, which had the same name as the entire era - Jomon.

Clay vessel from the Jomon era

These vessels were asymmetrical in shape and had traditional twisted rope designs. It is believed that they were used in various rituals and ceremonies. At the same time, various types of jewelry appeared - earrings, bracelets and necklaces made of clay, animal teeth, shells, stones, and crystal.

Clay earrings and bracelets from the Jomon period

In the 3rd century BC, the Yayoi era began, which lasted six centuries. Then local residents learned to grow rice crops, took up agriculture, continued to master the craft of ceramics, and also began to smelt metals, among which the most important was iron, made weapons from copper and bells from bronze.

Bronze dotaku bell, end of the Yayoi era

• Formation of the state. Japanese statehood began to take shape from the 4th to the 8th centuries. This time is known as the Kofun and Yamato periods. Then a whole network of burial mounds appeared in the country, and Japan itself began to draw closer to the Celestial Empire, inevitably adopting religion - and with it - architecture and sculpture. The most important building of the era is Horyu-ji, represented by a five-tiered pagoda. Special clay sculptures called “haniwa” began to be installed near the mounds.

Horyu-ji, Japan

• Establishment of laws. This stage falls on the Nara (8th century) and Heian (late 8th-12th centuries) periods. At that moment, the Japanese became even closer to their neighbors - the Chinese and Koreans, borrowed, along with the Buddhist concept, also Confucian and Taoist, adopted metal processing techniques, methods of construction and design of buildings, new trends in painting. Architecture especially changed - simple Shinto shrines were replaced multi-tiered Buddhist stupas like Indian ones. In the homes of ordinary people, instead of bare earth, wooden planks appeared on the floor, and cypress roofs appeared on top.

Depiction of the Nara period in Japan

If we talk about later times, we can distinguish several more periods and their main cultural features:

• Karakum (XII-XIV centuries) – the emergence of samurai and martial arts;
• Sengoku and Jidai (XV-XVI centuries) - the time of European expansion into the world of the East, during which Christianity and Western cultural trends penetrated even into the Land of the Rising Sun;
• Edo (XVII-XIX centuries) - the rule of the famous Tokugawa family, characterized by the isolation of Japan and the development of cultural identity.

Everything that happened later is the New Age and modernity, and now, undoubtedly, even in relatively closed Japan, some kind of cultural globalization is taking place - the experience of Western masters is being adopted, and in the West, in turn, Japanese motifs are becoming fashionable. However, Japanese art has always had a special flavor and had features unique to it.

Simplicity, proportionality with man, conciseness, natural materials, unity with nature - this is how one can characterize Japanese masterpieces, both ancient and modern.

Painting

Japan, as you know, stood apart for a long time, its borders were closed to other countries. When, with the advent of the 7th century, the Japanese began to increasingly communicate with their neighbors and establish connections with the continental world, they discovered paint, parchment, ink, and with them, fine art.

At first, it was distinguished by its extreme simplicity and conciseness: simple images were made on black or white paper, usually in one of three colors - yellow, green or red. However, gradually the skill of local painters grew, and largely due to the spread of the teachings of the Buddha, as more and more new paintings were created from the life of the Teacher and his students.

Pictures with Buddhist themes in ancient Japan

By the 9th century, Japan had already formed its own branch of painting, which was independent of the Chinese. At the same time, the role of Buddhism began to weaken, and religious motives were replaced by the so-called secular, that is, secular, which were especially popular during the reign of the Tokugawa family.

Shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty

Kaiga, as the Japanese called painting, took on completely different forms and styles, and nature occupied an important place in it. Since then, painting has appeared in new forms:

• Yamato-e is the main school of painters. It arose in the 9th-10th centuries and was supported by the Academy of Arts under the emperor. The works were folded scrolls, which depicted literary subjects coupled with skillful calligraphy. There were two main types of scrolls: emakimono - many meters long, folded horizontally and often viewed on a table, and kakimono - folded vertically and hung on the wall. Usually silk or paper were brightly painted in the Yamato-e style, but later ceramic dishes, national clothes, fans, walls, and screens were increasingly used as canvas. Particular attention was paid to conveying the state of mind.
• Sumi-e - as an independent style, was formed around the 14th century. Its features are the use of watercolors and black and white colors.
• Portraits - became popular in the XIII-XIV centuries.
• Landscape - achieved popularity in the 14th-15th centuries, largely thanks to the spread of Zen Buddhism throughout the country, which is based on the idea of ​​contemplation and unity with nature.
• Ukiyo-e is a characteristic bright painting on tablets. It appeared in the 17th century and contained images of nature, famous Japanese geishas or Kabuki theater artists. A century later, this trend became so popular that it even won the hearts of Europeans - they began to apply this style in their own works.

Traditional Ukiyo-e engraving

Architectural direction

Initially, Japanese architecture was limited to the construction of ancient traditional houses - haniwa. They were created before the 4th century, and their appearance can only be judged from surviving miniature clay models and drawings, since they have not survived to this day.

The life and everyday life of ordinary people took place here. These were a kind of dugouts, covered with a straw canopy on top. It was supported by special wooden frames.

Later, takayuka appeared - an analogue of granaries. They also consisted of special support beams, which made it possible to save the crop from natural disasters and pests.

Around the same time, in the 1st-3rd centuries, temples of the ancient Shinto religion began to appear in honor of the deities who patronized the forces of nature. They were most often built from untreated and unpainted cypress and had a laconic rectangular shape.

The thatched or pine roof was gable, and the structures themselves were built on pillars surrounded by pavilions. Another characteristic feature of Shinto shrines is the U-shaped gate at the entrance.

In Shinto, there is a law of renewal: every twenty years the temple was destroyed, and almost exactly the same, but new, was built in the same place.

The most famous such temple is called Ise. It was first built at the beginning of the 1st millennium and, according to tradition, was constantly rebuilt. Ise consists of two similar complexes located slightly apart from each other: the first is dedicated to the powers of the sun, the second to the deity of fertility.

From the 6th century, Buddhist teachings that came from China and Korea began to spread in the Land of the Rising Sun, and with it the principles of building Buddhist temples. At first they presented Chinese copies, but later a special, truly Japanese style began to be traced in temple architecture.

The structures were built asymmetrically, as if merging with nature. Laconicism and clarity of forms, a wooden frame coupled with a stone foundation, pagodas in several tiers, not too bright colors - this is what distinguishes the sanctuaries of that time.

Many of them have survived to this day. Architectural monuments include Horyu-ji of the early 7th century with its famous Golden Temple and 40 other buildings, Todai-ji of the mid-8th century in the city of Nara, which is still considered the largest wooden structure on the planet. At the same time, Buddhist architecture is closely intertwined with sculpture and painting, which depict deities and motifs from the life of the Teacher.

Todai-ji Temple

At the turn of the 12th-13th centuries, feudalism began in the state and therefore the Shinden style, distinguished by its pomp, became popular. It was replaced by the sein style, which is headed by simplicity and some intimacy: instead of walls there are almost weightless screens, on the floor there are mats and tatami.

At the same time, palaces and temples of local feudal lords began to appear. The masterpieces of this type of structure are the famous Kinkaku-ji of the 14th century, or the Golden Pavilion, as well as Ginkaku-ji of the 15th century, also known as the Silver Temple.

Ginkaku-ji Temple (Golden Pavilion)

Along with palaces and temples, landscape gardening art began to emerge in the 14th-15th centuries. Its appearance is largely due to the penetration of the contemplative teaching of Zen into Japan. Gardens began to appear around temples and large dwellings, where the main components were not only plants and flowers, but also stones, water, as well as sand and pebble mounds, symbolizing the water element.

Unique in the city of Kyoto is known throughout the world.

Another type of garden is a tea garden, which is called “tyaniva”. It surrounds the tea house, where a special, leisurely ceremony is held, and a special path runs through the entire garden to the house. Having appeared in the Middle Ages, tyaniva is found everywhere today.

Sculptural direction

Sculpture in Ancient Japan is mostly associated with religious and ritual traditions. Back in the 3rd-5th centuries, people learned to make small figurines called dogu.

Dogu depicted people and animals, and given that they were found in burial mounds, we can conclude that they were placed in the grave along with the deceased - these were their servants who could be useful in the next world. Dogu were clay, bronze, wooden, and lacquer figures. Later, larger statues of deities were also created at burial mounds and Shinto shrines.

Dogu figurine

The arrival of Buddhism in the country naturally affected local sculpture. In the 6th-7th centuries, numerous monuments to Buddha began to appear. Following the Chinese and Korean masters, local sculptors began their journey.

By the 9th century, the sculptural direction began to develop even more, but the appearance of the Buddhas changed and they began to have several, up to a thousand, faces and hands. Most often they were made from strong wood, varnish, bronze, and clay.

Many beautiful monuments have survived to this day. For example, in the Haryu-ji temple a majestic figure of Buddha sits on a lotus flower, and in Todai-ji there is a whole ensemble of deities led by a 16-meter tall Buddha, which was created by sculptors Kaikei and Unkei.

Other types

Japanese art is multifaceted, and one can talk about it for hours. Let's talk about several more types of art that originated in ancient times.

• Calligraphy

It is called sedo, which means “road of notifications.” Calligraphy appeared in Japan thanks to beautiful hieroglyphs, which were borrowed from the Chinese. In many modern schools it is considered a compulsory subject.

• Haiku or haiku

Haiku is a special Japanese lyric poetry that appeared in the 14th century. The poet is called “haijin”.

• Origami

This name translates to “paper that has been folded.” Coming from the Middle Kingdom, origami was initially used in rituals and was an activity for the nobility, but has recently spread throughout the world.

The Ancient Art of Origami in Japan

• Ikebana

The word translated means “live flowers”. Like origami, it was originally used in rituals.

• Miniatures

The two most common types of miniatures are bonsai and netsuke. Bonsai are copies of real trees in a greatly reduced form. Netsuke are small figurines like talisman keychains that appeared in the 18th-19th centuries.

• Martial arts

They are primarily associated with samurai - a kind of chivalry, ninja - mercenary killers, bushido - warriors.

• Theater arts

The most famous theater, the pride of all Japanese, is the classic Kabuki theater. You can read in detail about theatrical art in Japan.

Kabuki theater in Japan

Conclusion

As we can see from the article, Japan is a whole treasury of masterpieces of art not only national, but also global. Since ancient times, which begin long before our era, the Japanese began to create and create beautiful things around them: paintings, buildings, sculptures, poems, parks, miniatures - and this is not the whole list.

It is interesting that the features inherent in the Japanese culture of antiquity can be traced in the creations of modern times - simplicity, conciseness, naturalness, the desire for harmony with nature.

Thank you very much for your attention, dear readers! We hope today you have learned a lot about such a mysterious and distant country as Japan. Join us - leave comments, share links to articles with friends - we will be very happy to explore the mysterious world of the east with you!

See you soon!

Himeji is one of the oldest castles in Japan

Ancient Japanese Art
Japanese culture took shape and developed in special natural and historical conditions. Japan is located on four large and many small islands surrounded by seas. Located at the very edge of the east, it experienced periodically increasing, then again fading influence of such mainland cultures as China and Korea. Periods of interaction with the outside world were followed in Japanese history by long centuries of cultural isolation (periods from the 10th to the 14th and from the 17th to the mid-19th centuries). The latter circumstance contributed to the development and consolidation of many unique features of Japanese culture in general and art in particular. Acquaintance with the culture of the West occurred in the 16th century, when the main features of the original Japanese civilization had already been formed. Until 1854, Japan traded with China and Holland through only one port.

From the ancient inhabitants of the Japanese islands - hunters and fishermen - came the findings discovered as a result archaeological excavations Stone axes, harpoons, arrowheads and hand-sculpted ceramic vessels, named for the "Jomon" pattern, meaning "rope mark" stamped on them. Therefore, the Neolithic culture in Japan is also called Jomon. Arriving from Siberia, Polynesia, and later from Korea and China, the settlers stood at different stages of cultural development. This explains the fact that in some cultural layers monuments of both the Neolithic and Bronze Ages are found. The Japanese language is close to the languages ​​of the Altai group. When, as a result of contacts with Chinese culture, the Japanese became acquainted with Chinese hieroglyphic writing, it turned out to be very difficult to adapt Chinese characters to convey oral Japanese speech.

The initial period of Japanese culture, about which reliable data has been preserved, is called the era of kofuns (mounds) - burials, the ground part of which was an earthen mound of a characteristic shape - a connection of a circle and a trapezoid, reminiscent of a keyhole, which symbolized the union of earth and water. They were of considerable size, they were surrounded by a double moat with water, grass grew on top of the mound, and along the inner perimeter of the mound there were hollow clay figurines of people, animals, models of boats and houses from 30 cm to one and a half meters high. They were called "haniwa". Inside the funeral chamber there were coffins with deceased representatives of the nobility, where ritual objects were placed: a mirror, a dotaku bell, the sound of which was supposed to scare away evil spirits and attract the gods - the patrons of farmers. The burials of the kings of Yamato necessarily contained such ritual symbols of power as jade pendants and swords. To exalt the kings of the Yamato clan, the beginning of history was established, the hierarchy of gods was determined, and the deity Amaterasu (“Shining from Heaven”) was identified, which transferred power over the Japanese islands to the kings of the Yamato clan. The name "Nippon" or "Nihon", meaning "land of the rising sun", appeared in the 7th century. In 608, study trips to China began, which continued for more than two centuries.

Dotaku - ritual bronze bells - cylinders narrowed towards the top, topped with wide loops with figured protrusions, the walls of which are divided into squares filled with graphic images

The heterogeneous beliefs of the Japanese, which have many features of primitive animism and fetishism, are reflected in Shinto. Shinto (“the way of the gods”) inherently reflects the Japanese ideas about the universal spirituality of nature. Countless numbers of so-called “kami” (spirits) exist both in miraculous landscape objects, such as Lake Biwa and Mount Fuji, and in objects created by people - swords, mirrors, which are therefore endowed with magical properties. The Shinto temple was distinguished by the simplicity of its wooden structure: a single room was placed on stilts, surrounded on all sides by a veranda. Inside the Shinto shrine it was dark and empty. Believers did not enter the temple.

Para Period (645-794 AD)

Nara is the name of the first capital and the only city of Japan at that time. This was the time of the establishment of Japanese statehood, the introduction of Buddhism and the creation of monuments of Buddhist art - temples, pagodas, and various statues of Buddhist deities. Buddhism during this period was not so much the faith of the people as a continuation of the policy of the court. Various sects of Buddhism played a very significant role at court, the land holdings of Buddhist monasteries grew, and the monks had enormous influence at court. Buddhist monasteries appear, which are groups of wooden buildings located on a rectangular area surrounded by walls. Of particular importance were the wide alley leading to the front gate, the square in front of the temple, and the multi-tiered pagoda visible from afar. The wooden temples were painted with red varnish, raised on stone foundations, and had wide curved double roofs - irimoya.

Among the early Buddhist temples are Asukadera, Horyuji, the construction of the latter began in 607 at the behest of the then reigning crown prince Shotoku Taishi. The monastery consisted of 53 buildings located on an area of ​​90 thousand square meters. m. The facade of the temple faces south, the main buildings are located on the north-south axis, the sacred zone is north, there was a hall for sermons - a kodo, a condo and a five-tier pagoda. There were 265 statues in Horyuji, the main sculptural image was the Shakyamuni trinity, represented by a sculpture of the founder of the faith, accompanied by two bodhisattvas. In the 8th century Large monasteries already had sculptor workshops. The cult of the bodhisattva Kannon, whose name was a translation of the Sanskrit name Avalokiteshvara (Hearer of the Sounds of the World), spread. Filled with compassion for living beings, the Bodhisattva is able to listen to the sounds of those suffering, wherever they are. The cult of Avalokiteshvara originated in northwestern India and spread to China. In the Lotus Sutra it was said that the bodhisattva took the form of those beings who called upon him. In Japan, the spread of the cult of Kannon led to the appearance of a large number of her images - Saint Kannon helping in hell, Kannon with the head of a horse spreading mercy to cattle and evil spirits - asuras are saved by the thousand-armed Kannon, Kannon with a fishing line saves people.

Heian period (794-1185)

In 794, the capital of the state was moved to the city of Heian (now Kyoto). During the Heian period, a sophisticated court culture flourished. A Japanese syllabary was created - kana (Japanese - borrowed hieroglyph). At first, only women used this script, while the official script continued to be Chinese. Throughout the 10th century. Women's writing began to be used in private practice. In the 11th century The heyday of Japanese classical literature began, a brilliant example of which is the novel “Genji Monogatari”, created by the court lady Murasaki Shikibu.

In Heian art, the main place is occupied by Buddhist images of the esoteric Tendai and Shingon sects that came from China at that time, which taught that all living beings possess the essence of Buddha. By training the spirit and body, fulfilling the vows, anyone is able to acquire the essence of Buddha in the process of several rebirths. The temples of these sects were built on mountain tops and rocky ledges, and the prayer houses in them were divided into two parts. Ordinary believers were not allowed into the inner one, where the sacred image was located.

The Heian era is a time of luxury for the ruling circles. At this time, the Shinden type of housing was formed. Even in warm climates, the walls were not capital and had no supporting value. They could very easily be moved apart, replaced with more durable ones in cold weather, or removed altogether in warm weather. There were no windows either. Instead of glass, white paper was stretched over the lattice frame, letting dim diffused light into the room. The wide eaves of the roof protected the walls from dampness and sunlight. The interior, devoid of permanent furniture, had sliding partition walls, thanks to which it was possible to create either a hall or several small isolated rooms at will; the floor was covered with straw mats - tatami, of the same size (180 by 90 cm).

Confucian and Buddhist texts were brought from China during the Heian period. They were often decorated with images. Initially, Japanese artists copied Chinese “famous places,” but starting from the 10th century. turn to depicting the landscapes and customs of their native country. Yamato-e painting was formed, which differed from Chinese painting by using themes from Japanese poetry, short stories, novels or folk legends. The painting received its name from the name of the Yamato region - the southwestern part of the island of Honshu, where the statehood of Japan was formed.
The image often represented a scroll of illustrations with the corresponding text, which was taken by hand and untwisted from right to left; when reading the corresponding section, the following illustration was examined.

Yamato-e painting flourished in the late Heian period. At this time, professional artists appeared who painted pictures of secular subjects on screens, sliding partitions (shoji) and scrolls - emakimono. The oldest of the scrolls is the Genji Monogatari. Emakimano scrolls were paintings-story. The scroll “Genji-monogatari-emaki”, the famous novel by Murasaki Shikibu, has survived to this day, depicting the idle life of the aristocracy in bright colors; it is a synthesis of calligraphy, literature and painting. In the surviving 19 of the 54 chapters of the novel in illustrations, there is no single plot and continuous action. Most of the depicted scenes take place in interiors, everything visible is shown from above, there is no single vanishing point of lines, large-scale correspondence of figures and architecture, the faces of all characters are the same, only hairstyles and clothes are different. The main focus of the artist’s attention is to convey the emotional content of the events taking place in the novel, which were well known to everyone. The main techniques are building space and using the possibilities of color. To convey the internal state of the characters and the atmosphere of each scene, it is important for the artist at what angle in relation to the lower edge of the scroll the diagonal lines are directed, indicating either the beams of the structures, or the curtain rods, or the edge of the veranda. Depending on the degree of emotional tension, this angle varies from 30 to 54 degrees.

Bodhisattva - Kannon appears in China, Korea and Japan mainly in female form, in his hands with a jug, a willow branch and a lasso

In the houses of aristocrats there were no partitions, on screens and curtains best artists painted pictures of Yamato-e. Yamato-e paintings formed a unity with literary works, which were also placed on screens and curtains. In poetry anthologies of the X-XIII centuries. Poems written on screens from the 9th-10th centuries are not uncommon. The largest number of such poems is contained in the anthology “Suixu”. Just as poetry was on the theme of the four seasons, so was painting for screens. In line with folk songwriting, a certain system of poetic formulas developed and then became the basis of Japanese classical poetics. So, the sign of spring was a foggy haze, a willow tree, the sign of summer - the cuckoo, cicadas, the sign of autumn - scarlet maple leaves, deer, the moon, winter - snow and plum flowers.

Kyoto is the ancient pearl of Japan.

The abundance of homonyms in the language made it possible to give poems many meanings. Themes and plots made it possible, through a detail or hint in an extremely laconic poetic form (there are 31 syllables in a tanka), to express the diversity of all shades of emotional states. From screens with texts there was a gradual transition to screens without text. This is how the actual pictorial genre divisions emerged - shiki-e (“pictures of the four seasons”) and mei-se-e (“paintings of famous places”).
The composition of such paintings did not correspond to any of the categories of Chinese painting. The greatest fusion of nature and man will become characteristic of various genres of Japanese art.

Kamakura period (1185-1333) and Muromachi (1333-1568)

At the end of the 12th century, the capital was moved again; power in the country, as a result of a bloody feud, was seized by the Minamoto clan, whose head moved the capital to his settlement Kamakura, the name of which became the name of the next stage in the history of Japan. The military class of samurai came to power in the country, from among whom came the shoguns - the actual military rulers of Japan; the emperor, who remained in Nara, retained only nominal attributes of power. The samurai preferred simplicity to the sophistication of court culture. The monasteries of the Zen sect no longer included pagodas; the temples resembled rural huts. From the end of the 13th century. under the influence of the pantheistic ideas of the Zen sect, the landscape began to embody the idea of ​​​​the presence of Buddhist deities in any landscape objects. In the monasteries of Kamakura, an iconography of portraits of the Minsk Patriarch developed: seated and in a calm pose with an emphasized facial characteristic and the hypnotic power of his gaze. Under the influence of the Zen sect, sculpture is relegated to the background; painting, especially landscape painting, expresses the worldview of the people of this era.

The Muromachi period begins with the events of 1333, when the feudal lords of the southeastern regions of the island of Honshu captured and burned Kamakura, returning the capital to Heian. It was a time of internal strife and wars between feudal clans. The leading one for the troubled times was the teaching of the adherents of the Zen sect that, having achieved unity with nature, one can come to terms with the hardships of life and achieve unity with the world. Landscape painting comes to the forefront in Japanese art, under the influence of the Zen teaching that the “body” of the Buddha is nature. In the second half of the 12th century. Painting using black ink came to Japan from China. The Japanese, who primarily engaged in such painting, were members of the Zen sect. They created a new style that explained the new creed (shigaku - a combination of painting and poetry). XV and XVI centuries - the time of maximum flowering of ink painting, the leading master of which was Sesshu Toyo (1420-1506). In parallel with this style, there was also the Yamato-e style.

Changes in socio-political relations, which brought the military class to the fore, also determined the appearance in the 16th century. Sein architectural style. The previously single volume of the house is now divided with the help of sliding doors (shoji) and sliding partitions (fusuma). A special place for studying appeared in the rooms - a shelf for books and a window with a wide window sill and a niche (tokonoma), where a bouquet or a whimsically shaped stone was placed and a vertical scroll was hung.

In the 16th century in the history of Japanese architecture, tea pavilions appear due to the need correct implementation tea ceremony. Tea was brought to Japan during the Kamakura period by Buddhist monks as a medicine. The tea ritual (cha-no-yu) was introduced on the initiative of the Zen monk Murata Shuko and required a special method for its implementation. It happened that way new type architectural structure- chashitsu (pavilion for the tea ceremony), in its structural basis it was close to a residential building, and in its function - to a Buddhist temple. The supports of the tea pavilion were made of wood, and the ceiling was lined with bamboo or reed. Inside a hut of 1.5 or 2 tatami covered with mats, with adobe walls, small multi-level windows, a tokonoma niche with a hanging monochrome landscape and a flower in a vase, there was a hearth and a shelf for utensils.

The art of creating gardens flourished during the Muromachi period. Japanese gardens are different. Small gardens are most often located at temples or associated with a traditional house, they are intended to be viewed. Large landscaped gardens are designed to be experienced from the inside.

Kondo - (Japanese golden hall) - the main temple of the Buddhist complex, containing icons, statues, wall paintings

The Zen temple garden was built on the principle of a monochrome landscape scroll. Instead of a sheet of paper, the artist used the surface of a lake or a platform covered with pebbles, and instead of stains and washouts, thick stones, mosses, foliage of trees and shrubs. Gradually, flowers disappeared from the garden, they were replaced by mosses and shrubs, and stones began to be used instead of bridges. Some gardens were landscaped and hilly (tsukiyama). Tsukiyama gardens were a combination of natural elements such as stones, mosses, trees, ponds, with the obligatory pavilion on the shore. The oldest landscape garden is located in Kyoto and belongs to Sohoji Monastery. Dry gardens were called “hiraniwa”, i.e. flat. Hiraniva is a “philosophical” garden, because it required a developed imagination from the viewer. The hiraniwa garden “was made of stones, sand, and pebbles. Closed on three sides by a wall that surrounded it, the garden was intended only for contemplation. At the end of the 15th century. one of the most famous dry gardens was created at Reanji Monastery. It includes 15 stones located on a rectangular gravel area. In the Hiraniwa Garden of Daitokuji Monastery, created in 1509, nature is represented by compositions of stones and pebbles. One of the parts of the garden is called the “ocean of emptiness” and consists of two low pebble hills among a rectangular area. The gardens could complement each other.

At the end of the 15th century. The Kano court school of decorative painting was formed. The founder of the school, Kano Masanobu (1434-1530), came from the military class, becoming a recognized professional court artist. His landscapes had only a foreground; everything else was obscured by a foggy haze. The emphasis on one specific subject of the image will become characteristic of the Kano school. The main place in the work of artists of the Kano school was occupied by decorative wall paintings and screens with genre painting. Wall paintings have become the main component of synthesis with architectural form and a means of influencing figurative meaning architectural space. In turn, the features of the architectural form required certain stylistic qualities of the paintings, which is why a new style canon gradually formed, which was preserved in Japanese painting until the 19th century.

Shinden is a type of residential building. The main building, rectangular in plan, has one hall, facing the square with its southern façade and framed by galleries on the east and west

Momoyama period (1X73-1614)

And this time the era of feudal wars came to an end, power in the country passed to successive military dictators - Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Iyaesu Tokugawa. It was a time of urban growth, secularization and democratization of culture, and the penetration of new value orientations. Cult architecture has lost its former meaning. The new rulers of Japan declared their power by building grandiose castles, the construction of which was caused by the appearance in Japan firearms and a corresponding change in combat and defense tactics. The castle became a fundamentally new type of Japanese architecture. The asymmetrically located territory of the castle, surrounded by a moat and watchtowers and corner towers, included a central square and many courtyards and rooms, underground shelters and passages. The living quarters were located in a wooden building located on the castle grounds with a strict hierarchy of internal space that reflected the social hierarchy. Decorative wall paintings, grandiose in size, painted with bright colors on a golden background, were most suitable for the interiors of castles immersed in twilight.

Kano Eitoku (1543-1590). Creator of a new style of paintings designed to glorify military dictators. He was the first to develop the principle of a single composition on large horizontal surfaces, enlarging the forms and abandoning small details to convey not only silhouettes, but also the dynamics of their forms. Eitoku is characterized by a desire to increase the flatness of the painting and enhance its decorative qualities. Thus, in places symbolizing empty space, spots with an admixture of gold powder are placed. The space of the composition unfolded not in depth, but along the view.
In 1576, an unprecedented castle with a colossal seven-story tower was erected on the shores of Lake Biwa, which was supposed to demonstrate the power of the dictator Oda Nobunaga. A special feature of the castle was the presence of not only official, but also private chambers. The main decoration of the rooms was wall paintings, which were entrusted to Kano Eitok, who worked on them for three years with a large group of assistants. Kano Eitoku, whom the dictator hurried to complete the order, began to enlarge the forms, using a thick brush made of rice straw, resorting to laconic artistic language. The main place was occupied by the image of trees, flowers, birds and animals. The color scheme was bright, there was no color nuance.

The change in the social situation in the country after the Tokugawa shoguns came to power led to a ban on the construction of castles.
In the works of artists of the first third of the 17th century. new features begin to dominate. In painting, the desire for balanced, calm compositions, the increase in ornamental forms, and interest in the culture of the Heian era and works of Yamato-e became more noticeable. Distinctive feature Kano schools of this time - ornamentation and increased decorativeness. When in the second quarter of the 17th century. The construction of castles was prohibited, and the screen became the main form of decorative painting. The monumentality of Kano Eitoku has disappeared from decorative painting. Art acquired a personal touch, which also influenced its stylistic qualities. Decorative painting XVII V. was most often inspired by the heroes and themes of classical literature, reflecting the range of interests of the tribal aristocracy, as well as the emerging bourgeois elite. Decorative painting developed in the old capital, Kyoto.

Ogata Korin, a new representative of the Kano school, became an exponent of the taste of new consumers of art - city residents, traders and artisans.

Emakimano - a horizontal scroll of paper or silk glued to a base framed with a brocade border with a wooden roller at the end

Ogata Korin (1658-1716) lived like a rich rake and constantly visited the “gay quarters.” Only after ruin, faced with the severe need to earn a living, he began to engage in textile painting and painting. Ogata Korin dealt with both ceramics and lacquerware, and painted kimonos and fans. How
master, he began with an introduction to traditional painting and its techniques. Korin has always strived for compactness and balance of forms; a characteristic feature of his creative style is a concentration on the development of several plot motifs, their repeated repetition and variation. For the first time in Ogata Korin's work, work from life appeared. In the painting of the screen “Red and White Plum Tree”, the plot motif taken by Korin goes back to classical poetry with its images early spring and awakening nature. On both sides of the stream, flowering trees are written on a golden background: a stocky red plum tree with a thick curved trunk and almost vertically rising branches, and another, indicated only by the foot of the trunk and a sharply curved branch, as if falling to the water, and therefore suddenly thrown up, strewn with white flowers.

Kano Eitoku hawk on a pine tree. Screen. Detail from the end of the 16th century.

Ogata Kenzan (1663-1743), unlike his older brother Ogata Korin, gravitated towards spiritual values ​​from his youth, was a follower of Zen Buddhism, knew Chinese and Japanese classical literature, Noh theater, and tea ritual. On the territory belonging to the Ninnaji Temple, Kenzan received permission to build his own ceramic kiln, which produced products for 13 years until 1712. He did not strive for profitability, he was guided by the idea of ​​​​creating highly artistic products. For the first time he used traditional ink painting techniques in painting volumetric shape. Kenzan began to use color, he wrote on a damp shard, the porous clay absorbed the paint, like paper in ink painting. Like his great contemporary, the poet Basho, who turned the popular low genre of haiku into a revelation, Ogata Kenzan showed that ordinary ceramic plates, cups, and vases can be both utilitarian objects and at the same time poetic masterpieces of art.

Edo period (1614-1868)

In 1615, samurai were resettled from Kyoto to Edo. The importance of the class of merchants, traders and moneylenders, concentrated in Mara, Kyoto and Osaka, increased in importance. For representatives of these social groups It was characterized by a worldly perception of life, a desire to free itself from the influence of feudal morality. For the first time, art turns to themes of everyday life, including the life of the so-called. cheerful neighborhoods - the world of tea houses, Kabuki theater, sumo wrestlers. The appearance of wood engraving was associated with the democratization of culture, since engraving is characterized by circulation, cheapness and accessibility. Following everyday painting, engraving began to be called ukiyo-e (literally, the mortal, changeable world).

The production of engravings acquired a wide scope. The early period of development of ukiyo-e graphics is associated with the name of Hashikawa Moronobu (1618-1694), who depicted simple scenes from the life of the inhabitants of tea houses and artisans, combining in one engraving events from different times, unrelated to each other. The background of the engravings remained white, the lines were clear. Gradually, the range of themes in the engravings expanded, and the interest not only in the external, but also in the internal world of the characters became deeper. Japanese engraving in 1780-1790. is entering its heyday. Suzuki Haranobu (1725-1770) first began to reveal the inner world of heroes in such engravings as “Beauties Plucking a Plum Branch” and “Lovers in a Snowy Garden.” He was the first to use the technique of rolling, creating a transition from dark to light tone, and varied the thickness and texture of the lines. He never cared about actual colors, the sea in his engravings is pink, the sky is sandy, the grass is blue, everything depends on the general emotional mood of the scene. One of his best works, “Lovers Playing the Same Shamisen,” was created on the theme of the Japanese proverb - “If music promotes love, play.”

Tokonoma - a niche in the interior of a tea house

Kitagawa Utamaro (1753-1806) - an outstanding master of ukiyo-e. His work began with the albums “The Book of Insects” and “Songs of Shells”. In his half-length and full-length portraits of women, Utamaro is the first to use mica powder, which creates a shimmering background. The beauty Utamaro is ideal with her graceful shape and head set,
thin neck, small mouth, short black eyebrows. In episodes "Ten" female characters" and "Days and Hours of Women" he sought to identify different types of appearance and character of women. At the end of the 90s. In Utamaro, he addresses the theme of motherhood in such prints as “Mother with Child” and “Ball Game,” while at the same time he creates triptychs and polyptychs on historical themes, resorting to indirect designation (the heroes of the country are depicted as beauties). Teshusai Sharaku created a series of portraits of Kabuki actors and sumo wrestlers. He abandoned generally accepted traditions, making the grotesque his main technique. The third period of development of ukiyo-e engraving falls on 1800-1868. At this time, the influence of Dutch and German etchings on Japanese art increased. The creativity of the Utagawa artistic dynasty became characterized by a rejection of the search for individuality and a desire for formal grace. The flourishing of the landscape genre in engraving is associated with the name of Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849). Hokusai studied the ancient and modern trends Japanese art, knew the art of China and became acquainted with European engravings. Until almost 50 years old, Hokusai worked in the traditional manner of ukiyo-e artists. It was only in the Manga albums (book of sketches), the first volume of which was published in 1812, that Hokusai found his field of art. Now he was drawing everyday scenes, landscapes, crowd.

landscape gardens of japan

At the age of 70, Hokusai created his series “36 Views of Mount Fuji”, in each of the prints the artist depicts Mount Fuji. The combination of a genre theme with a landscape is a feature of Hokusai. Unlike ancient landscape painters, Hokusai shows the earth from below. At the same time, he creates the series “Journey through the country’s waterfalls”, “Bridges”, “Big Flowers”, “100 Views of Fuji”. Hokusai could convey things from an unexpected angle. In the engravings “100 Views of Fuji,” the mountains either emerge from the darkness of the night like a vision, or are visible behind the stems of bamboo, or are reflected in the lake. A follower of Hokusai, Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858), painted nature much more realistically. A river agent by profession, he traveled a lot around the country, creating his series “53 Stations of Tokaido”, “8 Views of Lake Omi”, “69 Views of Kishikaido”. Hiroshige's art approaches European painting, ending the two-hundred-year heyday of ukiyo-e prints.

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JAPANESE ART. Since ancient times, Japanese art has been characterized by active creativity. Despite their dependence on China, where new artistic and aesthetic trends constantly emerged, Japanese artists always introduced new features and changed the art of their teachers, giving it a Japanese look.

The history of Japan as such begins to take on certain forms only at the end of the 5th century. Relatively few objects dating back to previous centuries (the Archaic period) have been discovered, although some finds made during excavations or during construction work indicate remarkable artistic talent.

Archaic period.

The oldest works of Japanese art are clay pots of the jomon type (cord impression). The name comes from the decoration of the surface with spiral impressions of cord wrapped around the sticks that the craftsman used to make the vessel. Perhaps at first the craftsmen accidentally discovered the braided prints, but then they began to use them deliberately. Sometimes cord-like clay curls were stuck onto the surface, creating a more complex decorative effect, almost a relief. The first Japanese sculpture arose in the Jomon culture. Dogu (lit. "clay image") of a person or animal probably had some religious significance. The images of people, mostly women, are very similar to the clay goddesses of other primitive cultures.

Radiocarbon dating suggests that some finds from the Jomon culture may date back to 6–5 thousand BC, but dating this early is not generally accepted. Of course, such dishes were made over a long period of time, and although exact dating cannot yet be established, three periods can be distinguished. The oldest examples have a pointed base and are almost unornamented, except for traces of a potter's tool. The vessels of the middle period are more richly ornamented, sometimes with molded elements, creating the impression of volume. The shapes of the vessels of the third period are very diverse, but the decoration again flattens and becomes more restrained.

Around the 2nd century. BC. Jomon ceramics gave way to Yayoi ceramics, characterized by graceful forms, simplicity of design and high technical quality. The vessel sherd became thinner and the ornament less fancy. This type prevailed until the 3rd century. AD

From an artistic point of view, perhaps the best works of the early period are the haniwa, clay cylinders dating from the 3rd to 5th centuries. AD Characteristic monuments of this era are huge hills, or mounds, burial structures of emperors and powerful nobility. Often very large in size, they are evidence of the power and wealth of the imperial family and courtiers. The construction of such a structure for Emperor Nintoku-tenno (c. 395–427 AD) took 40 years. The most notable feature of these mounds was the clay cylinders, haniwa, surrounding them like a fence. Usually these cylinders were completely simple, but sometimes they were decorated with human figures, less often with figurines of horses, houses or roosters. Their purpose was twofold: to prevent the erosion of huge masses of land and to supply the deceased with the necessities that he used in earthly life. Naturally, the cylinders were produced in large quantities at once. The variety of themes, facial expressions and gestures of the figures decorating them is largely the result of the master’s improvisation. Despite the fact that they are the works of artisans rather than painters and sculptors, they are of great importance as a Japanese art form proper. The buildings, blanketed horses, prim ladies and warriors present an interesting picture of the military life of early feudal Japan. It is possible that the prototypes of these cylinders appeared in China, where various objects were placed directly into burials, but the design and method of using haniwa belong to local tradition.

The Archaic period is often seen as a time devoid of works of high artistic level, a time of dominance of things of mainly archaeological and ethnological value. It must be remembered, however, that the works of this early culture as a whole had great vitality, since their forms survived and continued to exist as specific national features of Japanese art in later periods.

Asuka period

(552–710 AD). Introduction of Buddhism in the mid-6th century. made significant changes in the way of life and thinking of the Japanese and became an impetus for the development of art of this and subsequent periods. The arrival of Buddhism from China via Korea is traditionally dated to 552 AD, but it was probably known earlier. In the early years, Buddhism faced political opposition, with opposition from the national religion Shinto, but just a few decades later the new faith received official approval and was finally established. In the early years of its introduction to Japan, Buddhism was a relatively simple religion with a small number of deities that needed images, but after about a hundred years it gained strength and the pantheon grew enormously.

During this period, temples were founded, which served not only the purposes of propagating the faith, but were centers of art and education. The monastery-temple at Horyuji is one of the most important for the study of early Buddhist art. Among other treasures, there is a statue of the great triad Syaka-Nerai (623 AD). This work by Tori Bussi, the first great Japanese sculptor known to us, is a stylized bronze image similar to similar groups in the great cave temples of China. The pose of the seated Shaky (Japanese transcription of the word "Shakyamuni", the historical Buddha) and the two figures standing on either side of him is strictly frontal. The forms of the human figure are hidden by heavy symmetrical folds of schematically rendered clothes, and in the smooth elongated faces one can feel dreamy self-absorption and contemplation. The sculpture of this first Buddhist period is based on the style and prototypes from the mainland fifty years earlier; it faithfully follows the Chinese tradition that came to Japan through Korea.

Some of the most important sculptures of this time were made of bronze, but wood was also used. The two most famous wooden sculptures are those of the goddess Kannon: Yumedono Kannon and Kudara Kannon, both in Horyuji. They are a more attractive object of worship than the Shaki triad, with their archaic smiles and dreamy expressions. Although the Kannon figures also have a schematic and symmetrical arrangement of folds of clothing, they are lighter and full of movement. Tall, slender figures emphasize the spirituality of the faces, their abstract kindness, distant from all worldly concerns, but sensitive to the prayers of the suffering. The sculptor paid some attention to the contours of the figure of Kudara Kannon, hidden by the folds of clothing, and in contrast to the jagged silhouette of Yumedono, the movement of both figure and fabric is directed into depth. In profile, Kudara Kannon has a graceful S-shaped outline.

The only surviving example of painting that gives an idea of ​​the style of the early 7th century is the painting of Tamamushi Zushi, the “winged shrine”. This miniature shrine takes its name from the iridescent beetle wings set into a perforated metal frame; later it was decorated with religious compositions and figures of individual characters made with colored varnish. Like the sculpture of this period, some images show great freedom of design.

Nara period

(710–784). In 710 the capital was moved to Nara, a new city modeled after the Chinese capital Chang'an. There were wide streets, large palaces, and numerous Buddhist temples. Not only Buddhism in all its aspects, but the entire Chinese cultural and political life was perceived as a model to follow. No other country has perhaps felt more inadequate in its own culture or been so susceptible to outside influences. Scholars and pilgrims moved freely between Japan and the mainland, and government and palace life were modeled after Tang Dynasty China. However, we must remember that, despite imitating the examples of Tang China, especially in art, perceiving its influence and style, the Japanese almost always adapted foreign forms to their own.

In sculpture, the strict frontality and symmetry of the previous Asuka period gave way to freer forms. The development of ideas about the gods, increased technical skill and freedom of use of material allowed artists to create more intimate and accessible cult images. The founding of new Buddhist sects expanded the pantheon to include even the saints and founders of Buddhism. In addition to bronze sculpture, a large number of works made of wood, clay and varnish are known. Stone was rare and almost never used for sculpture. Dry varnish was especially popular, perhaps because, despite the complexity of the process of preparing the composition, works made from it looked more impressive than wooden ones and were stronger than clay products that were easier to make. Lacquer figures were formed on a wooden or clay base, which was then removed, or on wooden or wire reinforcement; they were light and durable. Although this technique dictated some rigidity in poses, great freedom was allowed in the depiction of faces, which partially contributed to the development of what can be called portrait sculpture proper. The depiction of the deity's face was performed in accordance with the strict requirements of Buddhist canons, but the popularity and even deification of some of the founders and preachers of the faith provided excellent opportunities for conveying portrait likeness. This similarity can be seen in the sculpture made of dry varnish of the Chinese patriarch Genjin, revered in Japan, located in the Toshodaiji Temple. Genjin was blind when he arrived in Japan in 753, and his sightless eyes and enlightened state of inner contemplation are beautifully captured by the unknown sculptor. This realistic tendency was most clearly expressed in the wooden sculpture of the preacher Kuya, created by the sculptor Kosho in the 13th and 14th centuries. The preacher is dressed as a wandering beggar with a staff, gong and mallet, and small Buddha figures emerge from his half-open mouth. Not satisfied with the image of the singing monk, the sculptor made an attempt to express the innermost meaning of his words.

The images of Buddha from the Nara period are also distinguished by great realism. Created for an ever-increasing number of temples, they are not as imperturbably cold and reserved as their predecessors, have a more graceful beauty and nobility, and are addressed with greater favor to the people who worship them.

Very few paintings from this time have survived. The multi-colored design on paper depicts the past and present lives of the Buddha. This is one of the few ancient examples of emakimono, or scroll painting. The scrolls slowly unwound from right to left, and the viewer could only enjoy that part of the picture that was located between the hands unrolling the scroll. The illustrations were placed directly above the text, unlike later scrolls where a section of text alternated with an explanatory image. In these oldest surviving examples of scroll painting, outlined figures are set against a barely outlined landscape, with the central character, in this case Shaka, appearing in various scenes.

Early Heian

(784–897). In 784 the capital was temporarily moved to Nagaoka, partly to avoid the dominance of Nara's Buddhist clergy. In 794 she moved to Heian (now Kyoto) for a longer period. Late 8th and 9th centuries were a period when Japan successfully assimilated, adapting to its own characteristics, many foreign innovations. The Buddhist religion also experienced a time of change, the emergence of new sects of esoteric Buddhism, with its developed ritual and etiquette. Of these, the most influential were the Tendai and Shingon sects, which originated in India, reached China and from there were brought to Japan by two scientists who returned to their homeland after a long apprenticeship. The Shingon (“True Words”) sect was especially popular at court and quickly assumed a dominant position. Its main monasteries were located on Mount Koya near Kyoto; like other important Buddhist centers, they became repositories of huge collections of art.

9th century sculpture was mostly wooden. The images of deities were distinguished by their severity and inaccessible grandeur, which was emphasized by the solemnity of their appearance and massiveness. Draperies were skillfully cut out according to standard patterns, and scarves lay in waves. The standing figure of Shaki from the Muroji Temple is an example of this style. For this and similar images from the 9th century. characterized by rigid carvings with deeper, crisp folds and other details.

The increase in the number of gods created great difficulties for artists. In complex, map-like mandalas (geometric designs with magical meanings), the deities were arranged in a hierarchy around the central Buddha, who was himself only one manifestation of the absolute. At this time, a new manner of depicting figures of guardian deities surrounded by flames, terrible in appearance, but beneficent in nature, appeared. These deities were located asymmetrically and were depicted in moving poses, with formidable facial features, fiercely defending faith from possible dangers.

Middle and Late Heian, or Fujiwara period

(898–1185). The transfer of the capital to Heian, which was intended to evade the difficult demands of the clergy, also caused changes in the political system. The nobility was a dominant force, and its most representative representatives were the Fujiwara family. Period 10th–12th centuries often associated with this name. A period of special power began when real emperors were “strongly advised” to leave aside the affairs of the state for the more pleasant pursuits of poetry and painting. Until he came of age, the emperor was led by a strict regent, usually from the Fujiwara family. It was an age of luxury and remarkable achievements in literature, calligraphy and art; There was a languor and emotionality throughout, which rarely reached depth, but on the whole was charming. Elegant sophistication and escapism were reflected in the art of this time. Even adherents of Buddhism were looking for easier ways, and the worship of the heavenly Buddha, Amida, became especially popular. Ideas about the compassion and saving grace of Amida Buddha were deeply reflected in the painting and sculpture of this period. The massiveness and restraint of the 9th century statues. in the 10th–11th centuries. gave way to bliss and charm. The deities are depicted as dreamy, thoughtfully calm, the carving becomes less deep, the surface becomes more colorful, with a richly developed texture. The most important monuments of this period belong to the sculptor Jocho.

The works of artists also acquired softer features, reminiscent of drawings on fabric, and even the terrible deities - defenders of the faith - became less frightening. Sutras (Buddhist texts) were written in gold and silver on deep blue paper, and the beautiful calligraphy of the text was often preceded by a small illustration. The most popular strands of Buddhism and their associated deities reflect the preferences of the aristocracy and a gradual shift away from the austere ideals of early Buddhism.

The atmosphere of this time and his works are partly connected with the cessation of formal relations with China in 894. Buddhism in China at this time was persecuted, and the corrupt Tang court was in a state of decline. The secluded island existence that followed this severance encouraged the Japanese to turn to their own culture and develop a new, purer Japanese style. Indeed, secular painting of the 10th–12th centuries. was almost entirely Japanese - both in technique and in composition and plots. A distinctive feature of these Japanese scrolls, called yamato-e, was the predominance of engi (origin, history) subjects. While Chinese scrolls most often depicted vast, amazing nature, panoramas of mountains, streams, rocks and trees, and people seemed relatively insignificant, on Japanese narrative scrolls the main thing in the drawing and text was the person. The landscape played only the role of a background for the story being told, subordinate to the main character or persons. Many scrolls were hand-drawn chronicles of the lives of famous Buddhist preachers or historical figures, their travels and military campaigns. Others told about romantic episodes from the lives of nobles and courtiers.

The apparently distinctive style of the early scrolls came from simple ink sketches on the pages of Buddhist notebooks. These are skillful drawings that caricature human behavior through animal images: a monkey in monastic robes worshiping an inflated frog, competitions between hares, monkeys and frogs. These and other late Heian scrolls served as the basis for the more complex narrative scrolls of the developed style of the 13th and 14th centuries.

Kamakura period

(1185–1392). Late 12th century brought major changes to the political and religious life of Japan and, of course, to its art. The elegance and aestheticism of the Kyoto court was replaced or, in the tradition of “special” rule, “received an addition” in the form of a new, harsh and courageous rule - the Kamakura shogunate. Although the capital remained nominally Kyoto, shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199) established his headquarters in the city of Kamakura and in just 25 years established a rigid system of military dictatorship and feudalism. Buddhism, which had become so complex and ritualized that it was little understood by ordinary lay people, also underwent major changes that did not at all promise patronage of the arts. The Yodo (Pure Land) sect, a form of veneration of the Amida Buddha, under the leadership of Honen Shonin (1133–1212), reformed the hierarchy of Buddhas and deities and gave hope of salvation to all who simply believed in Amida. This doctrine of an easily attainable paradise was later simplified by another monk, Shinran (1173–1262), founder of the Shin sect, who recognized that Amida's condescension was so great that there was no need to perform religious acts, simply repeating the incantation "Namu Amida Butsu" (the first word means “to obey”; the second two are “Buddha Amida”). This simple method of saving the soul was extremely attractive, and is now used by millions. A generation later, the militant preacher Nichiren (1222–1282), after whom the sect is named, abandoned this simplified form of religion. His followers revered the Lotus Sutra, which did not promise instant and unconditional salvation. His sermons often touched on political topics, and his beliefs and proposed reforms of church and state appealed to the new military class in Kamakura. Finally, Zen philosophy, which emerged as early as the 8th century, began to play an increasingly important role in Buddhist thought during this period. Zen emphasized the importance of meditation and disdain for any images that might hinder man in his quest to unite with God.

So, this was a time when religious thought limited the number of works of painting and sculpture previously necessary for the cult. Nevertheless, some of the finest works of Japanese art were created during the Kamakura period. The incentive was the inherent Japanese love of art, but the key to the solution lies in the attitude of the people to new creeds, and not in dogmas as such. Indeed, the works themselves suggest the reason for their creation, because many of these sculptures and paintings full of life and energy are portraits. Although Zen philosophy might consider ordinary religious objects an obstacle to enlightenment, the tradition of honoring teachers was quite acceptable. A portrait in itself could not be an object of worship. This attitude towards the portrait was characteristic not only of Zen Buddhism: many ministers of the Pure Land sect were revered almost like Buddhist deities. Thanks to the portrait, a new architectural form even appeared - mieido, or portrait chapel. The rapid development of realism was completely in the spirit of the times.

Although the picturesque portraits of the priests were obviously indeed images of specific people, they were often reworkings of paintings depicting the Chinese founders of Buddhism. They were depicted preaching, their mouths open, their hands gesticulating; sometimes mendicant monks were depicted making a difficult journey for the glory of faith.

One of the most popular subjects was raigo (desired arrival), which depicted Buddha Amida with his companions descending on a cloud to save the soul of a believer on his deathbed and transfer it to heaven. The colors of such images were often enhanced by applied gold, and the wavy lines, flowing capes, and swirling clouds gave a sense of movement to the descent of the Buddha.

Unkei, active in the second half of the 12th and early 13th centuries, was the author of an innovation that facilitated wood carving, which remained the favorite material of sculptors during the Kamakura period. Previously, the master was limited by the size and shape of the log or log from which the figure was cut. The arms and clothing elements were applied separately, but the finished piece often resembled the original cylindrical shape. In the new technique, dozens of small pieces were carefully fitted together to form a hollow pyramid, from which apprentices could then roughly carve out a shape. The sculptor had at his disposal a more pliable material and the ability to create more complex forms. The muscular temple guards and deities in flowing capes and robes seemed more alive also because crystal or glass began to be inserted into their eye sockets; statues began to be decorated with gilded bronze. They became lighter and cracked less often as the wood dried. The aforementioned wooden statue of Kuya Shonin, by Kosho, Unkei's son, demonstrates the highest achievement of Kamakura-era realism in portrait sculpture. Indeed, sculpture at this time reached its apogee in its development, and subsequently it no longer occupied such a prominent place in art.

Secular painting also reflected the spirit of the times. Narrative scrolls of the late Heian period, with restrained colors and graceful lines, told about the romantic escapades of Prince Genji or the entertainments of the reclusive court ladies. Now, with bright colors and energetic brushstrokes, artists of the Kamakura era depicted battles of warring clans, palaces engulfed in flames and frightened people fleeing from attacking troops. Even as religious history unfolded on the scroll, the image was not so much an icon as it was a historical record of the travels of holy men and the miracles they performed. In the design of these scenes one can detect a growing love for nature and admiration for native landscapes.

Muromachi or Ashikaga period

(1392–1568). In 1392, after more than 50 years of strife, the third shogun of the Ashikaga family, Yoshimitsu (1358–1408), reunited the country. The seat of government again became the nominal capital of Kyoto, where the Ashikaga shoguns built their palaces in the Muromachi quarter. (This period is sometimes called Muromachi or Ashikaga.) Wartime did not spare many temples - repositories of Japanese art, which were burned along with the treasures located there. The country was brutally ruined, and even peace did not bring much relief, since the warring clans, achieving success, distributed favors at their whim. It would seem that the situation was extremely unfavorable for the development of art, but in fact the Ashikaga shoguns patronized it, especially in the 15th and 16th centuries, when painting flourished.

The most significant artistic phenomenon of this time was the monochrome poetic ink paintings encouraged by Zen Buddhism and influenced by Chinese examples of the Song and Yuan dynasties. During the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), contacts with China were renewed and Yoshimitsu, a collector and patron of the arts, encouraged the collecting and study of Chinese paintings. It became a model and starting point for gifted artists who painted landscapes, birds, flowers, images of clergy and sages with light and fluent brush strokes. Japanese painting of this time is characterized by economy of line; the artist seems to extract the quintessence of the depicted plot, allowing the viewer to fill it with details. The transitions of gray and shiny black ink in these paintings are very close to the Zen philosophy, which certainly inspired their authors. Although this belief achieved considerable influence under the military rule of Kamakura, it continued to spread rapidly in the 15th and 16th centuries, when numerous Zen monasteries arose. Preaching mainly the idea of ​​"self-salvation", it did not link salvation to the Buddha, but relied more on a person's severe self-discipline to achieve a sudden intuitive "enlightenment" that unites him with the absolute. The economical but bold use of ink and the asymmetrical composition, in which unpainted parts of the paper played a significant role in depictions of idealized landscapes, sages and scientists, were consistent with this philosophy.

One of the most famous exponents of sumi-e, a style of monochrome ink painting, was Sesshu (1420–1506), a Zen priest whose long and fruitful life earned him long-lasting veneration. At the end of his life, he began to use the haboku (quick ink) style, which, in contrast to the mature style, which required clear, economical strokes, brought the tradition of monochrome painting almost to abstraction.

The same period marks the activity of the Kano family of artists and the development of their style. In terms of the choice of subjects and the use of ink, it was close to Chinese, but in terms of expressive means it remained Japanese. Kano, with the support of the shogunate, became the "official" school or artistic style of painting and flourished well into the 19th century.

The naive tradition of Yamato-e continued to live on in the works of the Tosa school, the second important movement of Japanese painting. In fact, at this time both schools, Kano and Tosa, were closely connected, they were united by an interest in modern life. Motonobu Kano (1476–1559), one of the outstanding artists of this period, not only married his daughter to the famous artist Tosa, but also painted in his manner.

In the 15th–16th centuries. Only a few noteworthy works of sculpture appeared. It should be noted, however, that the development of noo drama, with its variety of moods and emotions, opened up a new field of activity for sculptors - they carved masks for actors. In classical Japanese drama, performed by and for the aristocracy, the actors (one or more) wore masks. They conveyed a range of feelings from fear, anxiety and confusion to restrained joy. Some masks were so beautifully carved that the slightest turn of the actor's head caused subtle changes in the expression of feelings. Remarkable examples of these masks were kept for years in the families for whose members they were made.

Momoyama period

(1568–1615). In 1593, the great military dictator Hideyoshi built his castle on Momoyama, "Peach Hill", and by this name the period of 47 years from the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate to the establishment of the Tokugawa, or Edo, period in 1615 was generally accepted. This was the time of the dominance of an entirely new military class, whose great wealth contributed to the flourishing of art. Impressive castles with vast audience halls and long corridors came into fashion in the late 16th century. and demanded decorations appropriate to their greatness. It was a time of stern and courageous people, and the new patrons, unlike the previous aristocracy, were not particularly interested in intellectual pursuits or the subtleties of craftsmanship. Fortunately, the new generation of artists was quite consistent with their patrons. During this period, wonderful screens and movable panels appeared in bright crimson, emerald, green, purple and blue colors. Such exuberant colors and decorative forms, often on gold or silver backgrounds, were very popular for a hundred years, and their creators were rightly called “the great decorators.” Thanks to the subtle Japanese taste, the opulent style did not develop into vulgarity, and even when restraint and understatement gave way to luxury and decorative excesses, the Japanese managed to maintain elegance.

Eitoku Kano (1543–1590), one of the first great artists of this period, worked in the style of Kano and Tosa, expanding the drawing concepts of the former and combining them with the richness of colors of the latter. Although only a few works survive that can be confidently attributed to Eitoku, he is considered one of the founders of the Momoyama style, and most of the artists of this period were his students or were influenced by him.

Edo or Tokugawa period

(1615–1867). The long period of peace that followed the newly united Japan is called either the time of Tokugawa, after the surname of the ruler, or Edo (modern Tokyo), since in 1603 this city became the new center of power. Two famous generals of the short Momoyama period, Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–1598), through military action and diplomacy, finally managed to reconcile powerful clans and militant clergy. With the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, power passed to Ieyasu Tokugawa (1542–1616), who completed the activities begun jointly. The decisive battle of Sekigahara in 1600 strengthened Ieyasu's position; the fall of Oska Castle in 1615 was accompanied by the final collapse of the house of Hideyoshi and the establishment of the undivided rule of the Tokugawa shogunate.

The peaceful reign of the Tokugawa lasted 15 generations and ended only in the 19th century. This was largely a period of “closed door” policy. Decree 1640 prohibited foreigners from entering Japan, and Japanese were unable to travel abroad. The only commercial and cultural connection was with the Dutch and Chinese through the port of Nagasaki. As in other periods of isolation, there was a rise in national feelings and the emergence at the end of the 17th century. the so-called school of genre painting and engraving.

The rapidly growing capital of Edo became the center not only of the political and business life of the island empire, but also a center of arts and crafts. The requirement that the daimyo, the provincial feudal lords, be in the capital for a certain part of each year gave rise to the need for new buildings, including palaces, and therefore for artists to decorate them. At the same time, the emerging class of wealthy but non-aristocratic merchants provided new and often unprofessional patronage to artists.

The art of the early Edo period partly continues and develops the Momoyama style, strengthening its tendencies towards luxury and splendor. The richness of bizarre images and polychrome inherited from the previous period continues to develop. This decorative style reached its peak in the last quarter of the 17th century. in the so-called Genroku era of the Tokugawa period (1688–1703). In Japanese decorative art, it has no parallel in the extravagance and richness of color and decorative motifs in painting, fabrics, varnish, and artistic details - attributes of a luxurious lifestyle.

Since we are talking about a relatively late period of history, it is not surprising that the names of many artists and their works have been preserved; Here it is possible to name only a few of the most outstanding. Representatives of the decorative school who lived and worked during the Momoyama and Edo periods include Honnami Koetsu (1558–1637) and Nonomura Sotatsu (d. 1643). Their work demonstrates a remarkable sense of design, composition and color. Koetsu, a talented ceramicist and lacquer artist, was renowned for the beauty of his calligraphy. Together with Sotatsu, they created poems on scrolls, which were fashionable at that time. In this combination of literature, calligraphy and painting, the images were not simple illustrations: they created or suggested a mood corresponding to the perception of the text. Ogata Korin (1658–1716) was one of the heirs of the decorative style and, together with his younger brother Ogata Kenzan (1663–1743), brought its technique to perfection. Kenzan, better known as a ceramist than as an artist, fired vessels with designs of his famous older brother on them. The revival of this school at the beginning of the 19th century. by the poet and artist Sakai Hoitsu (1761–1828) was the last surge of the decorative style. Horitsu's beautiful scrolls and screens combined Korin's sense of design with the interest in nature inherent in the naturalism of the Maruyama school, expressed in the richness of color and decorative motifs characteristic of the earlier period, which was tempered by the splendor and grace of brushwork.

Along with the polychrome decorative style, the traditional ink drawing of the Kano school continued to be popular. In 1622, Kanō Tan'yu (1602–1674) was appointed court painter to the shogun and summoned to Edo. With his appointment to this position and the establishment of the Kano school of painting in Edo, in Kobikito, a half-century period of artistic leadership of this tradition began, which restored the Kano family to a position of prominence and made the works of the Edo period the most significant in Kano painting. Despite the popularity of screens painted with gold and bright colors created by the “great decorators” and rivals, Tanyu, thanks to the strength of his talent and official position, was able to make the painting of the revived Kano school popular among the nobility. To the traditional features of the Kano school, Tanyu added power and simplicity based on a rigid broken line and a thoughtful arrangement of compositional elements on a large free surface.

A new direction, in which the main feature was an interest in nature, began to prevail at the end of the 18th century. Maruyama Okyo (1733–1795), the head of the new school, was a peasant, then became a clergyman and finally an artist. The first two studies did not bring him either happiness or success, but as an artist he achieved great heights and is considered the founder of the realistic school of Maruyama. He studied with the Kano school master Ishida Yutei (d. ca. 1785); Based on imported Dutch engravings, he learned the Western technique of perspective depiction, and sometimes simply copied these engravings. He also studied Chinese styles from the Song and Yuan dynasties, including the subtle and realistic style of Chen Xuan (1235–1290) and Shen Nanping; the latter lived in Nagasaki at the beginning of the 18th century. Ōkyo made many works from life, and his scientific observations served as the basis for the perception of nature on which the Maruyama school was based.

In addition to the interest in naturalism in the 18th century. the influence of the Chinese artistic tradition was renewed. Representatives of this movement gravitated towards the pictorial school of artist-scientists of the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) eras, although their ideas about the modern state of art in China were probably limited. The art of this Japanese school was called bujinga (the art of educated people). One of the most influential artists who worked in the bujinga style was Ikeno Taiga (1723–1776), a famous artist and calligrapher. His mature style is characterized by thick contour lines filled with light feathery strokes of light tones and ink; He also painted with wide, free strokes of black ink, depicting bamboo trunks bent in the wind and rain. With short, curved lines, he achieved an engraving-like effect in his depiction of misty mountains above a lake surrounded by forest.

17th century gave birth to another remarkable movement of art of the Edo period. These are the so-called ukiyo-e (pictures of a changing world) - genre scenes created by and for ordinary people. Early ukiyo-e appeared in the old capital of Kyoto and were mainly picturesque. But the center of their production soon moved to Edo, and the attention of the craftsmen focused on wood engraving. The close association of woodblock prints with ukiyo-e has led to the misconception that woodblock prints were a discovery of this period; in fact, it originated back in the 11th century. Such early images were votive in nature, depicting the founders of Buddhism and deities, and during the Kamakura period, some narrative scrolls were reproduced from carved blocks. However, the art of engraving became especially popular in the period from the mid-17th to the 19th century.

The subjects of ukiyo-e prints were beautiful courtesans of cheerful neighborhoods, favorite actors and scenes from dramas. Early, so-called Primitive engravings were executed in black, with strong rhythmic wavy lines, and were characterized by simple designs. They were sometimes hand-painted in an orange-red color called tan-e (bright red paintings), with markings of mustard yellow and green. Some of the "primitive" artists used hand painting called urushu-e (lacquer painting), in which dark areas were enhanced and brightened by the addition of glue. An early multi-color print, appearing in 1741 or 1742, was called benizuri-e (crimson print) and usually used three colors—rose-red, green, and sometimes yellow. Truly multi-color prints, using the entire palette and called nishiki-e (brocade images), appeared in 1765.

In addition to creating individual prints, many of the engravers illustrated books and made money by producing erotic illustrations in books and on scrolls. It should be borne in mind that ukiyo-e engraving consisted of three types of activity: it was the work of the draftsman, whose name was on the print, the carver and the printer.

Hishikawa Moronobu (c. 1625–1694) is considered to be the founder of the ukiyo-e printmaking tradition. Other "primitive" artists of this movement include Kiyomasu (1694–1716) and the Kaigetsudo group (a strange fellowship of artists whose existence remains unclear), as well as Okumura Masanobu (1686–1764).

Transitional artists who produced benizuri-e prints were Ishikawa Toyonobu (1711–1785), Torii Kiyohiro (active c. 1751–1760), and Torii Kiyomitsu (1735–1785).

The works of Suzuki Harunobu (1725–1770) ushered in the era of polychrome engraving. Filled with soft, almost neutral colors, populated by graceful ladies and gallant lovers, Harunobu's prints were a great success. Katsukawa Shunsho (1726–1792), Torii Kienaga (1752–1815), and Kitagawa Utamaro (1753–1806) worked with him around the same time. Each of them contributed to the development of this genre; masters brought engravings depicting graceful beauties and famous actors to perfection. Over the course of a few months in 1794–1795, the mysterious Tosusai Saraku created stunningly powerful and frankly brutal portraits of actors of the day.

In the first decades of the 19th century. the genre had reached maturity and was beginning to decline. Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849) and Ando Hiroshige (1797–1858) are the greatest masters of the era, whose work connects the decline of the art of engraving in the 19th century. and its new revival at the beginning of the 20th century. Both were primarily landscape painters who recorded the events of modern life in their engravings. The brilliant mastery of the technique of carvers and printers made it possible to convey in engraving whimsical lines and the slightest shades of the setting sun or the fog rising at dawn.

Meiji Restoration and modern period.

It often happens that the ancient art of a particular people is poor in names, dates and surviving works, so any judgments can be made only with great caution and conditionality. However, it is no less difficult to judge contemporary art, since we are deprived of a historical perspective to correctly assess the scale of any movement or artist and his work. The study of Japanese art is no exception, and the most that can be done is to present a panorama of contemporary art and draw some tentative preliminary conclusions.

In the second half of the 19th century. Japanese ports were reopened for trade, and major changes took place on the political scene. In 1868, the shogunate was abolished and the rule of Emperor Meiji was restored. The official capital and residence of the emperor were moved to Edo, and the city itself became known as Tokyo (the eastern capital).

As had happened in the past, the end of national isolation generated great interest in the achievements of other nations. At this time, the Japanese made a huge leap in the field of science and technology. Artistically, the beginning of the Meiji era (1868–1912) demonstrates the acceptance of everything Western, including technology. However, this zeal did not last long, and it was followed by a period of assimilation, the emergence of new forms that combined a return to their own traditions and new Western trends.

Notable artists included Kano Hogai (1828–1888), Shimomura Kanzan (1873–1916), Takeuchi Seiho (1864–1924), and Tomioka Tessai (1836–1942). The first three adhered to traditional Japanese style and subject matter, although they strived to be original in mood and technique. Seiho, for example, worked in the calm and conservative atmosphere of Kyoto. His early works were created in the naturalistic Maruyama style, but later he traveled extensively in China and was deeply influenced by Chinese ink painting. His trips to museums and leading art centers in Europe also left a mark on his work. Of all the outstanding artists of this time, only one Tomioka Tessai came close to developing a new style. His energetic and powerful works combine rough, twisted, jagged lines and smudges of black ink with finely rendered areas of color. In later years, some young oil painters succeeded where their grandfathers had failed. The first attempts to work with this unusual material were reminiscent of Parisian canvases and were not distinguished by either special value or specifically Japanese features. However, works of exceptional appeal are now being created in which the characteristic Japanese sense of color and poise shines through abstract themes. Other artists, working with more natural and traditional ink and sometimes using calligraphy as an initial motif, create energetic abstract works in brilliant blacks with shades of gray.

As in the Edo period, in the 19th and 20th centuries. the sculpture was not popular. But even in this area, representatives of the modern generation, who studied in America and Europe, experimented very successfully. The small bronze sculptures, abstract in form and with strange names, show the Japanese sense of line and color, evident in the use of soft green or warm brown patinas; Wood carving testifies to the Japanese love for the texture of the material.

Sosaku hanga, the Japanese "creative print", appeared only in the first decade of the 20th century, but as a special art movement it eclipsed all other areas of modern art. This modern woodblock print is not, strictly speaking, a successor to the older ukiyo-e woodblock print; they differ in style, subjects and methods of creation. Artists, many of whom were heavily influenced by Western painting, recognized the importance of their own artistic heritage and found in wood a suitable material for expressing their creative ideals. Hanga masters not only draw, but also carve images on wooden blocks and print them themselves. Although the highest achievements in this art form are associated with woodwork, all modern Western engraving techniques are used. Experimenting with leaves, string and “found objects” can in some cases create unique surface texture effects. At first, the masters of this movement were forced to seek recognition: after all, even the best achievements of the ukiyo-e school were associated by intellectual artists with the illiterate crowd and considered plebeian art. Artists such as Onchi Koshiro, Hiratsuka Unichi, and Maekawa Senpan did much to restore respect for printmaking and establish it as a worthy branch of the fine arts. They attracted many young artists to their group, and the engravers now number in the hundreds. Among the masters of this generation who achieved recognition in Japan and the West are Azechi Umetaro, Munakata Shiko, Yamaguchi Gen and Saito Kiyoshi. These are masters whose innovation and undeniable talent have earned them their rightful position among Japan's leading artists. Many of their peers and other younger hanga artists also produced wonderful prints; The fact that we do not mention their names here does not mean a low assessment of their work.

DECORATIVE ARTS, ARCHITECTURE AND GARDENS

The previous sections dealt primarily with painting and sculpture, which in most countries are considered the main types of fine art. It may be unfair to include at the end of the article decorative arts and folk crafts, garden art and architecture - forms that formed an important and integral part of Japanese art. However, with the possible exception of architecture, they require special consideration outside of the general periodization of Japanese art and changes in style.

Ceramics and porcelain.

The most important arts and crafts in Japan include ceramics and porcelain. Ceramic art naturally falls into two categories. The fine polychrome Imari, Nabeshima and Kakiemon porcelain took its name from the places of production, and its rich painting on a cream or bluish-white surface was intended for the nobility and court circles. The process of making true porcelain became known in Japan in the late 16th or early 17th century; plates and bowls with a smooth glaze, with an asymmetrical or brocade-like pattern, are prized both at home and in the West.

Unlike porcelain, in coarse dishes made of clay or stone mass of low quality, characteristic of Shino, Oribe and Bizen, attention is focused on the material, the seemingly careless, but thoughtful arrangement of decorative elements. Influenced by the concepts of Zen Buddhism, such vessels were very popular in intellectual circles and were widely used, especially in tea ceremonies. Many cups, teapots and teapots, attributes of the art of the tea ceremony, embodied the very essence of Zen Buddhism: strict self-discipline and strict simplicity. During the heyday of Japanese decorative art, talented artists Korin and Kenzan were engaged in the decoration of ceramic products. It should be remembered that Kenzan's fame is associated more with his talent as a ceramist rather than as a painter. Some of the simplest vessel types and techniques come from folk craft traditions. Modern workshops, continuing old traditions, produce beautiful products that delight with their elegant simplicity.

Lacquer products.

Already in the 7th–8th centuries. varnish was famous in Japan. From this time, the lids of the boxes have been preserved, decorated with images of people and geometric motifs applied with thin gold lines. We have already talked about the importance of the dry varnish technique for sculpture in the 8th and 9th centuries; at the same time and later, decorative objects such as boxes for letters or boxes for incense were made. During the Edo period, these products were made in large quantities and with the most luxurious decoration. Luxuriously decorated boxes for lunch, cakes, incense and medicine, called inro, reflected the wealth and love of luxury inherent in this time. The surface of objects was decorated with patterns of gold and silver powder, pieces of gold foil, separately or in combination with inlays with shells, mother-of-pearl, an alloy of tin and lead, etc.; these patterns contrasted with lacquered red, black or brown surfaces. Sometimes drawings for varnishes were made by artists, for example Korin and Koetsu, but it is unlikely that they personally participated in these works.

Swords.

The Japanese, as has already been said, were for a considerable period of their history a people of warriors; weapons and armor were considered necessities for a large part of the population. The sword was a man's pride; both the blade itself and all other parts of the sword, especially the handle (tsuba), were decorated using various techniques. Tsuba made of iron or bronze were decorated with inlays of gold and silver, covered with carvings, or trimmed with both. They depicted landscapes or human figures, flowers or family coats of arms (mon). All this complemented the work of sword makers.

Fabrics.

The richly patterned silks and other fabrics favored by the court and clergy in times of opulence and abundance, as well as the simple fabrics with the almost primitive designs characteristic of folk art, are also expressions of the national Japanese talent. Having reached its peak during the opulent Genroku era, the art of textiles has flourished again in modern Japan. It successfully combines ideas and artificial fibers from the West with traditional colors and decorative motifs.

Gardens.

In recent decades, interest in Japanese gardens and architecture has increased due to the Western public's increased exposure to these art forms. Gardens have a special place in Japan; they are the expression and symbol of high religious and philosophical truths, and these obscure, symbolic overtones, combined with the obvious beauty of the gardens, attract the interest of the Western world. It cannot be said that religious or philosophical ideas were the main reason for the creation of gardens, but when planning and creating a garden, the artist-planner considered such elements, the contemplation of which would lead the viewer to think about various philosophical truths. Here the contemplative aspect of Zen Buddhism is embodied in a group of unusual stones, waves of raked sand and gravel combined with turf, or plants arranged so that a stream behind them disappears and reappears, all of which encourage the viewer to complete the construction's intentions. garden ideas. The preference for vague hints over clear explanations is characteristic of Zen philosophy. A continuation of these ideas are dwarf bonsai trees and tiny gardens in pots, now popular in the West.

Architecture.

The main architectural monuments of Japan are temples, monastery complexes, feudal castles and palaces. From ancient times to this day, wood has been the main building material and largely determines the design features. The oldest religious buildings are the shrines of the national Japanese religion Shinto; judging by the texts and drawings, they were relatively simple structures with a thatched roof, like ancient dwellings. Temple buildings erected after the spread of Buddhism and associated with it were based on Chinese prototypes in style and layout. Buddhist temple architecture varied over time, and the decoration and arrangement of buildings varied among different sects. Japanese buildings are distinguished by vast halls with high roofs and complex systems of consoles, and their decor reflected the taste of their time. The simple and majestic architecture of the Horyuji complex, built near Nara in the early 7th century, is as characteristic of the Asuka period as the beauty and elegance of the proportions of Hoodo, the “Phoenix Hall” at Uji, reflected in the Lotus Lake, is of the Heian period. The more elaborate buildings of the Edo period acquired additional decoration in the form of richly painted sliding doors and screens made by the same "great decorators" who decorated the interiors of moated castles and feudal palaces.

The architecture and gardens of Japan are so closely connected that they can be considered parts of each other. This is especially true for buildings and garden houses for the tea ceremony. Their openness, simplicity, and careful relationship with landscape and perspective have a major influence on modern Western architecture.

THE INFLUENCE OF JAPANESE ART ON THE WEST

Within just one century, the art of Japan became known in the West and had a significant influence on it. There were earlier contacts (for example, the Dutch traded with Japan through the port of Nagasaki), but the objects that reached Europe in the 17th century were mainly works of applied art - porcelain and lacquerware. They were eagerly collected as curiosities and copied in various ways, but these decorative exports did not reflect the essence and quality of Japanese art and even gave the Japanese an unflattering idea of ​​Western taste.

The first time Western painting was directly influenced by Japanese art in Europe was in 1862 during the huge International Exhibition in London. When presented at the Paris Exhibition five years later, Japanese woodblock prints again aroused great interest. Several private collections of engravings immediately emerged. Degas, Manet, Monet, Gauguin, Van Gogh and others perceived Japanese color prints as a revelation; The slight but always recognizable influence of Japanese prints on the Impressionists is often noted. The Americans Whistler and Mary Cassatt were attracted by the restraint of line and bright color spots of ukiyo-e prints and paintings.

The opening of Japan to foreigners in 1868 created a craze for all things Western and caused the Japanese to turn away from their own rich culture and artistic heritage. At this time, many beautiful paintings and sculptures were sold and ended up in Western museums and private collections. Exhibitions of these objects introduced the West to Japan and stimulated interest in travel to the Far East. Of course, the occupation of Japan by American troops at the end of World War II opened up greater opportunities than before for exploring and learning more about Japanese temples and their treasures. This interest was reflected in attendance at American museums. Interest in the East in general aroused the organization of exhibitions of works of Japanese art, selected from Japanese public and private collections and brought to America and Europe.

Scientific research in recent decades has done much to refute the notion that Japanese art is merely a reflection of Chinese art, and numerous Japanese publications in English have introduced the West to the ideals of the East.