The accession of Ivan 4. The reign of Ivan the Terrible began. The Fall of the "Chosen One" War with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

In December 1533, Vasily III died, and his successor on the throne was his young son Ivan (1533-1584), under whom a regency (guardianship) council was created consisting of Prince Andrei Ivanovich Staritsky and the most influential members of the Boyar Duma - Princes Vasily and Ivan Shuisky, Mikhail Glinsky and the boyars Mikhail Yuryev, Mikhail Tuchkov and Mikhail Vorontsov. However, the “Seven Boyars” ruled the country for only a few months, after which state power passed into the hands of Elena Glinskaya and her favorite, Prince Ivan Fedorovich Obukha-Telepnev-Obolensky. But in April 1538, under rather mysterious circumstances, the Grand Duchess dies, and the most acute struggle of boyar clans for power begins at the throne (1538-1547), in which the princes Shuisky, Glinsky and Belsky took an active part.

2. Beginning of the reign of Ivan the Terrible

In January 1547, Ivan IV was solemnly crowned king in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, which had enormous political significance, since the new title disproportionately elevated the royal power over the patrimonial boyar-princely aristocracy within the country and put the Russian monarch on a par with the Tatar khans, who were revered as kings in Rus'. And in February 1547, the young tsar married the young beauty Anastasia Romanovna Yuryeva.

Rice. 3. Order from the time of John IV Vasilyevich ()

In June 1547, a terrible fire occurred in Moscow, as a result of which over 2,000 Muscovites died and almost 80,000 were left homeless. The Glinsky princes were blamed for this tragedy, in particular the Tsar's grandmother, Princess Anna, who were removed from power and were replaced by a new boyar clan - relatives of Queen Anastasia, the boyars Zakharyin-Yuryev and Vorontsov.

3. Reforms of the Elected Rada (1550-1560)

In February 1549, at a representative meeting in the Faceted Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, which historical science(L. Cherepnin, N. Nosov) is considered to be the first Zemsky Sobor, Ivan IV came up with an extensive program of government reforms. To implement it, a new government was created, called the Elected Rada (1550-1560), which included Alexei Fedorovich Adashev, Ivan Mikhailovich Viskovaty, Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbsky and the tsar’s confessor, Archpriest Sylvester. Metropolitan Macarius (1542-1563) also had a great influence on the activities of the Elected Rada.

The Government of the Elected Rada held whole line significant reforms, which can be divided into the following groups:

1. The reform of the central government was realized:

a) in the adoption of the new Code of Law of 1550;

b) in holding the Hundred-Glavy Council of the Russian Orthodox Church (1551), at which the unification of all church services and rituals took place, and a decision was made to limit the tax (tarkhan) privileges of the Russian Orthodox Church and monastic land ownership;

c) in the reform of the “sovereign court” and the creation of a “palace notebook” and a “sovereign genealogy”, on the basis of which appointments to all the most important administrative, military and diplomatic posts began to be made;

d) in creation in 1551-1555. a new system of central government bodies - orders, the basis of which was the sectoral or territorial principle of management: the Ambassadorial order was in charge of external relations, the Discharge - the appointment of governors to the troops and the collection of local militia, the Local - the distribution and confiscation of estates, the Robber and Zemsky - the protection of public order , Streletsky was in charge of the Streltsy army, Kazansky ruled the territory of the Kazan Khanate, etc.

2. Tax reform (1551-1556), as a result of which a unit of taxation common to all classes was established - the plow, that is, a measure of land area.

3. Military reform, which was carried out in two stages. At the first stage (1550), it touched upon the institution of localism, which was limited during military campaigns, and the subordination of all governors to the first governor of the Great Regiment was established. The second stage of military reform was carried out in 1556, when the government adopted the “Code of Service”, according to which all landowners were obliged to go to the sovereign’s military service “on horseback, in force and in arms.”

It must be said that in Russian historical science, representatives of the so-called state school (S. Solovyov, K. Kavelin, B. Chicherin) considered the “Code of Service” as the first stage of the enslavement of the noble class, which would then be followed by the enslavement of all other classes. But this theory of “enslavement of the estates” was completely rejected in Soviet historical science and focused only on the enslavement of the peasantry and the settlement, which would occur at the end of the 16th century.

4. Reform of local government (1556), which, in development of the provincial reform (1539), completely eliminated the institution of governors and volosts and established that the heads of local administrations were city clerks and provincial elders and kissers, who were elected from among local servants people (landowners) and black-sown peasants.

4. Foreign policy in the 1540-1550s.

In the middle of the 16th century. The main directions of Russian foreign policy were:

1) Eastern, that is, relations with the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates and the Nogai Horde;

2) Southern, that is, relations with the Ottoman Empire and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate;

3) Western, that is, relations with Russia’s closest European neighbors - Poland, Lithuania, Livonia and Sweden.

In the middle of the 16th century. The main direction of Russian foreign policy is the eastern direction. After the defeat of the “pro-Moscow party” (Shah-Ali, Jan-Ali) in the struggle for power and the victory of the “pro-Crimean party” (Sahib-Girey, Safa-Girey, Yadigir-Magomed) of the Kazan nobility in Moscow, a decision was made to finally solve this problem, and in June 1552, a Russian army of thousands under the command of Tsar Ivan and the governors of princes A. Gorbaty-Shuisky, A. Kurbsky and I. Vorotynsky went on a campaign. In August 1552, the Russian army crossed the Volga and began the siege of Kazan, which ended with the assault and capture of the khan’s capital on October 2, 1552.

In 1556, without resorting to large-scale hostilities, Russia annexed the Astrakhan Khanate, and in 1557 the Nogai Horde and Bashkiria recognized vassal dependence on Moscow. Thus, on the eastern borders of Russia there was only one serious enemy left - the Siberian Khanate, where, after another palace coup, Khan Kuchum came to power.

After the successful solution of the eastern problem, a struggle broke out within the government about which direction - western or southern - to give preference to. Ivan the Terrible insisted on the first option, and Alexey Adashev on the second. In the end, a decision was made to start the Livonian War (1558-1583), the first stage of which ended with the defeat and liquidation of the Livonian Order (1561).

5. The Fall of the Chosen One

In 1560, the government of the Chosen Rada fell. Historians have different assessments of this event. Some (V. Korolyuk, K. Bazilevich, A. Kuzmin) believe that the reason for the fall of A. Adashev was his disagreements with the tsar on foreign policy issues. Others (V. Kobrin, A. Yurganov) believe that main reason There were disagreements over the pace of reforms. Still others (R. Skrynnikov) see the reasons for the fall of the Chosen Rada in the struggle of boyar groups for power, in particular in the intrigues of the Zakharyins-Yuryevs, who accused A. Adashev of poisoning Queen Anastasia, who died in 1560.

Bibliography

1. Zimin A. A. Reforms of Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1960

2. Kobrin V. B. Power and property in medieval Russia. - M., 1985

3. Leontiev A.K. Formation of the order management system in the Moscow State. - M., 1961

4. Korolyuk A. S. Livonian War. - M., 1954

5. Kuzmin A. G. History of Russia from ancient times to 1618 - M., 2003

6. Nosov N. E. Formation of class-representative institutions in Russia. - L., 1969

7. Smirnov I. I. Essays on the political history of the Russian state of the 30-50s. XVI century - M., 1958

8. Froyanov I. Ya. Drama of Russian history: on the path to the oprichnina. - M., 2007

9. Cherepnin L.V. Zemsky Sobors of the Russian State in the XVI-XVII centuries. - M., 1978

10. Shmidt S. O. Formation of the Russian autocracy. - M., 1973

The reign of Ivan the Terrible is the embodiment of Russia in the 16th century. This is the time when one centralized state is formed from disparate territories. Ivan the Terrible personally had a hand in the formation of a new form of autocratic rule in Muscovite Rus'; he considered it the only true one for the Russian state. He managed to do this. But on the other hand, it is controversial in historical science.

Many historians of pre-revolutionary, Soviet and modern historiography argued how useful the activities of Ivan the Terrible were for Russia. What were more positive or negative aspects on the board? And what is the role of Ivan IV in the further development of Russia. Some consider him a saint, others say that Ivan the Terrible became disastrous for Muscovite Rus'.

The reign of Elena Glinskaya under Ivan the Terrible

Ivan was his father's desired son. For the sake of his birth, he divorced his first wife. Divorce was generally unacceptable at that time; religion denied it. Soon Vasily married Elena Glinskaya, she was the daughter of a Lithuanian prince. They say that the sovereign even removed his beard to please his future wife, which also does not fit into the morals of that time. It was in this marriage that the heir to the throne appeared; he was born in August 1530. After the death of Vasily III, Elena found the right moment to take power. The boyars, who were supposed to rule under the young tsar, were removed. Thus, Elena became in fact the second female ruler, the first being Princess Olga.

Her popularity in Moscow and the state as a whole was not high. Rather, many people disliked her. An arrogant and cruel woman with a Lithuanian upbringing did not evoke pleasant feelings in anyone. In addition, she sometimes behaved recklessly, not hiding her relationship with one of the boyars. But still, her reign was remembered by many. The main thing is because a monetary reform was carried out. After its expiration, there was only one coin in Russia - the penny, and it was also backed by silver. This was a big step in the development of the economy of Moscow Rus'. But in 1538 the princess died unexpectedly.

Scientists examined Elena's remains, they showed that there was a lot of mercury in her hair, most likely she was poisoned. At the age of three, the little one became the formal ruler of the state. But near his throne, the interests of many boyar families constantly clashed, who tried to take power into their own hands.

Ivan the Terrible and the beginning of his reign

Ivan the Terrible was a descendant of several glorious dynasties at once - both the Paleologians on his father’s side and the Crimean khans on his mother’s side. He was very proud of his family's background. And almost always at receptions with international ambassadors he said that he was not a purebred Russian.

The king's childhood was difficult. First, in 1533, his father died. Then in 1538 his mother Elena Glinskaya. The boyars did not hesitate to behave boorishly in front of the youngest Ivan. The already adult Terrible Tsar still remembered with childish resentment that this was unpleasant for the sovereign. For example, he was very offended by the behavior of Prince Ivan Shuisky, when he sat leaning on the bed of Vasily III and did not show respect to Ivan himself. He also saw the showdown with Fedor Vorontsov. Before his eyes, the boyar was beaten, then taken out into the street, and there he was killed. Thus, his character was strongly influenced by his difficult childhood.

It is believed that the boy was naturally impressionable. Left an orphan at a very young age, he saw all the reprisals of the boyars against each other. Constant fights in the Duma, when even the Metropolitan was not spared, the clergy’s clothes were torn, and then he was sent into exile. And this is only a small part of the atrocities that the young king had to observe. Of course, this left an imprint on his entire subsequent reign.

So the Grand Duke, one might say, received his first lessons in court politics. But he had no restrictions on entertainment. In the company of their teenage friends, they could race on horses, knocking down everyone who was on the road. At the same time, without experiencing any remorse. And at receptions in the Kremlin he loved to joke; he once set fire to one boyar’s beard while he was reading his petition.

Rule within the state of Ivan the Terrible

In February 1547, the Glinsky maternal relatives organized. It took place in the Kremlin, and was conducted by Metropolitan Macarius. But even after this action, the king’s reign was not independent. Many historians say that even after reaching adulthood, the boyars had a strong influence on decision-making.

In the summer of the same 1547, an uprising broke out in Moscow. It happened after a terrible fire. As a result, Ivan's uncle Yuri Glinsky was killed. He himself found himself face to face for the first time in front of his people, who were raging in front of the Kremlin. The rebels demanded that the tsar give them traitor boyars to deal with. This was a great challenge for Ivan.

After the uprising, other boyars came to power.

1. Alexey Adashev;
2. Andrey Kurbsky;
3. Metropolitan Macarius;
4. Sylvester;
5. clerk Viskovaty.

These are future members of the Elected Rada. It is interesting that the Elected Rada had strong power, and it was they who put an end to the struggle of court factions for power. We also carried out a number of useful reforms for the state.

Reforms of Ivan the Terrible:

• Introduction of free education;
• Creation of the Zemsky Sobor;
• creation of the Streletsky army;
• convening of the Stoglavy Council.

This is only part of the great reforms with the participation of the Elected Rada.

Next to the central core power, new elected bodies appeared in the center and locally. Mid-16th century This is a period of economic growth of the Moscow state. About 40 new cities appeared, Russia began to make its way onto the world stage.

Russian foreign policy under Ivan the Terrible

Ivan IV became the first. It was under him that Russia began to turn into an empire. During his reign, the state began to include a number of territories that had not previously belonged to the Russians. This is the time for Russia to enter. And the king is involved in all this.

After three campaigns that took place in 1547-1552. annexed the Kazan Khanate, and in 1554-1556. The Astrakhan Khanate was also annexed. This is how the Volga River began to flow entirely within Russia. It is believed that after the annexation of these particular territories, the people began to respect Ivan IV and began to consider him a truly real Russian Tsar.

In 1553, trade and economic relations with England were established. For the first time, Russia began to make its way into Europe. However, this state of affairs did not suit Sweden. The Livonian War would soon begin in 1558. The first years of the war were successful for Russia. Our troops defeated the Livonian Order and received the first port on the Baltic - Narva. By that time he began to rule independently. The role of the Elected Rada was declining, and the tsar did not consider it necessary to discuss his decisions with this body. They had differences, primarily in their views on the continuation of the Livonian War and in general. In addition, Queen Anastasia died, Ivan considered some members of the Elected Rada to be involved in her death. Yes, the age was suitable for absolute sole rule - he was already almost 30 years old.

The Livonian War lasted until 1583. The country found itself in a catastrophic situation, and the king was forced to sign peace treaties. Poland and Sweden received a number of cities and lands under the Yam-Zapolsky and Plyussky truces. And Muscovite Rus' was left without access to the Baltic Sea and in a terrible state within the state.

Reign of Ivan IV during the oprichnina

The reign of the first tsar was a time of shock for Muscovite Rus'. led the country into economic and social chaos. This is an internal shock when the state actually split into two parts. This is a time of war between several social groups of society - in fact, a state of civil war. The number of taxes collected from the population increased fourfold. This is a huge amount, which led many families into decline and ruin.

The name of Ivan IV is associated with fundamental changes in the system of public administration, which were both constructive, progressive, and regressive in nature. These processes are visible in different periods of his reign, which makes it possible to identify and characterize them.

1533 - 1547 - the first period - childhood and adolescence - within which the rule took place with the participation regency council , created on the initiative of Elena Glinskaya (a council of guardians, which included representatives of noble boyar families, which operated until the tsar came of age).

The selected period took place against the backdrop of fierce hostility between the boyar families - the Belskys, Shuiskys, Obolenskys, Buturlins, Zakharyins, Penkovs, Kubenskys, Barbashins, Mikulskys, Vorontsovs, Morozovs, Glinskys - for the possession of the Moscow throne, which created an unfavorable atmosphere in terms of the personal formation of Ivan IV.

1547 - 1565 - an independent period of rule, marked by constructive reforms of Ivan IV and the “Chosen Rada” government he created.

The main events of this time included:

1547 - the crowning of Ivan IV, which was seen as an act of legal (legitimate) accession and official assignment of the title "Tsar and Grand Duke of All Rus'" on the one hand, and the involvement of the church in terms of justifying state power (from the position of the “Osifites” - “the king is God’s vicegerent on earth”), on the other. The same time was marked by the creation of the “Chosen Rada” - a circle of close friends, which included A. M. Kurbsky, M. I. Vorotynsky, I. A. Viskovaty, A. Adashev, clergyman Sylvester, Metropolitan Macarius. The circle was assigned a legislative mission;

1549 - marked by the holding of the first Zemsky Sobor (Cathedral of Reconciliation) and the creation estate-representative monarchy (representatives of privileged classes - boyars, nobility, clergy);

1550 - associated with an appeal to To the Code of Law - a set of laws of state life (a revised version of the Code of Laws of Ivan III), which reflected steps to create a vertical power structure;

1551 - creation Stoglava- a set of canons of intra-church life;

1552 - organization of the system Orders - the prototype of the executive power in the country (Posolsky, Petition, Razryadny, Streletsky, etc.). It is noteworthy that individual Orders appeared under Ivan III, but during the reign of Ivan IV, the formation of executive power began to be systemic.

In fact, every year was marked by an internal state event aimed at strengthening the vertical of state power.

In the second half of the 1550s. happened:

Abolition of the system of localism and feeding (in connection with changes in Ivan IV’s views on the boyar environment), compilation of the “List of the Tsar’s Court,” which included a selected thousand children of noble boyar families;

Introduction of a unified taxation system - plow (share system) and the introduction of a single monetary unit - Moscow ruble, Novgorod kopeck - for the purpose of controlled formation and replenishment of the state treasury and as a sign of memory of his mother Elena Glinskaya, who began the monetary reform;

Introduction of a “local land use system” - instead of patrimonial ( in the central part of Russia ), which led to Ivan IV’s final break with the boyars.

Thus, the vertical of power created during this period, was represented by the following political institutions:

1. Tsar and Grand Duke of All Rus';

2. The elected council, which developed the main reforms;

3. Zemsky Sobor (estate-representative monarchy);

4. Orders;

5. Zemstvos - lips and districts - local government bodies.

This model of administrative hierarchy allows us to conclude that at this stage of the reign of Ivan IV, the idea of ​​separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial was introduced (especially since in Western Europe it received conceptual design in the works of the French thinker S. L. Montesquieu) , which anticipated the possible path of development of Russia in the direction of building a constitutional monarchy.

It is in these internal transformations, very organic both for the state apparatus of that time and for Russian society, that the constructive principle of the reign of Ivan IV is seen.

Foreign policy during the selected period was aimed at annexing the territories captured by the assimilated Tatar-Mongols (Kazan Khanate, Astrakhan Khanate, Siberian Khanate, Crimean Khanate), in particular:

in 1552 - Kazan was captured;

in 1556 - Astrakhan was annexed;

1558 - associated with the beginning of the Livonian War for possession of the coast Baltic Sea, the territory of which was almost completely captured by the Streltsy army of Ivan IV. It should be especially emphasized that by the time of Ivan IV, the princely squad, representing a large army, was a morally outdated form of strengthening the state by force. It was necessary to introduce a new model, on a fundamentally different basis (entirely on state subsidies). In this regard, the Streletsky army was created, in which they served "by fatherland" (noble children who received a salary and estate land), and "by instrument" (streltsy who received land for collective use). It was with this army that Ivan IV carried out victorious campaigns, expanding the territorial borders of Russia.

Cultural life developed in the aspect of “inheritance and renewal.” Following spiritual religious traditions was visible in architecture and painting (the construction of churches continued - the Church of the Ascension, cathedrals - St. Basil's Cathedral, in which architects, builders, and painters were involved). However, fundamentally new forms appeared that enriched Russian culture. In particular, the breakthrough was book printing, which developed in 1553, and in 1564 the first dated printed book by Ivan Fedorov, “The Apostle,” was published, ten years later a Russian primer was created. It is known that, possessing the gift of abstract thinking, endowed with musical talent, owning artistic words, Ivan IV himself composed hymns and composed canons.

The foreign policy line of Ivan IV, consistently aimed at expanding the territorial borders of the Russian state, was also a reflection of internal political transformations that were rational and constructive in nature.

Hypothetically, if Russia had continued to develop along this path, then the position of a constitutional monarchy would have been strengthened in its state structure already in the 16th century.

However, this progressive path of development was interrupted by Ivan IV himself. In this regard, special mention should be made of the period 1565 - 1572, went down in history as oprichnina. It was there that constructive initiatives were curtailed and a course was taken towards the absolutization of power: personal motivation came to the fore in the implementation of government.

The reasons for Ivan IV the Terrible’s break with the boyars include:

1. The desire to concentrate power in one’s own hands;

2. To this end, he needed to bring the politically and economically powerful class of boyars (who became an economically powerful class thanks to the richest lands that were privately owned and generated income) beyond the limits of political influence;

3. To achieve this, Ivan the Terrible came up with a proposal to introduce a universal system of land ownership, which involved the establishment of state control over state land ( besides ), distribution of land plots for rent in order to replenish the state treasury;

4. The boyars were offered distant lands ( zemshchina) ;

5. The disagreement of the boyars led to the demonstrative abandonment of the throne by Ivan the Terrible, and most importantly, to the continuation of the Livonian War, in which the boyars saw an opportunity to compensate for the lost patrimonial lands.

Based on the above reasons, it is legal to give definitions of oprichnina:

· Oprich - state land;

· The policy of ousting the boyars from their patrimonial lands and annexing them to the state;

· A form of mass repression and terror established against the boyar opposition;

· A form of genocide established against one’s own people through the creation of an oprichnina army (and in fact, a small punitive squad, which recruited people loyal to the king; Quite odious figures appeared in the circle of Ivan IV the Terrible himself - Malyuta Skuratov, the Basmanov brothers).

This form allowed as soon as possible eliminate all political opposition and rule the state solely.

The consequences of the oprichnina were sharply negative for the entire population: the strengthening of the absolute monarchy in its harshest form - terror and mass repression, actually reflecting genocide against its own people. However, one can also see a positive moment for the state: state control was established over all the land.

1572 - 1584 - last period of reign Ivan IV the Terrible, which outlines steps to stabilize domestic life, in particular:

in 1581 - “reserved summers” were introduced: “St. George’s Day” was abolished - a measure aimed at strictly attaching peasants to their owners due to “disorder and vacillation” among the masses after the oprichnina.

In addition, in 1583, the Livonian War ended, in which Russia lost (in fact, from the beginning of the oprichnina, the attention of Ivan IV was switched to resolving internal issues, and the Livonian War was sluggish in nature). In 1582, Ivan IV the Terrible, having signed a truce with Livonia, ceded all his conquests in Livonia and Lithuania; and in 1583, having made peace with Sweden, he ceded to her his lands along the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland.

We especially note that in 1582 - 1584. - the first campaigns of Ermak to Siberia were organized, with whose name the beginning of the development of Siberian lands is associated;

in 1584 - the largest sea trading port was founded in Arkhangelsk.

After the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible, his middle son ascended the throne - 1584 - 1598 - reign of Fyodor Ioannovich, which has rightly been described as “Fyodor reigned - Boris ruled.”

The main events of this period of reign may include:

The removal of Maria Nagoya and Tsarevich Dmitry (the last son of Ivan IV the Terrible) to Uglich and the exile of boyar Bogdan Belsky, which contributed to a further escalation of tensions in relations between Uglich and Moscow, and an intensification of the struggle of political forces concentrated locally;

1586 - 1589. - establishment of the institution of patriarchy in Russia;

1595- with the direct participation of Boris Godunov, the lands of the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland (which were ceded to Sweden as a result of the Livonian War) were returned to Moscow;

1597- “prescribed summer” - a five-year search for peasants, after which the person who fled was considered free.

Thus, the reign of Ivan the Terrible was associated with controversial processes. On the one hand, positive steps were taken towards the development of a constitutional monarchy (pre-oprichine stage), on the other - a clearly expressed absolutization of power in its most severe form of genocide against its own people. It was this form that led the state to the Great Troubles - popular protest against the arbitrariness of state power.

Literature:

1. Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian State: XII volumes in 4 books. / N. M. Karamzin. - M., 1998.

2. Klyuchevsky V. O. Selected lectures of the “Course of Russian History” / V. O. Klyuchevsky. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2002. - 672 p.

3. Platonov S.F. Complete course of lectures on Russian history / S.F. Platonov. - St. Petersburg: Crystal, 2000. - 839 p.

4. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century: Textbook. manual for universities / A. P. Novoseltsev, A. N. Sakharov, V. I. Buganov, V. D. Nazarov. - M.: AST, 2000. - 575 p.

5. Skrynnikov R. G. Ivan the Terrible and his time / R. G. Skrynnikov. - M., 1991.

6. History of Russia. Textbook / ed. A. S. Orlova, N. A. Georgieva. - M.: Prospekt, 2002. - 544 p.

Ivan IV Vasilievich , nicknamed Grozny , by direct name Titus and Smaragd, tonsured - Jonah

Sovereign, Grand Duke of Moscow and All Rus' since 1533, first Tsar of All Rus' (since 1547; except 1575-1576)

short biography

The nickname of John IV Vasilyevich, Grand Duke of Moscow and All Rus' (since 1533), the first Russian Tsar, who ruled from 1547 for 50 years 105 days - among all those who have ever headed the Russian state, this is a record. Ivan the Terrible was the son of the Grand Duke of Moscow and All Rus' Vasily III, a descendant of the Rurik dynasty. His mother, Princess Elena Glinskaya, belonged to the most ancient family, originating from Mamai.

Ivan Vasilyevich was born near Moscow, in the village. Kolomenskoye on August 25, 1530. He became a ruler, however, so far only a nominal one, at the age of three and was under the supervision of a special guardian boyar commission created by his father, who foresaw his imminent death. However, the state was under the power of this council for less than a year, after which numerous upheavals occurred.

In 1545, fifteen-year-old Ivan, who had become an adult by the standards of that time, became a full-fledged ruler. The solemn ceremony of his coronation took place on January 16, 1547 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The 16-year-old sovereign himself initiated this ritual, but many historians believe that he made this decision not without the influence of others. In 1560 the king abolished Elected Rada and began to rule entirely independently.

The long years of Ivan the Terrible's reign were marked by a large number of various reforms and changes in the life of the state. For example, under him, zemstvo councils began to be created, a system of orders was formed, and the oprichnina was formed. The king fought his enemies, sometimes imaginary, with the most severe and merciless methods. He imposed a temporary ban on the traditional transfer of serfs to new owners on St. George’s Day.

In the field of foreign policy, the reign of Ivan the Terrible was marked by a large number of wars that went on almost without interruption. If at first the sovereign was lucky (in 1552 the Kazan Khanate was conquered, in 1556 - the Astrakhan Khanate), then the 25th Livonian War ended with huge losses for Russia. At the same time, Ivan the Terrible did a lot to develop trade and political relations with other states, in particular with England, Holland, the Bukhara Khanate, etc.

Ivan the Terrible has remained for centuries not only as a ruler, but also as a unique, controversial personality. From the position of that time, the king was an educated man. The well-known letters to Kurbsky speak of his outstanding literary abilities. It is possible that some literary monuments of that time, in particular, the chronicle collections, “Sovereign Discharge”, etc. were compiled not without the influence of the tsar. It is known that he did a lot for book printing, contributed to the development of architecture, initiating the construction of a number of buildings, in particular, St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow.

The sovereign's energy, determination, and foresight coexisted in his nature with doubts and spontaneous actions. The king had sadistic tendencies and a mania for persecution; his tough temper and fits of anger went down in history; one of these outbursts ended in 1582 with the murder of his own son. Shortly before his death, he accepted monasticism.

The biography of Ivan the Terrible came to an end on March 18, 1584. The Moscow Archangel Cathedral became his burial place. After the death of the sovereign, there was a lot of talk about the fact that she was violent. At the same time, it is known that in mature years he was not in excellent health and looked much older than his years. 6 years before the death of the king, his spine was in such poor condition that the sovereign was moved on a stretcher. It is not possible to reliably confirm or refute rumors of a murder; the death of Ivan the Terrible remains shrouded in mystery.

Biography from Wikipedia

Ivan IV Vasilievich, nicknamed the Terrible, also had the names Titus and Smaragd, tonsured - Jonah (August 25, 1530, the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow - March 18 (28), 1584, Moscow) - sovereign, Grand Duke of Moscow and All Rus' since 1533, the first king of all Rus' (since 1547; except 1575-1576, when Simeon Bekbulatovich was nominally the “Grand Duke of All Rus'”).

The eldest son of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily III and Elena Glinskaya. Nominally, Ivan became ruler at the age of 3. After the uprising in Moscow in 1547, he ruled with the participation of a circle of close associates - the “Chosen Rada”. Under him, the convening of Zemsky Sobors began, and the Code of Laws of 1550 was compiled. Reforms of the military service, judicial system and public administration were carried out, including the introduction of elements of self-government at the local level (provincial, zemstvo and other reforms). The Kazan and Astrakhan khanates were conquered, Western Siberia, the Don Army Region, Bashkiria, and the lands of the Nogai Horde were annexed. Thus, under Ivan IV, the increase in the territory of the Russian state was almost 100%, from 2.8 million km² to 5.4 million km²; by the end of his reign, Russia had become larger than the rest of Europe.

In 1560, the Elected Rada was abolished, its main figures fell into disgrace, and the Tsar’s completely independent reign in Russia began. The second half of the reign of Ivan the Terrible was marked by a streak of failures in the Livonian War and the establishment of the oprichnina, during which the country was devastated and the old clan aristocracy was dealt a blow and the positions of the local nobility were strengthened. Formally, Ivan IV ruled longer than any ruler who has ever headed the Russian state - 50 years and 105 days.

early years

On his father's side, Ivan came from the Moscow branch of the Rurik dynasty, on his mother's side - from Mamai, who was considered the ancestor of the Lithuanian princes Glinsky. Paternal grandmother, Sophia Palaeologus, is from the family of Byzantine emperors. Maternal grandmother Anna Jaksic is the daughter of the Serbian voivode Stefan Jaksic. Ivan became the first son of Grand Duke Vasily III from his second wife, after many years of childlessness. Born on August 25, he received the name Ivan in honor of St. John the Baptist, the day of the Beheading of whose head falls on August 29. He was baptized in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery by Abbot Joasaph (Skripitsyn); Two elders of the Joseph-Volotsk monastery were elected as successors - monk Cassian Bosoy and abbot Daniel.

Childhood of the Grand Duke

Tradition says that in honor of the birth of John, the Church of the Ascension was founded in Kolomenskoye. According to the right of succession to the throne established in Rus', the grand-ducal throne passed to the eldest son of the monarch, but Ivan (“direct name” by birthday - Titus) was only three years old when his father, Grand Duke Vasily III, became seriously ill. The closest contenders to the throne, except for the young Ivan , were Vasily’s younger brothers. Of the six sons of Ivan III, two remained - Prince Staritsky Andrei and Prince Dmitrovsky Yuri.

Anticipating his imminent death, Vasily III formed a “seven-strong” boyar commission to govern the state (it was to the guardian council under the young Grand Duke that the name “Seven Boyars” was first applied, more often in modern times associated exclusively with the oligarchic boyar government of the Time of Troubles in the period after the overthrow of Tsar Vasily Shuisky). The guardians were supposed to take care of Ivan until he reached the age of 15. The guardianship council included his uncle, Prince Andrei Staritsky (younger brother of his father - Vasily III), M. L. Glinsky (uncle of his mother - Grand Duchess Elena) and advisers: the Shuisky brothers (Vasily and Ivan), Mikhail Zakharyin, Mikhail Tuchkov, Mikhail Vorontsov. According to the Grand Duke’s plan, this should have preserved the order of government of the country by trusted people and reduced discord in the aristocratic Boyar Duma. The existence of the regency council is not recognized by all historians: thus, according to the historian A. A. Zimin, Vasily III transferred the management of state affairs to the Boyar Duma, and appointed M. L. Glinsky and D. F. Belsky as guardians of the heir. A.F. Chelyadnina was appointed mother for Ivan.

Vasily III died on December 3, 1533, and after 8 days the boyars got rid of the main contender for the throne - Prince Yuri of Dmitrov.

The Guardian Council ruled the country for less than a year, after which its power began to crumble. In August 1534, a number of changes took place in ruling circles. On August 3, Prince Semyon Belsky and the experienced military commander Ivan Vasilyevich Lyatsky left Serpukhov and went to serve to the Lithuanian prince. On August 5, one of the guardians of young Ivan, Mikhail Glinsky, was arrested and died in prison at the same time. Semyon Belsky's brother Ivan and Prince Ivan Vorotynsky and their children were captured for complicity with the defectors. In the same month, another member of the guardianship council, Mikhail Vorontsov, was also arrested. Analyzing the events of August 1534, the historian S. M. Solovyov concludes that “all this was a consequence of the general indignation of the nobles against Elena and her favorite Ivan Obolensky.”

Andrei Staritsky's attempt to seize power in 1537 ended in failure: locked in Novgorod from the front and rear, he was forced to surrender and ended his life in prison.

In April 1538, 30-year-old Elena Glinskaya died (according to one version, she was poisoned by the boyars), and six days later the boyars (princes Ivan and Vasily Vasily Shuisky with advisers) got rid of Obolensky. Metropolitan Daniel and clerk Fyodor Mischurin, staunch supporters centralized state and active figures in the government of Vasily III and Elena Glinskaya were immediately removed from government. Metropolitan Daniel was sent to the Joseph-Volotsk Monastery, and Mishchurina " the boyars executed... not loving the fact that he stood for the Grand Duke's cause».

According to the recollections of Ivan himself, “ Prince Vasily and Ivan Shuisky arbitrarily imposed themselves […] as guardians and thus reigned", the future Tsar with his brother Yuri " began to educate them as foreigners or the last poor people,” up to “deprivation of clothing and food».

In 1545, Ivan came of age at the age of 15, thus becoming a full ruler. One of the strongest impressions of the tsar in his youth was the “great fire” in Moscow, which destroyed over 25 thousand houses, and the Moscow uprising of 1547. After the murder of one of the Glinskys, a relative of the Tsar, the rebels came to the village of Vorobyovo, where the Grand Duke had taken refuge, and demanded the extradition of the remaining Glinskys. With great difficulty they managed to persuade the crowd to disperse, convincing them that there were no Glinskys in Vorobyov.

Royal wedding

Great sovereign title of Tsar John IV Vasilyevich at the end of his reign

Bzhїey mlⷭ҇tїyu, the great city of the Tsar and the great Kazakh Izhѡann Vasilyevich of all, Vladimir, Moscow, Ovogorodskaya, Tsar Kazan, Tsar Aistrakhan, Pskov, Great Kazan Smolensk, Tver, Yugorsk, ѧ́tskaya, Bulgarian and ҆цны́хъ, whereⷭ҇рь и҆ the Great Kazakh new town Nizovsk land, Chernigov, Rizan, Polotsk, Rostov, Roslav, Beloyezersk, U҆dorsk, ѻ҆bdorsk, cond And the ruler of all Siberian lands and northern countries, and where is the land of Bethlehem and other countries.

On December 13, 1546, Ivan Vasilyevich for the first time expressed to Metropolitan Macarius his intention to marry, and before that Macarius invited Ivan the Terrible to marry into the kingdom.

A number of historians (N.I. Kostomarov, R.G. Skrynnikov, V.B. Kobrin) believe that the initiative to accept the royal title could not have come from a 16-year-old boy. Most likely, Metropolitan Macarius played an important role in this. The consolidation of the king's power was also beneficial to his maternal relatives. V. O. Klyuchevsky adhered to the opposite point of view, emphasizing the sovereign’s early desire for power. In his opinion, “the tsar’s political thoughts were developed secretly from those around him,” the idea of ​​a wedding became a complete surprise for the boyars.

Casket-ark for storing the letter of confirmation of Ivan IV's reign. Artist F. G. Solntsev. Russia, F. Chopin's factory. 1853-48 Bronze, casting, gilding, silvering, embossing. State Historical Museum

The ancient “Greek kingdom” with its divinely crowned rulers has always been a model for Orthodox countries, but it fell under the blows of the infidels. Moscow, in the eyes of Orthodox Russian people, was to become the heir of Tsaryagrad-Constantinople. The triumph of autocracy also personified for Metropolitan Macarius the triumph of the Orthodox faith, so the interests of the royal and spiritual authorities were intertwined (Philofey). At the beginning of the 16th century, the idea of ​​the divine origin of the sovereign's power became increasingly recognized. Joseph Volotsky was one of the first to talk about this. A different understanding of supreme power by Archpriest Sylvester later led to the latter’s exile. The idea that the autocrat is obliged to obey God and his regulations in everything runs through the entire “Message to the Tsar.”

On January 16, 1547, a solemn wedding ceremony took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the rite of which was drawn up by the Metropolitan. The Metropolitan placed on Ivan the signs of royal dignity: the cross of the Life-Giving Tree, the barma and the Monomakh's cap; Ivan Vasilyevich was anointed with myrrh, and then the Metropolitan blessed the Tsar.

After the wedding, Ivan’s relatives strengthened their position, achieving significant benefits, but after the Moscow Uprising of 1547, the Glinsky family lost all their influence, and the young ruler became convinced of the striking discrepancy between his ideas about power and the real state of affairs.

Later, in 1558, Patriarch Joasaph II of Constantinople informed Ivan the Terrible that “ his royal name is commemorated in the Cathedral Church on all Sundays, like the names of former Greek Kings; this is ordered to be done in all dioceses where there are metropolitans and bishops», « and about your blessed wedding to the kingdom from St. Metropolitan of All Rus', our brother and colleague, was accepted by us for the good and worthy of your kingdom». « Show us, - wrote Joachim, Patriarch of Alexandria, - in these times, a new nourisher and provider for us, a good champion, the chosen and God-instructed Ktitor of this holy monastery, as was once the divinely crowned and equal-to-the-apostles Constantine... Your memory will remain with us incessantly, not only for church rule, but also at meals with the ancient, former Kings».

The new title made it possible to take a significantly different position in diplomatic relations with Western Europe. The title of grand duke was translated as “great duke,” while the title “tsar” in the hierarchy stood on a par with the title emperor.

Unconditionally, the title of Ivan was recognized by England already in 1555, followed a little later by Spain, Denmark and the Florentine Republic. In 1576, Emperor Maximilian II, wanting to attract Ivan the Terrible to an alliance against Turkey, offered him the throne and the title of “emerging [Eastern] Caesar” in the future. John IV was completely indifferent to the “Greek kingdom”, but demanded immediate recognition of himself as the king of “all Rus'”, and the emperor conceded on this fundamentally important issue, especially since Maximilian I still titled Vasily III “ By the grace of God, Tsar and Possessor of the All-Russian and Grand Duke" The papal throne turned out to be much more stubborn, defending the exclusive right of popes to grant royal and other titles, and on the other hand, did not allow the principle of a “single empire” to be violated. In this irreconcilable position, the papal throne found support from the Polish king, who perfectly understood the significance of Moscow’s claims. Sigismund II Augustus presented a note to the papal throne in which he warned that the recognition by the papacy of Ivan IV of the title of “Tsar of All Rus'” would lead to the separation from Poland and Lithuania of lands inhabited by “Rusyns” related to the Muscovites, and would attract Moldovans and Wallachians to his side. For his part, John IV attached particular importance to the recognition of his royal title by the Polish-Lithuanian state, but Poland throughout the 16th century never agreed to his demand. Thus, one of the successors of Ivan IV, his imaginary son False Dmitry I, used the title of “Tsar,” but Sigismund III, who helped him take the Moscow throne, officially called him simply a prince, not even “great.”

About the digital designation in the title of Ivan the Terrible

With the accession to the throne in 1740 of the infant Emperor Ivan Antonovich, a digital indication was introduced in relation to the Russian tsars bearing the name Ivan (John). Ioann Antonovich began to be called Ioann III Antonovich. This is evidenced by rare coins that have come down to us with the inscription “ John III, by the grace of God, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia».

« The great-grandfather of John III Antonovich received the specified title of Tsar John II Alekseevich of All Rus', and Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible received the specified title Tsar Ivan I Vasilyevich of All Rus'" Thus, initially Ivan the Terrible was called Ivan the First.

The digital part of the title - IV - was first assigned to Ivan the Terrible by Karamzin in the “History of the Russian State”, since he began counting from Ivan Kalita.

Board under the “Elected Rada”

V. M. Vasnetsov Tsar Ivan the Terrible, 1897

Reforms

Since 1549, together with the “Chosen Rada” (A.F. Adashev, Metropolitan Macarius, A.M. Kurbsky, Archpriest Sylvester, etc.), Ivan IV carried out a number of reforms aimed at centralizing the state and building public institutions.

In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor was convened with representatives from all classes, except the peasantry. A class-representative monarchy took shape in Russia.

In 1550, a new code of law was adopted, which introduced a single unit for collecting taxes - a large plow, which amounted to 400-600 acres of land, depending on the fertility of the soil and the social status of the owner, and limited the rights of slaves and peasants (the rules for the transfer of peasants were tightened).

In the early 1550s, zemstvo and provincial reforms were carried out (started by the government of Elena Glinskaya) that redistributed part of the powers of governors and volostels, including judicial ones, in favor of elected representatives of the black-growing peasantry and nobility.

In 1550, the “chosen thousand” of Moscow nobles received estates within 60-70 km from Moscow and a foot semi-regular streltsy army was formed, armed firearms. In 1555-1556, Ivan IV abolished feeding and adopted the Code of Service. The patrimonial owners became obliged to equip and bring in soldiers depending on the size of their land holdings, on an equal basis with the landowners.

Under Ivan the Terrible, a system of orders was formed: Petition, Posolsky, Local, Streletsky, Pushkarsky, Bronny, Robbery, Pechatny, Sokolnichiy, Zemsky orders, as well as quarters: Galitskaya, Ustyug, Novaya, Kazan order. Since 1551, the functions of the Ambassadorial Order (Chapter 72 of Stoglav “On the Redemption of Prisoners”) were added by the tsar to carry out the ransom of captive subjects from the Horde (for this purpose, a special land tax was collected - “polonian money”).

In the early 1560s, Ivan Vasilyevich carried out a landmark reform of state sphragistics. From this moment on, a stable type of state press appeared in Russia. For the first time, a rider appears on the chest of the ancient double-headed eagle - the coat of arms of the princes of Rurik's house, which was previously depicted separately, and always on the front side of the state seal, while the image of the eagle was placed on the back. The new seal sealed the treaty with the Kingdom of Denmark dated April 7, 1562.

The Council of the Hundred Heads of 1551, at which the tsar, relying on non-covetous people, hoped to carry out the secularization of church lands, met from January-February to May. The Church was forced to answer 37 questions from the young king (some of which exposed unrest in the priesthood and monastic administration, as well as in monastic life) and accept a compromise collection of Stoglav decisions, which regulated church issues.

Under Ivan the Terrible, Jewish merchants were prohibited from entering Russia. When in 1550 the Polish king Sigismund Augustus demanded that they be allowed free entry into Russia, John refused the following words: “ There is no way for the Jew to go to his states, we don’t want to see any dashing in our states, but we want God willing that in my states my people will be in silence without any embarrassment. And you, our brother, would not write to us about Zhidekh in advance"because they are Russian people" They took away from Christianity, and they brought poisonous potions to our lands and many dirty tricks were done to our people».

Kazan campaigns (1547-1552)

In the first half of the 16th century, mainly during the reign of khans from the Crimean Girey family, the Kazan Khanate waged constant wars with Muscovite Russia. In total, the Kazan khans made about forty campaigns against Russian lands, mainly in the regions of Nizhny Novgorod, Vyatka, Vladimir, Kostroma, Galich, Murom, Vologda. “From the Crimea and from Kazan to half the earth it was empty,” the tsar wrote, describing the consequences of the invasions.

The history of the Kazan campaigns is often counted from the campaign that took place in 1545, which “had the character of a military demonstration and strengthened the positions of the “Moscow party” and other opponents of Khan Safa-Girey.” Moscow supported the Kasimov ruler Shah Ali, loyal to Rus', who, having become the Kazan Khan, approved the project of a union with Moscow. But in 1546, Shah-Ali was expelled by the Kazan nobility, who elevated Khan Safa-Girey from a dynasty hostile to Rus' to the throne. After this, it was decided to take active action and eliminate the threat posed by Kazan. " From now on, - the historian points out, - Moscow has put forward a plan for the final destruction of the Kazan Khanate».

In total, Ivan IV led three campaigns against Kazan. During the first (winter of 1547/1548), due to an early thaw, siege artillery went under the ice on the Volga 15 versts from Nizhny Novgorod, and the troops that reached Kazan stood under it for only 7 days. The second campaign (autumn 1549 - spring 1550) followed the news of the death of Safa-Girey, also did not lead to the capture of Kazan, but the Sviyazhsk fortress was built, which served as a stronghold for the Russian army during the next campaign.

The third campaign (June-October 1552) ended with the capture of Kazan. A Russian army of 150,000 took part in the campaign; the armament included 150 cannons. The Kazan Kremlin was taken by storm. Khan Ediger-Magmet was captured by Russian commanders. The chronicler recorded: “ The sovereign did not order to invest a single copper worker on himself.(that is, not a single penny) , no captivity, just the one king Ediger-Magmet and the royal banners and city cannons" I. I. Smirnov believes that “ The Kazan campaign of 1552 and the brilliant victory of Ivan IV over Kazan not only meant a major foreign policy success for the Russian state, but also contributed to the strengthening of the tsar’s power" Almost simultaneously with the start of the campaign in June 1552, the Crimean Khan Devlet I Giray made a campaign to Tula.

In defeated Kazan, the tsar appointed Prince Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky as Kazan governor, and Prince Vasily Serebryany as his assistant.

After the establishment of the episcopal see in Kazan, the tsar and the church council by lot elected Abbot Gury to it in the rank of archbishop. Gury received instructions from the tsar to convert Kazan residents to Orthodoxy solely at the own request of each person, but “unfortunately, such prudent measures were not followed everywhere: the intolerance of the century took its toll...”

From the first steps towards the conquest and development of the Volga region, the tsar began to invite to his service all the Kazan nobility who agreed to swear allegiance to him, sending “ in all uluses black people received dangerous tribute letters, so that they would go to the sovereign without fear of anything; and whoever did it recklessly, God took revenge on him; and their sovereign would grant them, and they would pay tribute, just like the former Kazan king" This nature of the policy not only did not require the preservation of the main military forces of the Russian state in Kazan, but, on the contrary, made Ivan’s solemn return to the capital natural and expedient. During the Livonian War, the Muslim regions of the Volga region began to supply the Russian army with “many three hundred thousand troops”, well prepared for the offensive.

Immediately after the capture of Kazan, in January 1555, the ambassadors of the Siberian Khan Ediger asked the king to “ He took the entire Siberian land under his own name and stood up (defended) from all sides and laid his tribute on them and sent his man to whom to collect the tribute».

Astrakhan campaigns (1554-1556)

In the early 1550s, the Astrakhan Khanate was an ally of the Crimean Khan, controlling the lower reaches of the Volga. Before the final subjugation of the Astrakhan Khanate under Ivan IV, two campaigns were carried out.

The campaign of 1554 was carried out under the command of the governor Prince Yuri Pronsky-Shemyakin. In the battle of the Black Island, the Russian army defeated the lead Astrakhan detachment, and Astrakhan was taken without a fight. As a result, Khan Dervish-Ali was brought to power, promising support to Moscow.

The campaign of 1556 was associated with the fact that Khan Dervish-Ali went over to the side of the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire. The campaign was led by governor Ivan Cheremisinov. First, the Don Cossacks of Ataman Lyapun Filimonov’s detachment defeated the Khan’s army near Astrakhan, after which in July Astrakhan was retaken without a fight. As a result of this campaign, the Astrakhan Khanate was subordinated to the Russian kingdom.

In 1556, the capital of the Golden Horde, Sarai-Batu, was destroyed.

After the conquest of Astrakhan Russian influence began to extend to the Caucasus. In 1559, the princes of Pyatigorsk and Cherkassy asked Ivan IV to send them a detachment to protect against the raids of the Crimean Tatars and priests to maintain the faith; the tsar sent them two governors and priests, who renovated the fallen ancient churches, and in Kabarda they showed extensive missionary activity, baptizing many into Orthodoxy.

War with Sweden (1554-1557)

During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, trade relations between Russia and England were established through the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean, which greatly affected the economic interests of Sweden, which received considerable income from transit Russian-European trade. In 1553, the expedition of the English navigator Richard Chancellor rounded the Kola Peninsula, entered the White Sea and dropped anchor west of the Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery opposite the village of Nenoksa. Having received news of the appearance of the British within his country, Ivan IV wished to meet with Chancellor, who, having covered about 1000 km, arrived in Moscow with honors. Soon after this expedition, the Moscow Company was founded in London, which subsequently received monopoly trading rights from Tsar Ivan.

Swedish King Gustav I Vasa after unsuccessful attempt to create an anti-Russian union, which would include the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Livonia and Denmark, decided to act independently.

The first motive for declaring war on Sweden was the capture of Russian merchants in Stockholm. On September 10, 1555, the Swedish admiral Jacob Bagge with a 10,000-strong army besieged Oreshek; the Swedes' attempts to develop an attack on Novgorod were thwarted by a guard regiment under the command of Sheremetev. On January 20, 1556, a Russian army of 20–25 thousand defeated the Swedes at Kivinebb and besieged Vyborg, but failed to take it.

In July 1556, Gustav I made a proposal for peace, which was accepted by Ivan IV. On March 25, 1557, the Second Truce of Novgorod was concluded for forty years, which restored the border defined by the Orekhov Peace Treaty of 1323 and established the custom of diplomatic relations through the Novgorod governor.

Beginning of the Livonian War

Causes of the war

In 1547, the king ordered the Saxon Schlitte to bring artisans, artists, doctors, pharmacists, typographers, people skilled in ancient and modern languages, even theologians. However, after protests from Livonia, the Senate of the Hanseatic city of Lübeck arrested Schlitte and his men.

In 1554, Ivan IV demanded that the Livonian Confederation return arrears under the “Yuriev tribute” established by the 1503 treaty, renounce military alliances with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden, and continue the truce. The first payment of the debt for Dorpat was supposed to take place in 1557, but the Livonian Confederation did not fulfill its obligation.

In the spring of 1557, on the shores of Narva, by order of Ivan, a port was established: “The same year, July, a city was established from the German Ust-Narova River Rozsene by the sea for a shelter for sea ships,” “The same year, April, the Tsar and the Grand Duke sent okolnichy prince Dmitry Semenovich Shastunov and Pyotr Petrovich Golovin and Ivan Vyrodkov to Ivangorod, and ordered on Narova below Ivangorod at the mouth of sea ​​city set up for a ship shelter...” However, the Hanseatic League and Livonia did not allow European merchants to enter the new Russian port, and they continued to go, as before, to Revel, Narva and Riga.

The Posvolsky Treaty, concluded on September 15, 1557 between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Order, created a threat to the establishment of Lithuanian power in Livonia. The agreed position of the Hansa and Livonia to prevent Moscow from engaging in independent maritime trade led Tsar Ivan to the decision to begin the struggle for wide access to the Baltic.

Defeat of the Livonian Order

In January 1558, Ivan IV began the Livonian War for the capture of the Baltic Sea coast. Initially, military operations developed successfully. The Russian army carried out active offensive operations in the Baltic states, took Narva, Dorpat, Neuschloss, Neuhaus, and defeated the order troops at Tiersen near Riga. In the spring and summer of 1558, the Russians captured the entire eastern part of Estonia, and by the spring of 1559, the army of the Livonian Order was completely defeated, and the Order itself virtually ceased to exist. At the direction of Alexei Adashev, Russian governors accepted the truce proposal coming from Denmark, which lasted from March to November 1559, and began separate negotiations with Livonian urban circles on the pacification of Livonia in exchange for some concessions in trade from German cities. At this time, the lands of the Order came under the protection of Poland, Lithuania, Sweden and Denmark.

In 1560, at the Congress of Imperial Deputies of Germany, Albert of Mecklenburg reported: “ The Moscow tyrant begins to build a fleet on the Baltic Sea: in Narva he turns merchant ships belonging to the city of Lübeck into warships and transfers control of them to Spanish, English and German commanders" The congress decided to address Moscow with a solemn embassy, ​​to which to attract Spain, Denmark and England, to offer eternal peace to the eastern power and stop its conquests.

Grozny's performance in the fight for the Baltic Sea... was amazing central Europe. In Germany, the “Muscovites” seemed to be a terrible enemy; the danger of their invasion was outlined not only in the official communications of the authorities, but also in the extensive flying literature of leaflets and brochures. Measures were taken to prevent Muscovites from accessing the sea or Europeans from entering Moscow and, by dividing Moscow from the centers European culture, to prevent its political strengthening. In this agitation against Moscow and Grozny, many false things were invented about Moscow morals and the despotism of Grozny...

Platonov S. F. Lectures on Russian history...

Campaigns against the Crimean Khanate

Since the end of the 15th century, the Crimean khans of the Girey dynasty were vassals of the Ottoman Empire, which was actively expanding in Europe. Part of the Moscow aristocracy and the Pope persistently demanded that Ivan the Terrible enter into a fight with the Turkish Sultan Suleiman the First.

Simultaneously with the beginning of the Russian offensive in Livonia, the Crimean cavalry raided Russian kingdom, several thousand Crimeans broke through to the vicinity of Tula and Pronsk, and R. G. Skrynnikov emphasizes that the Russian government, represented by Adashev and Viskovaty, “had to conclude a truce on the western borders,” as it was preparing for a “decisive clash on the southern border.” The Tsar gave in to the demands of the opposition aristocracy to march on the Crimea: “ brave and courageous men advised and advised, so that Ivan himself, with his head, with great troops, would move against the Perekop Khan».

In 1558, the army of Prince Dmitry Vishnevetsky defeated the Crimean army near Azov, and in 1559 the army under the command of Daniil Adashev made a campaign against the Crimea, destroying the large Crimean port of Gezlev (now Yevpatoria) and freeing many Russian captives. Ivan the Terrible proposed an alliance with the Polish king Sigismund II against the Crimea, but he, on the contrary, leaned toward an alliance with the Khanate.

The Fall of the "Chosen One" War with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

On August 31, 1559, the Master of the Livonian Order Gotthard Ketler and the King of Poland and Lithuania Sigismund II Augustus concluded the Treaty of Vilna on the entry of Livonia under the protectorate of Lithuania, which was supplemented on September 15 by an agreement on military assistance to Livonia by Poland and Lithuania. This diplomatic action served as an important milestone in the course and development of the Livonian War: the war between Russia and Livonia turned into a struggle between the states of Eastern Europe for the Livonian inheritance.

In January 1560, Grozny ordered the troops to go on the offensive again. The army under the command of princes Shuisky, Serebryany and Mstislavsky took the fortress of Marienburg (Aluksne). On August 30, the Russian army under the command of Kurbsky took the master's residence - Fellin Castle. An eyewitness wrote: “ An oppressed Estonian would rather submit to a Russian than to a German" Throughout Estonia, peasants rebelled against the German barons. The possibility of a quick end to the war arose. However, the king's commanders did not go to capture Revel and failed in the siege of Weissenstein. Aleksei Adashev (voivode of a large regiment) was appointed to Fellin, but he, being ill-born, was mired in parochial disputes with the voivodes above him, fell into disgrace, was soon taken into custody in Dorpat and died there of fever (there were rumors that he poisoned himself, Ivan the Terrible even sent one of his nearby nobles to Dorpat to investigate the circumstances of Adashev’s death). In connection with this, Sylvester left the court and took monastic vows at the monastery, and with that their smaller associates also fell - the end of the Chosen Rada came.

In the fall of 1561, the Union of Vilna was concluded on the formation of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia on the territory of Livonia and the transfer of other lands to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

In January-February 1563, Polotsk was captured. Here, on the orders of Ivan the Terrible, Thomas, a preacher of reformation ideas and an associate of Theodosius Kosy, was drowned in an ice hole. Skrynnikov believes that the massacre of Polotsk Jews was supported by the abbot of the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery, Leonid, who accompanied the tsar. Also, by order of the tsar, the Tatars who took part in the hostilities killed the Bernardine monks who were in Polotsk. The religious element in the conquest of Polotsk by Ivan the Terrible is also noted by Khoroshkevich.

On January 28, 1564, the Polotsk army of P.I. Shuisky, moving towards Minsk and Novogrudok, was unexpectedly ambushed and was completely defeated by the troops of N. Radziwill. Grozny immediately accused the governors M. Repnin and Yu. Kashin (heroes of the capture of Polotsk) of treason and ordered them to be killed. In this regard, Kurbsky reproached the tsar for shedding the victorious, holy blood of the governor “in the churches of God.” A few months later, in response to Kurbsky’s accusations, Grozny directly wrote about the crime committed by the boyars.

Oprichnina period (1565-1572)

Allegory of the tyrannical rule of Ivan the Terrible (Germany. First half of the 18th century). Picture from the German weekly journal by David Fassmann “Conversations in the Kingdom of the Dead” (German: Gespräche in dem Reiche derer Todten; 1718-1739).

Reasons for introducing the oprichnina

According to Soviet historians A. A. Zimin and A. L. Khoroshkevich, the reason for Ivan the Terrible’s break with the “Chosen Rada” was that the latter’s program was exhausted. In particular, an “imprudent respite” was given to Livonia, as a result of which several European states were drawn into the war. In addition, the tsar did not agree with the ideas of the leaders of the “Chosen Rada” (especially Adashev) about the priority of the conquest of Crimea in comparison with military operations in the West. Finally, “Adashev showed excessive independence in foreign policy relations with Lithuanian representatives in 1559” and was eventually dismissed. It should be noted that such opinions about the reasons for Ivan’s break with the “Chosen Rada” are not shared by all historians. Thus, Nikolai Kostomarov sees the true background of the conflict in the negative characteristics of the character of Ivan the Terrible, and, on the contrary, evaluates the activities of the “Chosen Rada” very highly. V. B. Kobrin also believed that the personality of the tsar played a decisive role here, but at the same time he links Ivan’s behavior with his commitment to the program of accelerated centralization of the country, opposed to the ideology of gradual changes of the “Chosen Rada”. Historians believe that the choice of the first path was due to the personal character of Ivan the Terrible, who did not want to listen to people who did not agree with his policies. Thus, after 1560, Ivan embarked on a path of tightening power, which led him to repressive measures.

According to R. G. Skrynnikov, the nobility would easily forgive Grozny for the resignation of his advisers Adashev and Sylvester, but she did not want to put up with the attack on the prerogatives of the boyar Duma. The ideologist of the boyars, Kurbsky, protested most strongly against the infringement of the privileges of the nobility and the transfer of management functions into the hands of clerks (deacons): “ The Great Prince has great faith in Russian clerks, and he chooses them neither from the gentry nor from the nobles, but especially from the priests or from the common people, otherwise he makes his nobles hateful».

New discontent of the princes, Skrynnikov believes, was caused by the royal decree of January 15, 1562, limiting their patrimonial rights, even more than before, equating them with the local nobility.

At the beginning of December 1564, according to Shokarev’s research, an armed rebellion was attempted against the king, in which Western forces took part: “ Many noble nobles gathered a considerable party in Lithuania and Poland and wanted to go against their king with arms».

Establishment of the oprichnina

In 1565, Grozny announced the introduction of the Oprichnina in the country. The country was divided into two parts: “To the Sovereign's Grace Oprichnin” and the Zemshchina. Oprichnina included mainly northeastern Russian lands, where there were few patrimonial boyars. The center of Oprichnina became the Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda - the new residence of Ivan the Terrible, from where on January 3, 1565, messenger Konstantin Polivanov delivered a letter to the clergy, the Boyar Duma and the people about the Tsar’s abdication of the throne. Although Veselovsky believes that Grozny did not declare his renunciation of power, the prospect of the sovereign leaving and the onset of a “sovereign time”, when nobles could again force city merchants and artisans to do everything for them for nothing, could not help but excite Moscow townspeople.

The first victims of the oprichnina were the most prominent boyars: the first governor in the Kazan campaign A. B. Gorbaty-Shuisky with his son Peter, his brother-in-law Pyotr Khovrin, the okolnichy P. Golovin (whose family traditionally occupied the positions of Moscow treasurers), P. I. Gorensky-Obolensky ( his younger brother, Yuri, managed to escape in Lithuania), Prince Dmitry Shevyrev, S. Loban-Rostovsky and others. With the help of the oprichniki, who were exempt from judicial responsibility, Ivan IV forcibly confiscated the boyar and princely estates, transferring them to the oprichniki nobles. The boyars and princes themselves were given estates in other regions of the country, for example, in the Volga region.

The decree on the introduction of Oprichnina was approved higher authorities spiritual and temporal power - the Consecrated Cathedral and the Boyar Duma. There is also an opinion that this decree was confirmed by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor. But a significant part of the zemshchina protested against the oprichnina, so in 1556 about 300 noble persons of the zemshchina filed a petition for the abolition of the oprichnina; Of the petitioners, 50 were subjected to trade execution, several had their tongues cut out, and three were beheaded.

“Moscow dungeon. The end of the 16th century (Konstantin-Eleninsky gates of the Moscow dungeon at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries)", 1912.

For the ordination of Metropolitan Philip, which took place on July 25, 1566, a letter was prepared and signed, according to which Philip promised “not to interfere in the oprichnina and royal life and, upon appointment, because of the oprichnina ... not to leave the metropolis.” According to R. G. Skrynnikov, thanks to Philip’s intervention, many petitioners of the 1566 Council were released from prison. On March 22, 1568, in the Assumption Cathedral, Philip refused to bless the Tsar and demanded the abolition of the oprichnina. In response, the guardsmen beat the metropolitan's servants to death with iron sticks, then a trial was initiated against the metropolitan in the church court. Philip was defrocked and exiled to the Tver Otroch Monastery.

As the oprichnina “abbot,” the tsar performed a number of monastic duties. So, at midnight everyone got up for the midnight office, at four in the morning for matins, and at eight the mass began. The Tsar set an example of piety: he himself rang for matins, sang in the choir, prayed fervently, and during the common meal read the Holy Scriptures aloud. In general, worship took about 9 hours a day. At the same time, there is evidence that orders for executions and torture were often given in the church. Historian G.P. Fedotov believes that “ Without denying the repentant sentiments of the tsar, one cannot help but see that he knew how to combine atrocity with church piety in established everyday forms, desecrating the very idea of ​​the Orthodox kingdom».

In 1569, the tsar’s cousin, Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky, died (presumably, according to rumors, on the order of the tsar they brought him a cup of poisoned wine and the order that Vladimir Andreevich himself, his wife and them drink the wine eldest daughter). Somewhat later, Vladimir Andreevich’s mother, Efrosinya Staritskaya, who repeatedly stood at the head of boyar conspiracies against John IV and was repeatedly pardoned by him, was also killed.

Hike to Novgorod

In December 1569, suspecting the Novgorod nobility of complicity in the “conspiracy” of Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky, who had recently been killed on his orders, and at the same time of the intention to surrender to the Polish king, Ivan, accompanied by a large army of guardsmen, set out on a campaign against Novgorod. Moving towards Novgorod in the fall of 1569, the guardsmen carried out massacres and robberies in Tver, Klin, Torzhok and other cities they encountered.

In the Tver Otrochy Monastery in December 1569, Malyuta Skuratov personally strangled Metropolitan Philip, who refused to bless the campaign against Novgorod. The Kolychev family, to which Philip belonged, was persecuted; some of its members were executed on Ivan's orders.

On January 2, 1570, military detachments surrounded the city, hundreds of priests were put under arrest, and the monasteries were taken under full control. Four days later the king himself arrived here. He defended the service in the St. Sophia Cathedral and then ordered repressions to begin. The guardsmen began to loot throughout the city and its environs. According to chronicles, the punishers spared no one; adults and children were tortured, beaten, and then thrown directly into the Volkhov River. If anyone survived, they were pushed under the ice with sticks. According to various sources, from 2 thousand to 10 thousand people died.

Having dealt with Novgorod, the tsar set out for Pskov. The tsar limited himself only to executing several Pskov residents and plundering their property. At that time, as legend says, Grozny was visiting a Pskov holy fool (a certain Nikola Salos). When it was time for lunch, Nikola handed Ivan a piece of raw meat with the words: “Here, eat it, you eat human flesh,” and then threatened Ivan with many troubles if he did not spare the inhabitants. Grozny, having disobeyed, ordered the bells to be removed from one Pskov monastery. At the same hour, his best horse fell under the king, which impressed Ivan. The Tsar hastily left Pskov and returned to Moscow, where a “search” for Novgorod treason began, which was carried out throughout 1570, and many prominent guardsmen were also involved in the case.

Russian-Crimean War (1571-1572)

In 1563 and 1569, together with Turkish troops, Devlet I Giray made two unsuccessful campaigns against Astrakhan. The Turkish fleet also took part in the second campaign; the Turks also planned to build a canal between the Volga and Don to strengthen their influence in the Caspian Sea, but the campaign ended in an unsuccessful 10-day siege of Astrakhan. Devlet I Giray, dissatisfied with the strengthening of Turkey in this region, also secretly interfered with the campaign.

Beginning in 1567, the activity of the Crimean Khanate began to increase, campaigns were carried out every year. In 1570, the Crimeans, having received almost no resistance, subjected the Ryazan region to terrible devastation.

In 1571, Devlet Giray launched a campaign against Moscow. Having deceived Russian intelligence, the khan crossed the Oka near Kromy, and not at Serpukhov, where the tsarist army was waiting for him, and rushed to Moscow. Ivan left for Rostov, and the Crimeans set fire to the outskirts of the capital, not protected by the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod. In the subsequent correspondence, the tsar agreed to cede Astrakhan to the khan, but he was not satisfied with this, demanding Kazan and 2000 rubles, and then announced his plans to seize the entire Russian state.

Devlet Giray wrote to Ivan:

I burn and waste everything because of Kazan and Astrakhan, and I apply the wealth of the whole world to dust, hoping for the majesty of God. I came against you, I burned your city, I wanted your crown and head; but you didn’t come and didn’t stand against us, and you still boast that I’m the sovereign of Moscow! If you had shame and dignity, you would come and stand against us.

Stunned by the defeat, Ivan the Terrible replied in a reply message that he agreed to transfer Astrakhan under Crimean control, but refused to return Kazan to the Gireys:

You write about the war in your letter, and if I start writing about the same, then good deed We won't come. If you are angry for the refusal to Kazan and Astrakhan, then we want to give up Astrakhan to you, only now this matter cannot be done soon: for it we must have your ambassadors, but it is impossible to make such a great cause as messengers; Until then you would have granted it, given the terms and not fought our land

Ivan went out to the Tatar ambassadors in a homespun, telling them: “You see me, what am I wearing? This is how the king (khan) made me! Still, he captured my kingdom and burned the treasury, and I have nothing to do with the king.”

In 1572, the khan began a new campaign against Moscow, which ended with the destruction of the Crimean-Turkish army in the Battle of Molodi. The death of a selected Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the defeat of the Crimean horde near Moscow in 1572 put a limit to Turkish-Tatar expansion in Eastern Europe.

There is a version based on the “History” of Prince Andrei Kurbsky, according to which the winner of Molodi, Vorotynsky, the very next year, by denunciation of a slave, was accused of intending to bewitch the tsar and died from torture, and during the torture the tsar himself raked the coals with his staff.

Grand Duke John IV Vasilievich
(miniature from the Tsar's titular book of 1672)

Flight of the Tsar from Moscow

Sources report different versions of the king's flight. Most of them agree that the tsar was heading towards Yaroslavl, but only reached Rostov. In the news of Devlet-Girey's raid, which occurred in April - May 1571, Horsey's notes quite accurately, judging by other sources, convey the outline of events, starting with the burning of Moscow.

John Vasilyevich the Great, Emperor of Russia, Prince of Muscovy. From Ortelius' map of 1574

The end of the oprichnina

In 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey invaded Rus'. According to V.B. Kobrin, the decayed oprichnina demonstrated complete incapacity for combat: the oprichnina, accustomed to robbing civilians, simply did not show up for the war, so there were only one regiment of them (against five zemstvo regiments). Moscow was burned. As a result, during the new invasion in 1572, the oprichnina army was already united with the zemstvo army; in the same year, the tsar completely abolished the oprichnina and banned its very name, although in fact, under the name of the “sovereign court,” the oprichnina existed until his death.

Unsuccessful actions against Devlet-Girey in 1571 led to the final destruction of the oprichnina elite of the first composition: the head of the oprichnina Duma, the tsar's brother-in-law M. Cherkassky (Saltankul Murza) “for deliberately bringing the tsar under the Tatar blow” was impaled; nurseryman P. Zaitsev was hanged on the gate of his own house; The oprichnina boyars I. Chebotov, I. Vorontsov, the butler L. Saltykov, the master F. Saltykov and many others were also executed. Moreover, the reprisals did not subside even after the Battle of Molodi - celebrating the victory in Novgorod, the tsar drowned the “children of the boyars” in Volkhov, after which a ban was introduced on the very name of the oprichnina. At the same time, Ivan the Terrible brought down repression on those who had previously helped him deal with Metropolitan Philip: the Solovetsky abbot Paisiy was imprisoned on Valaam, the Ryazan bishop Philotheus was deprived of his rank, and the bailiff Stefan Kobylin, who supervised the metropolitan in the Otroche Monastery, was exiled to the distant monastery of Kamenny islands.

International relations during the oprichnina period

In 1569, through her ambassador Thomas Randolph, Elizabeth I made it clear to the Tsar that she was not going to intervene in the Baltic conflict. In response, the tsar wrote to her that her trade representatives “do not think about our sovereign heads and about the honor and profit of the land, but are looking only for their own trade profits,” and canceled all the privileges previously granted to the Moscow Trading Company created by the British.

In 1569, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania united into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth confederation. In May 1570, the king signed a truce with King Sigismund for a period of three years, despite the huge number of mutual claims. The proclamation of the Livonian kingdom by the king delighted the Livonian nobility, who received freedom of religion and a number of other privileges, and the Livonian merchants, who received the right to free duty-free trade in Russia, and in return allowed foreign merchants, artists and technicians into Moscow. After the death of Sigismund II and the suppression of the Jagiellon dynasty in Poland and Lithuania, Ivan the Terrible was considered one of the candidates for the Polish throne. The main condition for consent to his election as the Polish king was the concession of Poland to Livonia in favor of Russia, and as compensation he offered to return “Polotsk and its suburbs” to the Poles. But on November 20, 1572, Maximilian II concluded an agreement with Grozny, according to which all ethnic Polish lands (Greater Poland, Mazovia, Kuyavia, Silesia) were to go to the empire, and Livonia and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with all its possessions were to go to Moscow - that is Belarus, Podlasie, Ukraine, so the noble nobility hastened to elect a king and elected Henry of Valois.

In March 1570, Ivan the Terrible issued a “royal letter” (letter of marque) to the Dane Carsten Rohde. In May of the same year, having bought and equipped ships with royal money, Rode went to sea and until September 1570 hunted in the Baltic Sea against Swedish and Polish merchants.

Khan on the Moscow throne

In 1575, at the request of Ivan the Terrible, the baptized Tatar and Khan of Kasimov, Simeon Bekbulatovich, was crowned king as “Grand Duke of All Rus',” and Ivan the Terrible himself called himself Ivan of Moscow, left the Kremlin and began to live on Petrovka.

According to the English historian and traveler Giles Fletcher, by the end of the year the new sovereign took away all the charters granted to bishops and monasteries, which the latter had been using for several centuries. All of them were destroyed. After that (as if dissatisfied with such an act and the bad rule of the new sovereign), Ivan the Terrible took the scepter again and, as if to please the church and clergy, allowed the renewal of the charters that he had already distributed on his own behalf, retaining and adding to the treasury as much land as he himself had whatever.

In this way, Ivan the Terrible took from bishops and monasteries (except for the lands that he annexed to the treasury) a countless amount of money: some 40, others 50, others 100 thousand rubles, which he did in order not only to increase his treasury, but also to remove a bad opinion of his cruel rule, setting an example of even worse in the hands of another king.

This was preceded by a new surge of executions, when the circle of associates that had been established in 1572, after the destruction of the oprichnina elite, was destroyed. Having abdicated the throne, Ivan Vasilyevich took his “destiny” and formed his own “appanage” Duma, which was now ruled by the Nagys, Godunovs and Belskys.

The final stage of the Livonian War

On February 23, 1577, a 50,000-strong Russian army again besieged Revel, but failed to take the fortress. In February 1578, Nuncio Vincent Laureo reported with alarm to Rome: “The Muscovite divided his army into two parts: one is expected near Riga, the other near Vitebsk.” By this time, all of Livonia along the Dvina, with the exception of only two cities - Revel and Riga, was in Russian hands.

In 1579, the royal messenger Wenceslaus Lopatinsky brought the king a letter from Batory declaring war. Already in August, the Polish army took Polotsk, then moved to Velikiye Luki and took them.

At the same time, direct peace negotiations were underway with Poland. Ivan the Terrible proposed giving Poland all of Livonia, with the exception of four cities. Batory did not agree to this and demanded all Livonian cities, in addition Sebezh, and payment of 400,000 Hungarian gold for military costs. This infuriated Grozny, and he responded with a sharp letter.

After this, in the summer of 1581, Stefan Batory invaded deep into Russia and besieged Pskov, which, however, he was never able to take. At the same time, the Swedes took Narva, where 7,000 Russians fell, then Ivangorod and Koporye. Ivan was forced to negotiate with Poland, hoping to then conclude an alliance with her against Sweden. In the end, the tsar was forced to agree to the conditions under which “the Livonian cities that belong to the sovereign should be ceded to the king, and Luke the Great and other cities that the king took, let him cede to the sovereign” - that is, the war that lasted almost a quarter of a century ended in restoration status quo ante bellum, thus becoming sterile. A 10-year truce on these terms was signed on January 15, 1582 in Yam Zapolsky. After the intensification of hostilities between Russia and Sweden in 1582 (Russian victory at Lyalitsy, the unsuccessful siege of Oreshk by the Swedes), peace negotiations began, which resulted in the Truce of Plyus. Yam, Koporye and Ivangorod passed to Sweden along with the adjacent territory of the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland. The Russian state found itself cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, and the northwestern regions were depopulated. It should also be noted that the course of the war and its results were influenced by the Crimean raids: only for 3 years out of 25 years of the war there were no significant raids.

Last years

With the direct support of the Nogai Murzas of Prince Ulus, unrest broke out among the Volga Cheremis: cavalry numbering up to 25,000 people, attacking from Astrakhan, devastated the Belyov, Kolomna and Alatyr lands. In conditions of insufficient numbers of three tsarist regiments to suppress the rebellion, a breakthrough of the Crimean Horde could lead to very dangerous consequences for Russia. Obviously, wanting to avoid such a danger, the Russian government decided to transfer troops, temporarily abandoning the attack on Sweden.

On January 15, 1580, a church council was convened in Moscow. Addressing the highest hierarchs, the tsar directly said how difficult his situation was: “countless enemies have risen up against the Russian state,” which is why he asks for help from the Church. The tsar finally managed to completely take away from the church the method of increasing church estates with the estates of service people and boyars - as they became poorer, they often gave their estates as a mortgage to the church and for the commemoration of their souls, which harmed the defense capability of the state. The council decided: bishops and monasteries should not buy estates from service people, nor take souls as mortgages or in remembrance. Estates purchased or taken as collateral from service people should be taken to the royal treasury.

In 1580, the tsar defeated the German settlement. Frenchman Jacques Margeret, who lived in Russia for many years, writes: “ The Livonians, who were captured and taken to Moscow, professing the Lutheran faith, having received two churches inside the city of Moscow, held public services there; but in the end, because of their pride and vanity, the said temples... were destroyed and all their houses were destroyed. And, although in winter they were expelled naked and in what their mother gave birth to, they could not blame anyone for this but themselves, for ... they behaved so arrogantly, their manners were so arrogant, and their clothes were so luxurious that they could all be was to be mistaken for princes and princesses... Their main profit was the right to sell vodka, honey and other drinks, from which they make not 10%, but a hundred, which may seem incredible, but it’s true».

In 1581, the Jesuit A. Possevin went to Russia, acting as a mediator between Ivan and Poland, and, at the same time, hoping to persuade the Russian Church into a union with the Catholic Church. His failure was predicted by the Polish Hetman Zamoyski: “ He is ready to swear that the Grand Duke is disposed towards him and will accept the Latin faith to please him, and I am sure that these negotiations will end with the prince hitting him with a crutch and driving him away" M.V. Tolstoy writes in “History of the Russian Church”: “ But the pope’s hopes and Possevin’s efforts were not crowned with success. John showed all the natural flexibility of his mind, dexterity and prudence, to which the Jesuit himself had to give justice, rejected the requests for permission to build Latin churches in Rus', rejected disputes about faith and the union of Churches on the basis of the rules of the Florence Council and was not carried away by the dreamy promise of acquiring all the Byzantine Empire, lost by the Greeks allegedly for retreating from Rome" The ambassador himself notes that “the Russian Sovereign stubbornly avoided and avoided discussing this topic.” Thus, the papal throne did not receive any privileges; the possibility of Moscow joining the Catholic Church remained as vague as before, and meanwhile the papal ambassador had to begin his mediating role.

The conquest of Western Siberia by Ermak Timofeevich and his Cossacks in 1583 and his capture of the capital of the Siberian Khanate - Isker - marked the beginning of the conversion of the local population to Orthodoxy: Ermak's troops were accompanied by four priests and a hieromonk. However, this expedition was carried out against the will of the king, who in November 1582, he scolded the Stroganovs for calling into their patrimony the Cossacks-“thieves” - the Volga atamans, who “before that they quarreled us with the Nogai Horde, beat the Nogai ambassadors on the Volga on transport, and robbed and beat the Ordo-Bazarians, and our many robberies and losses were caused to people". Tsar Ivan IV ordered the Stroganovs, under fear of “great disgrace,” to return Ermak from his campaign in Siberia and use his forces to “protect the Perm places.” But while the tsar was writing his letter, Ermak had already inflicted a crushing defeat on Kuchum and occupied his capital.

Death

A study of the remains of Ivan the Terrible showed that in the last six years of his life he developed osteophytes, to such an extent that he could no longer walk on his own and was carried on a stretcher. M. M. Gerasimov, who examined the remains, noted that he had not seen such thick deposits in very old people. Forced immobility, combined with a general unhealthy lifestyle and nervous shocks, led to the fact that at the age of 50 the king looked like a decrepit old man.

In August 1582, A. Possevin, in a report to the Venetian Signoria, stated that “the Moscow sovereign will not live long.” In February and early March 1584, the king was still engaged in state affairs. The first mention of the disease dates back to March 10, when the Lithuanian ambassador was stopped on his way to Moscow due to the sovereign’s illness. On March 16, things got worse, the king fell into unconsciousness, but on March 17 and 18 he felt relief from hot baths. On the afternoon of March 18, the king died. The sovereign’s body was swollen and smelled bad “due to the decomposition of the blood.” Jerome Horsey stated that the king died while playing chess.

Vivliofika preserved the dying commission of the Tsar to Boris Godunov: “When the Great Sovereign was vouchsafed the last farewell, the most pure body and blood of the Lord, then, as a testimony, presenting his confessor Archimandrite Theodosius, filling his eyes with tears, saying to Boris Feodorovich: I command you my soul and my son Theodore Ivanovich and his daughter Irina..." Also, before his death, according to the chronicles, the tsar bequeathed Uglich with all the counties to his youngest son Dmitry.

It is difficult to reliably determine whether the king's death was caused by natural causes or was violent due to the hostile turmoil at court.

There were persistent rumors about violent death Grozny. A 17th-century chronicler reported that “the king was given poison by his neighbors.” According to the testimony of clerk Ivan Timofeev, Boris Godunov and Bogdan Belsky “ended the tsar’s life prematurely.” Crown Hetman Zholkiewski also accused Godunov: “He took the life of Tsar Ivan by bribing the doctor who treated Ivan, because the matter was such that if he had not warned him (had not forestalled him), he himself would have been executed along with many other noble nobles.” . The Dutchman Isaac Massa wrote that Belsky put poison in the royal medicine. Horsey also wrote about the secret plans of the Godunovs against the tsar and put forward a version of the strangulation of the tsar, with which V.I. Koretsky agrees: “Apparently, the tsar was given poison first, and then, for good measure, in the turmoil that arose after he suddenly fell , and also strangled.” The historian Valishevsky wrote: “Bogdan Belsky with his advisers harassed Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, and now he wants to beat the boyars and wants to find the kingdom of Moscow under Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich for his adviser (Godunov).”

The version of the poisoning of Grozny was verified during the opening of the royal tombs in 1963. Studies have shown normal levels of arsenic in the remains and elevated levels of mercury, which, however, was present in many medicinal preparations of the 16th century and was used to treat syphilis, which the king supposedly suffered from. The murder version remained a hypothesis.

At the same time, the Kremlin’s chief archaeologist Tatyana Panova, together with researcher Elena Aleksandrovskaya, considered the conclusions of the 1963 commission incorrect. In their opinion, the permissible limit for arsenic in Ivan the Terrible was exceeded by more than 2 times. In their opinion, the king was poisoned by a “cocktail” of arsenic and mercury, which was given to him over a period of time.

Family and Children

The number of wives of Ivan the Terrible has not been precisely established; historians mention the names of six or seven women who were considered the wives of Ivan IV. Of these, only the first 4 are “married,” that is, legal from the point of view of church law (for the fourth marriage, prohibited by the canons, Ivan received a conciliar decision on its admissibility).

The first, the longest of them, was concluded as follows: on December 13, 1546, 16-year-old Ivan consulted with Metropolitan Macarius about his desire to get married. Immediately after the crowning of the kingdom in January, noble dignitaries, okolnichy and clerks began to travel around the country, looking for a bride for the king. A brideshow was held. The king's choice fell on Anastasia, the daughter of the widow Zakharyina. At the same time, Karamzin says that the tsar was guided not by the nobility of the family, but by the personal merits of Anastasia. The wedding took place on February 3, 1547 in the Church of Our Lady. The Tsar's marriage lasted 13 years, until Anastasia's sudden death in the summer of 1560. The death of his wife greatly influenced the 30-year-old king; after this event, historians note a turning point in the nature of his reign. A year after the death of his wife, the tsar entered into a second marriage, marrying Maria Temryukovna, who came from a family of Kabardian princes. After her death, Marfa Sobakina and Anna Koltovskaya alternately became wives. The third and fourth wives of the king were also chosen based on the results of the bride review, and the same one, since Martha died 2 weeks after the wedding.

This ended the number of legal marriages of the king, and further information becomes more confusing. These were 2 similarities of marriage (Anna Vasilchikova and Maria Nagaya), illuminated in reliable written sources. Probably, information about the later “wives” (Vasilisa Melentyeva and Maria Dolgorukaya) are legends or pure falsification

In 1567, through the plenipotentiary English ambassador Anthony Jenkinson, Ivan the Terrible negotiated a marriage with the English Queen Elizabeth I, and in 1583, through the nobleman Fyodor Pisemsky, he wooed a relative of the queen, Mary Hastings, without being embarrassed by the fact that he himself was at that time in Once again married.

A possible explanation for the large number of marriages, which was not typical for that time, is the assumption of K. Walishevsky that Ivan was a great lover of women, but at the same time he was also a great pedant in observing religious rituals and sought to possess a woman only as a legal husband. On the other hand, according to the Englishman Jerome Horsey, who knew the king personally, “he himself boasted that he had corrupted a thousand virgins and that thousands of his children had been deprived of their lives.” According to V.B. Kobrin, this statement, although it contains a clear exaggeration, clearly characterizes the tsar’s depravity. Grozny himself, in his spiritual writings, recognized both “fornication” simply and “supernatural fornication” in particular.

Children

sons

Daughters

• Anna Ioannovna(August 10, 1549-1550) - died before reaching the age of one year.
• Maria Ioannovna(March 17, 1551 - December 8, 1552) - died in infancy.
• Evdokia Ioannovna(February 26, 1556-1558) - died at the age of 3.

Personality of Ivan the Terrible

Cultural activities

Ivan IV was one of the most educated people of his time, he had a phenomenal memory and theological erudition.

According to the historian S. M. Solovyov,

not a single sovereign of ours ancient history He was not distinguished by such a desire and such ability to talk, argue, orally or in writing, in a people's square, at a church council, with a departed boyar or with foreign ambassadors, which is why he received the nickname of a rhetorician in the verbal wisdom.

He is the author of numerous letters (including to Kurbsky, Elizabeth I, Stefan Batory, Johan III, Vasily Gryazny, Jan Chodkiewicz, Jan Rokite, Prince Polubensky, to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery), stichera for the Presentation of the Vladimir Icon Mother of God, on the death of Peter, Metropolitan of Moscow and All Rus', Canon to the Angel the Terrible Voivode (under the pseudonym Parthenius the Ugly). In 1551, by order of the Tsar, the Moscow Council obliged clergy to organize schools in all cities for children for “learning to read and write, and for learning books.” letters and church psalter singing." The same cathedral approved the widespread use of polyphonic singing. On the initiative of Ivan the Terrible, something like a conservatory was created in Alexandrova Sloboda, where the best musical masters worked, such as Fyodor Krestyanin (Christian), Ivan Yuryev-Nos, brothers Potapovs, Tretyak Zverintsev, Savluk Mikhailov, Ivan Kalomnitin, crusade clerk Andreev. Ivan IV was a good speaker.

By order of the tsar, a unique literary monument was created - the Front Chronicle.

In order to set up a printing house in Moscow, the tsar turned to Christian II with a request to send book printers, and he sent to Moscow in 1552 through Hans Missingheim the Bible in Luther's translation and two Lutheran catechisms, but at the insistence of the Russian hierarchs the king's plan was to distribute the translations in several thousand copies was rejected.

Having founded the Printing House, the tsar contributed to the organization of book printing in Moscow and the construction of St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square. According to contemporaries, Ivan IV was “ a man of wonderful reasoning, in the science of book teaching he is content and very talkative" He loved to travel to monasteries and was interested in describing the lives of the great kings of the past. It is assumed that Ivan inherited from his grandmother Sophia Paleologus the most valuable library of the Morean despotates, which included ancient Greek manuscripts; what he did with it is unknown: according to some versions, the library of Ivan the Terrible died in one of the Moscow fires, according to others, it was hidden by the tsar. In the 20th century, the search undertaken by individual enthusiasts for the allegedly hidden library of Ivan the Terrible in the dungeons of Moscow became a story that constantly attracted the attention of journalists.

The choir of the sovereign's royal clerks included the largest Russian composers of that time, who enjoyed the patronage of Ivan IV, Fyodor Krestyanin (Christian) and Ivan Nos.

Tsar Ivan and the church

The rapprochement with the West under Ivan IV could not remain without foreigners coming to Russia talking with Russians and introducing the spirit of religious speculation and debate that was then dominant in the West.

In the fall of 1553, a council opened on the case of Matvey Bashkin and his accomplices. A number of charges were brought against the heretics: denial of the holy cathedral apostolic church, rejection of the worship of icons, denial of the power of repentance, disdain for the decrees of ecumenical councils, etc. The chronicle reports: “ Both the Tsar and the Metropolitan ordered him to be taken away and tortured for these reasons; he is a Christian confessing himself, hiding in himself the enemy’s charm, satanic heresy, because he thinks he’s crazy to hide from the All-Seeing Eye».

The most significant relations of the tsar with the saints Metropolitan Macarius, Metropolitan German, Metropolitan Philip, the Monk Cornelius of Pskov-Pechersk, as well as Archpriest Sylvester. The actions of the church councils that took place at that time are important, in particular the Stoglavy Council.

One of the manifestations of Ivan IV’s deep religiosity is his significant contributions to various monasteries. Numerous donations for the commemoration of the souls of people killed by his decree have no analogues not only in Russian, but also in European history. However, modern researchers note the initial profanation of this list (the inclusion of Orthodox Christians in it not by baptismal names, but by worldly nicknames, as well as Gentiles, “witch women,” etc.) and consider the synodik “just a kind of pledge, with the help of which the monarch hoped to “redeem” the soul of the deceased prince from the clutches of demons.” In addition, church historians, characterizing the personality of Ivan the Terrible, emphasize that “the fate of the metropolitans after St. Macarius is entirely on his conscience” (all of them were forcibly removed from the high priestly throne, and not even the graves of Metropolitans Athanasius, Cyril and Anthony survived). The mass executions of Orthodox priests and monks, the robberies of monasteries and the destruction of churches in the Novgorod lands and the estates of disgraced boyars also do not honor the tsar.

The question of canonization

At the end of the 20th century, part of the church and parachurch circles discussed the issue of canonization of Grozny. This idea met with categorical condemnation by the church hierarchy and the patriarch, who pointed out the historical failure of the rehabilitation of Grozny, its crimes before the church (the murder of saints), as well as those who rejected claims about his popular veneration.

The character of the king according to contemporaries

Ivan grew up in an atmosphere of palace conspiracies, a struggle for power among the warring boyar families of the Shuisky and Belsky. Therefore, it was believed that the murders, intrigues and violence that surrounded him contributed to the development of suspicion, vindictiveness and cruelty in him. S. Solovyov, analyzing the influence of the morals of the era on the character of Ivan IV, notes that he “did not recognize the moral, spiritual means for establishing truth and order, or, even worse, having realized it, he forgot about them; instead of healing, he intensified the disease, accustomed him even more to torture, bonfires and the chopping block.”

However, in the era of the Elected Rada, the tsar was described enthusiastically. One of his contemporaries writes about 30-year-old Grozny: “The custom of John is to keep himself pure before God. And in the temple, and in solitary prayer, and in the boyar council, and among the people, he has one feeling: “Let me rule, as the Almighty ordered his true Anointed to rule!” impartial judgment, the safety of each and everyone, the integrity of the states entrusted to him, the triumph of faith , the freedom of Christians is his constant thought. Burdened with affairs, he knows no other joys except a peaceful conscience, except the pleasure of fulfilling his duty; does not want the usual royal coolness... Affectionate towards the nobles and the people - loving, rewarding everyone according to their dignity - eradicating poverty with generosity, and evil - with an example of goodness, this God-born King wishes for the day Last Judgment hear the voice of mercy: “You are the King of righteousness!”

“He is so prone to anger that, while in it, he foams like a horse and goes as if into madness; in this state, he also gets angry at people he meets. - Ambassador Daniil Prince writes from Bukhov. - The cruelty that he often commits on his own, whether it originates in his nature, or in the baseness (malitia) of his subjects, I cannot say.<…>When he is at the table, then according to him right hand The eldest son sits down. He himself is of rude morals; for he rests his elbows on the table, and since he does not use any plates, he eats food by taking it with his hands, and sometimes he puts what he has not eaten back into the cup (in patinam). Before drinking or eating anything offered, he usually marks himself with a large cross and looks at the hanging images of the Virgin Mary and St. Nicholas.”

The historian Solovyov believes that it is necessary to consider the personality and character of the tsar in the context of his environment in his youth:

The historian will not utter a word of justification for such a person; he can only utter a word of regret if, peering carefully at the terrible image, under the gloomy features of the tormentor he notices the mournful features of the victim; for here, as elsewhere, the historian is obliged to point out the connection between the phenomena: the Shuiskys and their comrades sowed through self-interest, contempt for the common good, contempt for the life and honor of their neighbors - Grozny grew up.

- Solovyov S. M. History of Russia from ancient times.

Appearance

Evidence from contemporaries about the appearance of Ivan the Terrible is very scarce. All available portraits of him, according to K. Waliszewski, are of dubious authenticity. According to contemporaries, he was lean, tall and had a good physique. Ivan's eyes were blue with a penetrating gaze, although in the second half of his reign a gloomy and gloomy face was already noted. The king shaved his head, wore a large mustache and a thick reddish beard, which turned gray towards the end of his reign. “The Tale of the Book of Sowing from Previous Years” of the first third of the 17th century describes the ruler as follows: “ Tsar Ivan looks ridiculous, his eyes are gray, his nose is long, he gags; he is large in age, has a dry body, has high shoulders, wide chests, thick muscles; a man of wonderful reasoning, in the science of book veneration, he is content and eloquent...».

The Venetian ambassador Marco Foscarino in “Report on Muscovy” writes about the appearance of 27-year-old Ivan Vasilyevich: “Handsome in appearance.”

The German ambassador Daniil Prince, who visited Ivan the Terrible in Moscow twice, described the 46-year-old Tsar: “He is very tall. The body is full of strength and quite strong, large narrow eyes that observe everything most carefully. The jaw is prominent and courageous. His beard is red, with a slight tint of black, quite long and thick, curly, but, like most Russians, he shaves the hair on his head with a razor. In his hand is a staff with a heavy knob, symbolizing the strength of state power in Rus' and the great masculine dignity of the Tsar himself.”

In 1963, the tomb of Ivan the Terrible was opened in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The Tsar was buried in the vestments of a schemamonk. Based on the remains, it was established that Ivan the Terrible’s height was about 180 cm. In the last years of his life, his weight was 85-90 kg. Soviet scientist M. M. Gerasimov used the technique he developed to restore the appearance of Ivan the Terrible from the preserved skull and skeleton. Based on the results of the study, we can say that “by the age of 54, the king was already an old man, his face was covered with deep wrinkles, and there were huge bags under his eyes. Clearly expressed asymmetry (the left eye, collarbone and shoulder blade were much larger than the right ones), the heavy nose of the descendant of the Paleologians, and the disgustingly sensual mouth gave him an unattractive appearance.”

Board performance assessments

The dispute about the results of the reign of Ivan the Terrible began during his lifetime and continues at the present time.

In the eyes of contemporaries

J. Fletcher pointed out the increasing lack of rights of commoners, which negatively affected their motivation to work:

A. D. Litovchenko. Ivan the Terrible shows his treasures to the English ambassador Horsey. Canvas, oil. 1875. Russian Museum

I often saw how, having laid out their goods (such as furs, etc.), they kept looking around and looking at the doors, like people who are afraid that some enemy will overtake them and capture them. When I asked them why they were doing this, I found out that they doubted whether one of the royal nobles or some son of a boyar was among the visitors, and that they would not come with their accomplices and take from them by force all product.

That is why the people (although generally capable of enduring all kinds of labor) indulge in laziness and drunkenness, not caring about anything more than daily food. From the same thing, it happens that products characteristic of Russia (as mentioned above, such as wax, lard, leather, flax, hemp, etc.) are mined and exported abroad in quantities much smaller than before, for the people, being constrained and deprived of everything he gains, he loses all desire to work.

Assessing the results of the tsar’s activities to strengthen the autocracy and eradicate heresies, the German guardsman Staden wrote:

Although Almighty God punished the Russian land so hard and cruelly that no one can describe it, yet the current Grand Duke has achieved that throughout the Russian land, throughout his entire empire, there is one faith, one weight, one measure! He alone rules! Whatever he orders is carried out, and whatever he forbids really remains prohibited. No one will contradict him: neither the clergy nor the laity.

19th century historiography

Nikolai Karamzin described Ivan the Terrible as a great and wise sovereign in the first half of his reign, and a merciless tyrant in the second:

Between other difficult experiences of Fate, in addition to the disasters of the Appanage system, in addition to the yoke of the Mughals, Russia had to experience the threat of the tormenting autocrat: it resisted with love for the autocracy, because it believed that God sends plagues and earthquakes and tyrants; did not break the iron scepter in the hands of John and endured the destroyer for twenty-four years, arming herself only with prayer and patience, so that in better times she would have Peter the Great, Catherine the Second (History does not like to name the living). In magnanimous humility, the sufferers died on frontal place, like the Greeks in Thermopylae for the fatherland, for Faith and Loyalty, without even a thought of rebellion. In vain, some foreign historians, excusing Ioannova’s cruelty, wrote about conspiracies that were supposedly destroyed by her: these conspiracies existed only in the vague mind of the Tsar, according to all the evidence of our chronicles and state papers. The clergy, Boyars, famous citizens would not have summoned the beast from the den of Sloboda Aleksandrovskaya if they had been plotting treason, which was brought against them as absurdly as sorcery. No, the tiger reveled in the blood of lambs - and the victims, dying in innocence, with their last glance at the disastrous land demanded justice, a touching memory from their contemporaries and posterity!

John's good fame outlived his bad fame in people's memory: the lamentations fell silent, the sacrifices decayed, and the old traditions were eclipsed by the newest ones.

From the point of view of Nikolai Kostomarov, almost all the achievements during the reign of Ivan the Terrible occurred in the initial period of his reign, when the young tsar was not yet an independent figure and was under the close tutelage of the leaders of the Elected Rada. The subsequent period of Ivan’s reign was marked by numerous foreign and domestic political failures. Kostomarov draws the reader’s attention to the contents of the “Spiritual Testament” compiled by Ivan the Terrible around 1572, according to which the country was supposed to be divided between the tsar’s sons into semi-independent fiefs. The historian argues that this path would lead to the actual destruction of a single state according to a scheme well known in Rus'.

Sergei Solovyov saw the main pattern of Grozny’s activity in the transition from “tribal” relations to “state” ones, which were completed by the oprichnina (“... in the will of John IV, the appanage prince becomes a completely subject of the Grand Duke, the elder brother, who already bears the title of tsar. This is the main, fundamental phenomenon - the transition of tribal relations between princes into state ones..."). (Ivan Boltin pointed out that, as in Western Europe, feudal fragmentation in Rus' is being replaced by political unification, and compared Ivan IV with Louis XI; the same comparison of Ivan with Louis is also noted by Karamzin).

Vasily Klyuchevsky considered Ivan’s internal policy aimless: “The question of state order turned for him into a question of personal safety, and he, like an overly frightened person, began to strike right and left, without distinguishing between friends and enemies”; the oprichnina, from his point of view, prepared “real sedition” - the Time of Troubles.

Historiography of the 20th century

S. F. Platonov saw the strengthening of Russian statehood in the activities of Ivan the Terrible, but condemned him for the fact that “a complex political matter was further complicated by unnecessary torture and gross debauchery”, and that the reforms “took on the character of general terror.”

R. Yu. Vipper considered Ivan the Terrible in the early 1920s as a brilliant organizer and creator of a major power; in particular, he wrote about him: “Ivan the Terrible, a contemporary of Elizabeth of England, Philip II of Spain and William of Orange, the leader of the Dutch Revolution, had solve military, administrative and international problems similar to the goals of the creators of the new European powers, but in a much more difficult situation. His talents as a diplomat and organizer perhaps surpass them all.” Whipper justified tough measures in domestic politics by seriousness international situation, in which Russia was located: “The division of the reign of Ivan the Terrible into two different eras included at the same time an assessment of the personality and activities of Ivan the Terrible: it served as the main basis for belittling him historical role, to include him among the greatest tyrants. Unfortunately, when analyzing this issue, most historians focused their attention on changes in the internal life of the Moscow state and paid little attention to the international situation in which (it) found itself during... the reign of Ivan IV. Severe critics seemed to have forgotten that the entire second half of the reign of Ivan the Terrible took place under the sign of a continuous war, and, moreover, the most difficult war that the Great Russian state had ever waged.”

At that time, Vipper’s views were rejected by Soviet science (in the 1920-1930s, which saw Grozny as an oppressor of the people who prepared serfdom), but were subsequently supported during the period when the personality and activities of Ivan the Terrible received official approval from Stalin. During this period, Grozny’s terror was justified by the fact that the oprichnina “finally and forever broke the boyars, made it impossible to restore the order of feudal fragmentation and consolidated the foundations of the political system of the Russian national state”; This approach continued the concept of Solovyov - Platonov, but was complemented by the idealization of the image of Ivan.

In the 1940s-1950s, Academician S.B. Veselovsky studied a lot about Ivan the Terrible, who did not have the opportunity, due to the prevailing position at that time, to publish his main works during his lifetime; he abandoned the idealization of Ivan the Terrible and the oprichnina and introduced a large number of new materials into scientific circulation. Veselovsky saw the roots of terror in the conflict between the monarch and the administration (the Sovereign's court as a whole), and not specifically with the large feudal boyars; he believed that in practice Ivan did not change the status of the boyars and the general order of governing the country, but limited himself to the destruction of specific real and imaginary opponents (Klyuchevsky already pointed out that Ivan “beat not only the boyars and not even the boyars primarily”).

At first, the concept of “statist” domestic policy A. A. Zimin also supported Ivan, speaking about justified terror against feudal lords who betrayed national interests. Subsequently, Zimin accepted Veselovsky’s concept of the absence of a systematic fight against the boyars; in his opinion, the oprichnina terror had the most destructive effect on the Russian peasantry. Zimin recognized both the crimes and state services of Grozny:

For Russia, the reign of Ivan the Terrible remained one of the darkest periods in its history. The defeat of the reform movement, the outrages of the oprichnina, the “Novgorod pogrom” - these are some of the milestones of Grozny’s bloody path. However, let's be fair. Nearby are the milestones of another path - the transformation of Russia into a huge power, which included the lands of the Kazan and Astrakhan Khanates, Western Siberia from the Arctic Ocean to the Caspian Sea, reforms in the governance of the country, strengthening the international prestige of Russia, expanding trade and cultural ties with the countries of Europe and Asia

V. B. Kobrin assesses the results of the oprichnina extremely negatively:

“Scribe books compiled in the first decades after the oprichnina give the impression that the country experienced a devastating enemy invasion. “In the void” lies not only more than half, but sometimes up to 90 percent of the land, sometimes for many years. Even in the central Moscow district, only about 16 percent of arable land was cultivated. There are frequent references to “arable fallow land,” which has already been “overgrown with bushes,” “overgrown with a forest-grove,” and even “with forest overgrown into a log, into a stake, and into a pole”: the timber has managed to grow on the former arable land. Many landowners became so ruined that they abandoned their estates, from where all the peasants fled, and turned into beggars - “dragging between the yard.”

The internal policy of Ivan IV, after a streak of failures during the Livonian War and as a result of the sovereign’s own desire to establish undivided royal power, acquired a terrorist character and in the second half of his reign was marked by the establishment of the oprichnina (6 years), mass executions and murders, the defeat of Novgorod and atrocities in other cities (Tver, Klin, Torzhok). The oprichnina was accompanied by thousands of victims, and, according to many historians, its results, together with the results of a long and unsuccessful war, led the state to a socio-political crisis.

Positive characteristics

Despite the fact that in Russian historiography there has traditionally been a negative image of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, there was also a direction in it that was inclined to positively evaluate his results. As a general assessment of the results of the reign of Ivan IV, determined by historians adhering to this point of view, the following can be indicated:

Assessing the results of the heyday of the Russian state, the author (R. G. Skrynnikov) mentions the end of feudal strife, the unification of lands, the reforms of Ivan the Terrible, which strengthened the system of government and the armed forces. This made it possible to crush the last fragments of the Golden Horde on the Volga - the Kazan and Astrakhan kingdoms.

But next to this, at the same time, there were Russia’s failures in the Livonian War (1558-1583) for access to the Baltic, there were crop failures in the 60s. XVI century, famine, plague that devastated the country. There was discord between Ivan IV and the boyars, the division of the state into zemshchina and oprichnina, oprichnina intrigues and executions (1565-1572) , weakened the state. ...the invasion of the 40,000-strong Crimean horde, the large and small Nagai hordes on Moscow in 1571, the battle of Russian regiments with a new invasion in the summer of 1572 on the approaches to Moscow; the battle of Molodi, near the Danilov Monastery in July 1591. Those battles became victories.

S. V. Bushuev, G. E. Mironov. History of Russian Goverment

In addition, historians who are of the opinion about the beneficial influence of the reign of Ivan the Terrible on the development of the Russian state cite the following statements as positive results of his reign:

1) Preservation of the country's independence. With sufficient grounds for comparing the scale of the Battle of Kulikovo with the Battle of Molodi (participation of 5 thousand in the first, for example, according to S. B. Veselovsky or 60 thousand according to V. N. Tatishchev, and over 20 thousand in the second - according to R. G. Skrynnikov), the latter also had epochal significance for further development state: the imminent danger of regular devastating Tatar-Mongol expansion was ended; “The chain of Tatar ‘kingdoms’, stretching from Crimea to Siberia, was forever broken.”

2) Formation of defense lines; “...a curious and important feature in the activities of the Moscow government in the darkest and darkest time in the life of Grozny - during the years of its political failures and internal terror... - concern for strengthening the southern border of the state and populating the “wild field”. Under pressure from many reasons, the Grozny government began a series of coordinated measures to defend its southern outskirts...”

Together with the crushing defeat of the troops of the Crimean Khanate, with the Astrakhan Khanate, - “The Capture of Kazan” (1552) opened the way for the Russians to the lower reaches of the great Russian river Volga and to the Caspian Sea.” “Among the continuous failures of the end of the war (Livonian) the Siberian capture of Ermak flashed like lightning in the darkness of the night,” predetermining, along with the strengthening of the success of the previous points, the prospect for further expansion of the state in these directions, with the death of Ermak, ““under the high royal hand” the Moscow government took upon itself, sending to Siberia , to the aid of the Cossacks, their governors with the “sovereign servicemen” and with the “people” (artillery)”; and as for the eastern direction of expansion, the fact that already “half a century after the death of Ermak, the Russians reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean” speaks for itself.

“The Livonian War of Grozny was a timely intervention by Moscow in the paramount international struggle for the right to use the Baltic sea routes.” And even in an unsuccessful campaign, most of the most thorough researchers trace positive factors to the fact that at that time there was long-term trade with Europe by sea (via Narva), and that subsequently, a hundred years later extra years implemented and developed as one of the main directions of his policy by Peter.

“The old view of the oprichnina as a senseless undertaking of a crazy tyrant has been abolished. It is seen as applying to the large landed Moscow aristocracy the “conclusion” that the Moscow government usually applied to the commanding classes of the conquered lands. The withdrawal of large landowners from their “patrimony” was accompanied by the fragmentation of their holdings and the transfer of land to the conditional use of small service people. This destroyed the old nobility and strengthened the new social layer“children of the boyars,” oprichnina servants of the great sovereign.”

3) The general state of culture is characterized by an upsurge, the mature development of which became possible only after overcoming the turmoil. “The Crimean raids and terrible fires caused heavy damage to Moscow and Muscovites during the reign of John IV Vasilyevich. Moscow recovered slowly after that. “But the reign of Ivan the Terrible,” according to I.K. Kondratiev, “was still one of the remarkable reigns that left the stamp of special greatness on Moscow, and with it on the whole of Russia.” Indeed, during these years the first Zemsky Sobor took place in Moscow, Stoglav was created, the kingdoms of Kazan and Astrakhan were conquered, Siberia was annexed, trade with the British began (1553) (as well as with Persia and Central Asia), the first printing house was opened, Arkhangelsk, Kungur and Ufa were built, the Bashkirs were accepted into Russian citizenship, the Don Cossacks were established, the famous Church of the Intercession was erected in memory of the conquest of the Kazan kingdom, better known as St. Basil.” The Streletsky Army was established.

However, critics of this approach point to the small role that Ivan IV himself played in all these events. Thus, the main commander who ensured the conquest of Kazan in 1552 was Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky, while previous campaigns against Kazan in 1547 and 1549, led by Ivan IV personally, ended in failure. Subsequently, Gorbaty-Shuisky was executed by order of Ivan the Terrible. The initial successes in Livonia and the capture of Polotsk are associated with the name of the talented commander Pyotr Shuisky, after whose death military successes in the Livonian War ceased. Victory over the superior forces of the Crimean Tatars at Molodi was ensured thanks to the military talents of Mikhail Vorotynsky and Dmitry Khvorostinin, and the former was also subsequently repressed by Ivan. Ivan the Terrible himself, both during the first Crimean campaign in 1571 and during the second in 1572, fled from Moscow and waited out the hostilities in Novgorod and Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. In addition, it is believed that Ivan the Terrible was very distrustful of watchmen, who guarded the southern borders and from the executions of the tsar, many boyar children fled to Crimea, one of whom, Kudeyar Tishenkov, subsequently led the Crimeans along roundabout routes to Moscow. Also, cultural studies researchers point to a tenuous connection between political regime state and cultural state of society.

According to a FOM survey conducted in the fall of 2016, the overwhelming majority of Russians (71%) have a positive assessment of the role of Ivan the Terrible in history. 65% of Russians would approve of the installation of a monument to Ivan the Terrible in their locality.

Ivan the Terrible in culture

S. A. Kirillov. "Ivan groznyj". 1990

Cinema

• The Death of Ivan the Terrible (1909) - actor A. Slavin
• Song about the merchant Kalashnikov (1909) - actor Ivan Potemkin
• Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible (1915) - actor Fyodor Chaliapin
• The Wax Cabinet / Das Wachsfigurenkabinett (1924) - Conrad Veidt
• Wings of a Serf (1926) - Leonid Leonidov
• Pioneer printer Ivan Fedorov (1941) - Pavel Springfeld
• Ivan the Terrible (1944) - Nikolay Cherkasov
• The Tsar's Bride (1965) - Petr Glebov
• Sport, sport, sport (1970) - Igor Klass
• Ivan Vasilyevich changes profession (1973) - Yuri Yakovlev
• Tsar Ivan the Terrible (1991) - Kakhi Kavsadze
• Kremlin secrets of the sixteenth century (1991) - Alexey Zharkov
• Revelation of John the Prime Printer (1991) - Innokenty Smoktunovsky
• Thunderstorm over Russia (1992) - Oleg Borisov
• Ermak (1996) - Evgeniy Evstigneev
• Old songs about the main thing 3 (1997) - Yuri Yakovlev
• Miracles in Reshetov (2004) - Ivan Gordienko
• Tsar (2009) - Peter Mamonov
• Ivan the Terrible (2009 television series) - Alexander Demidov
• Night at the Museum 2 (2009) - Christopher Guest
• Terrible time (2010) - Oleg Dolin
• Treasures O.K. (2013) - Gosha Kutsenko

Theater

• Ivan the Terrible (1943) is a play in two parts by Alexei Nikolaevich Tolstoy.
• Ivan Vasilievich (1936) - play by Mikhail Bulgakov.
• The Death of Ivan the Terrible is a play by Alexei Konstantinovich Tolstoy. It is the beginning of the trilogy “The Death of Ivan the Terrible. Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich. Tsar Boris."
• Woman of Pskov (1871) - opera by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. Written based on the plot of the play of the same name by Lev May.
• Vasilisa Melentyevna (1867) - play by Alexander Ostrovsky.
• The Great Sovereign (1945) - play by Vladimir Solovyov.
• Marfa Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novagorod (1809) - play by Fyodor Ivanov.
• 2016 - Chronicles “Ivan the Terrible” at the Municipal Theater. M. M. Bakhtin (Orel). Director - Valery Simonenko

Literature

• The novel-trilogy “Ivan the Terrible” by V. I. Kostylev (Stalin Prize 2nd degree for 1948).
• “Prince Silver. The Tale of the Times of Ivan the Terrible" by A. K. Tolstoy
• “Kudeyar” by N. I. Kostomarov
• The novel “The Third Rome” by L. Zhdanov
• "Ivan the Terrible" by Henri Troyat
• "Ivan IV. Grozny" by E. Radzinsky
• “Ivan the Terrible” R. Payne, N. Romanov
• “Corsairs of Ivan the Terrible” by K. S. Badigin
• “Kings and Wanderers” by V. A. Usov
• “Faces of immortal power. Tsar Ivan the Terrible” by A. A. Ananyeva
• “The Secret Year” by M. Gigolashvili

Music

• Songs “The Terrible Tsar” and “Tsar John” by Zhanna Bichevskaya
• Song “Ivan the Terrible kills the son of Ivan” by Alexander Gorodnitsky
• The song "The Terrible One" by German heavy metal band Grave Digger.

art

• Three paintings dedicated to the death of the son of Ivan the Terrible:
  • Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan November 16, 1581 Repina I. E. (1885).
  • Ivan the Terrible at the tomb of the son he killed Shustova N. S.(1860s).
  • Ivan the Terrible near the body of his son he killed Schwartz V. G.
• Death of Ivan the Terrible (painting by Konstantin Makovsky, 1888)
• Two paintings dedicated to Vasilisa Melentyevna:
  • Vasilisa Melentyevna and Ivan the Terrible Nevreva N.V.(1880s).
  • Tsar Ivan the Terrible admires Vasilisa Melentyevna Sedova G. S. (1875)
• Tsar Ivan the Terrible Vasnetsova V. M. (1897).
• Oprichniki Nevreva N.V.(formerly 1904)Painting.
• Ivan the Terrible and Malyuta Skuratov Sedova G. S. Painting.
• Tsar Ivan the Terrible in the cell of the holy fool Nicholas Salos Pelevina I. A. Painting
• Tsar Ivan the Terrible asks Abbot Kirill (Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery) to bless him to become a monk Lebedeva K.V. Painting.
• Ivan the Terrible shows treasures to the English ambassador Horsey Litovchenko A. D. (1875).
• Metropolitan Philip refuses to bless Tsar Ivan the Terrible (Engraving based on the painting V. V. Pukireva).
• Ivan groznyj. Sculpture by Mark Antokolsky.

Monuments

• On October 1, 2016, in Orel, founded by decree of Ivan the Terrible, the first monument in Russian history was erected on the embankment near the Epiphany Cathedral at the confluence of the Oka and Orlik rivers. October 14, 2016, in the presence of the governor of the Oryol region Vadim Potomsky, writer Alexander Prokhanov, leader of the “Essence of Time” movement Sergei Kurginyan, leader of the biker club “Night Wolves” Alexander “Surgeon” Zaldostanov and large quantity townspeople, took place Grand opening monument.
• On November 4, 2017, in the village of Irkovo, Aleksandrovsky district, a monument to Ivan the Terrible was erected using public money. The author of the bust is Alexander Apollonov.

Computer games

• In Age of Empires III, Ivan the Terrible is introduced as the leader of the Russian civilization.
• In Night at the Museum 2, Ivan the Terrible is introduced as one of the four main villains, along with Al Capone, Kamunra and Napoleon.

On January 16, 1547, Ivan the 4th was solemnly crowned king and took the title of Tsar and Grand Duke of All Rus'. The procession was solemn, and its formality contributed to the strengthening of the autocracy, the authority of the central government and legitimacy in the eyes of the governments of the Western powers.

Ivan the 4th's participation in state activities began with the creation of the State Duma, which operated from 1549 to 1560 and was the body conducting the reform efforts of the new tsar. Already in February 1549, Ivan the 4th announced the preparation of reforms.

In 1550, Ivan the 4th, at a council of representatives of the regions of Rus', harshly denounced the abuses of boyar power and promised to personally protect the people from the atrocities of the boyars.

In December 1564, the king and his entire family unexpectedly left the capital. Stopping in Alexandrova Sloboda, he turned to the people demanding reprisals against traitors at his “royal” discretion and the establishment of an oprichnina. This was the condition for his return to the throne.

A delegation of clergy and boyars went to the tsar with a request to return and rule “as he pleases, according to his sovereign will.” Ivan returned to Moscow in February 1565 and announced the conditions under which he would take back power: traitors and disobedients should be executed, their property taken into the treasury. With the introduction of the oprichnina, the country was divided into two parts: the zemshchina, which was governed by orders, and the oprichnina, in which a parallel system of governing bodies and an army of 6 thousand oprichniki were created.

The oprichnina included the most developed, as well as economically and strategically conveniently located regions of the country. Noble guardsmen settled on these lands; their maintenance was the responsibility of the zemstvo.

The oprichnina was created to combat alleged treason among the feudal lords. Immediately after its establishment, bloody terror began throughout the country. The path of centralization through the oprichnina turned out to be tragic for the country.