Dutch still life of the 16th–17th centuries - a unique mind game, in which the viewer was asked to unravel certain signs. What was easily understood by contemporaries is not clear to everyone today and not always.
What do the objects depicted by the artists mean?
John Calvin (1509-1564, French theologian, church reformer, founder of Calvinism) taught that everyday things have hidden meanings, and behind every image there should be a moral lesson. Objects depicted in still life have multiple meanings: they were endowed with edifying, religious or other connotations. For example, oysters were considered an erotic symbol, and this was obvious to contemporaries: oysters allegedly stimulated sexual potency, and Venus, the goddess of love, was born from a shell. On the one hand, oysters hinted at worldly temptations, on the other, an open shell meant a soul ready to leave the body, that is, it promised salvation. Of course, there were no strict rules on how to read a still life, and the viewer guessed exactly the symbols on the canvas that he wanted to see. In addition, we must not forget that each object was part of the composition and could be read in different ways - depending on the context and the overall message of the still life.Floral still life
Until the 18th century, a bouquet of flowers, as a rule, symbolized frailty, because earthly joys are as transitory as the beauty of a flower. The symbolism of plants is especially complex and ambiguous, and books of emblems, popular in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, helped to grasp the meaning, where allegorical illustrations and mottos were accompanied by explanatory texts. Floral arrangements were not easy to interpret: the same flower had many meanings, sometimes directly opposite. For example, the narcissus indicated narcissism and was at the same time considered a symbol of the Mother of God. In still lifes, as a rule, both meanings of the image were preserved, and the viewer was free to choose one of the two meanings or combine them.
Floral arrangements were often supplemented with fruits, small objects, and images of animals. These images expressed the main idea of the work, emphasizing the motif of transience, decay, the sinfulness of everything earthly and the incorruptibility of virtue.
Jan Davids de Heem.
Flowers in a vase.
In the painting by Jan Davids de Heem, at the base of the vase, the artist depicted symbols of mortality: withered and broken flowers, crumbling petals and dried pea pods. Here is a snail - it is associated with the soul of a sinner. In the center of the bouquet we see symbols of modesty and purity: wildflowers, violets and forget-me-nots. They are surrounded by tulips, symbolizing fading beauty and senseless waste (growing tulips in Holland was considered one of the most vain activities and, moreover, expensive); lush roses and poppies, reminiscent of the fragility of life. The composition is crowned with two large flowers that have a positive meaning. The blue iris represents remission of sins and indicates the possibility of salvation through virtue. The red poppy, which was traditionally associated with sleep and death, changed its interpretation due to its location in the bouquet: here it signifies the atoning sacrifice of Christ.
Other symbols of salvation are ears of bread, and a butterfly sitting on a stalk represents the immortal soul.
Jan Bauman.
Flowers, fruits and a monkey. First half of the 17th century.
Painting by Jan Bauman “Flowers, Fruits and a Monkey” - good example semantic multi-layeredness and ambiguity of the still life and the objects on it. At first glance, the combination of plants and animals seems random. In fact, this still life also reminds us of the transience of life and the sinfulness of earthly existence. Each depicted object conveys a certain idea: a snail and a lizard in in this case indicate the mortality of everything earthly; a tulip lying near a bowl of fruit symbolizes rapid fading; shells scattered on the table hint at an unwise waste of money; and the monkey with the peach indicates original sin and depravity. On the other hand, a fluttering butterfly and fruits: bunches of grapes, apples, peaches and pears speak of the immortality of the soul and the atoning sacrifice of Christ. On another, allegorical level, the fruits, fruits, flowers and animals presented in the picture represent four elements: shells and snails - water; butterfly - air; fruits and flowers - earth; monkey - fire.
Still life in a butcher shop
Peter Aartsen.
The Butcher Shop, or the Kitchen with the Flight to Egypt Scene. 1551
The image of a butcher shop has traditionally been associated with the idea of physical life, the personification of the element of earth, as well as gluttony. Painted by Peter Aartsen
Almost the entire space is occupied by a table laden with food. We see many types of meat: killed poultry and dressed carcasses, liver and ham, hams and sausages. These images symbolize excess, gluttony and attachment to carnal pleasures. Now let's turn our attention to the background. On the left side of the picture, in the window opening, there is a gospel scene of the flight to Egypt, which contrasts sharply with the still life in the foreground. The Virgin Mary hands the last loaf of bread to a beggar girl. Note that the window is located above the dish, where two fish lie crosswise (symbol of the crucifixion) - a symbol of Christianity and Christ. On the right in the background is a tavern. A cheerful group sits at a table by the fire, drinks and eats oysters, which, as we remember, are associated with lust. A butchered carcass hangs next to the table, indicating the inevitability of death and the fleeting nature of earthly joys. A butcher in a red shirt dilutes wine with water. This scene echoes the main idea of the still life and refers to the Parable of prodigal son. The scene in the tavern, as well as the butcher shop full of dishes, speaks of an idle, dissolute life, attachment to earthly pleasures, pleasant for the body, but destructive for the soul. In the scene of the flight to Egypt, the characters practically turn their backs to the viewer: they move deeper into the picture, away from the butcher shop. This is a metaphor for escape from a dissolute life full of sensual pleasures. Giving up them is one of the ways to save the soul.
Still life in a fish shop
The fish still life is an allegory of the water element. Works of this kind, like butchers' shops, were often part of the so-called elemental cycle and, as a rule, were created to decorate palace dining rooms. In the foreground of Frans Snyders's painting "The Fish Shop" there are many fish depicted. There are perches and sturgeon, crucian carp, catfish, salmon and other seafood here. Some have already been cut up, some are waiting their turn. These images of fish do not carry any subtext - they glorify the wealth of Flanders.
Frans Snyders.
Fish shop. 1616
Next to the boy we see a basket with gifts that he received for St. Nicholas Day. This is indicated by the wooden red shoes tied to the basket. In addition to sweets, fruits and nuts, the basket contains rods - as a hint at education with “carrot and stick”. The contents of the basket speak of the joys and sorrows of human life, which constantly replace each other. The woman explains to the child that obedient children receive gifts, and bad children receive punishment. The boy recoiled in horror: he thought that instead of sweets he would receive blows with rods. On the right we see a window opening through which we can see the city square. A group of children stands under the windows and joyfully greets the puppet jester on the balcony. The jester is an integral attribute of folk holiday festivities.
Still life with a set table
In numerous variations of table settings on the canvases of Dutch masters we see bread and pies, nuts and lemons, sausages and hams, lobsters and crayfish, dishes with oysters, fish or empty shells. These still lifes can be understood depending on the set of objects.
Gerrit Willems Heda.
Ham and silverware. 1649
In Gerrit Willems Heda's painting we see a dish, a jug, a tall glass goblet and an overturned vase, a mustard pot, a ham, a crumpled napkin and a lemon. This is Heda's traditional and favorite set. The arrangement of objects and their choice are not random. Silverware symbolizes earthly riches and their futility, ham - carnal pleasures, attractive in appearance and sour inside, lemon personifies betrayal. An extinguished candle indicates the frailty and fleetingness of human existence, a mess on the table indicates destruction. A tall glass “flute” glass (in the 17th century such glasses were used as a measuring container with marks) is as fragile as human life, and at the same time symbolizes moderation and a person’s ability to control his impulses. In general, in this still life, as in many other “breakfasts,” the theme of vanity and the meaninglessness of earthly pleasures is played out with the help of objects.
Peter Claes.
Still life with a brazier, herring, oysters and a smoking pipe. 1624
Most of the objects depicted in Peter Claes's still life are erotic symbols. Oysters, pipe, wine refer to brief and dubious carnal pleasures. But this is just one option for reading a still life. Let's look at these images from a different angle. Thus, shells are symbols of the frailty of the flesh; a pipe, with which they not only smoked, but also blew soap bubbles, is a symbol of the suddenness of death. Claes's contemporary, the Dutch poet Willem Godschalk van Fockenborch, wrote in his poem “My Hope is Smoke”:
As you can see, being is akin to smoking a pipe,
And I really don’t know what the difference is:
One is just a breeze, the other is just a smoke.
The theme of the transience of human existence is contrasted with the immortality of the soul, and signs of frailty suddenly turn out to be symbols of salvation. The bread and glass of wine in the background are associated with the body and blood of Jesus and indicate the sacrament of the sacrament. Herring - another symbol of Christ - reminds us of fasting and Lenten food. And open shells with oysters can change their negative meaning to the exact opposite, denoting the human soul, separated from the body and ready to enter into eternal life.
Different levels of interpretation of objects subtly tell the viewer that a person is always free to choose between the spiritual and eternal and the earthly transitory.
Vanitas, or "Scientist" still life
The genre of the so-called “scientific” still life was called vanitas - translated from Latin it means “vanity of vanities”, in other words - “memento mori” (“remember death”). This is the most intellectual type of still life, an allegory of the eternity of art, the frailty of earthly glory and human life
Jurian van Streck.
Vanity of vanities. 1670
The sword and helmet with a luxurious plume in the painting by Jurian van Streck indicate the fleeting nature of earthly glory. The hunting horn symbolizes wealth that cannot be taken with you into another life. In “scientific” still lifes there are often images of open books or carelessly lying papers with inscriptions. They not only invite you to think about the objects depicted, but also allow you to use them for their intended purpose: read open pages or play music written in a notebook. Van Streck depicted a sketch of a boy's head and an open book: this is Sophocles' tragedy Electra, translated into Dutch. These images indicate that art is eternal. But the pages of the book are curled and the drawing is wrinkled. These are signs of the beginning of corruption, hinting that after death even art will not be useful. The skull also speaks of the inevitability of death, but the ear of bread entwined around it symbolizes the hope of resurrection and eternal life. TO mid-17th century centuries, a skull entwined with an ear of grain or evergreen ivy will become a mandatory subject for depiction in still lifes in the vanitas style.
Willem Claes Hedda. Still life with pie, 1627
The “golden” age of still life was the 17th century, when it finally took shape as an independent genre of painting, especially in the works of the Dutch and Flemish artists. At the same time, the term “quiet, frozen life” (Dutch stilleven, German Stilleben, English still-life) appeared to denote still lifes. The first “stillevens” were simple in plot, but even then the objects depicted on them also carried a semantic load: bread, a glass of wine, fish - symbols of Christ, a knife - a symbol of sacrifice, lemon - a symbol of unquenched thirst; nuts in the shell - a soul shackled by sin; the apple is reminiscent of the Fall.
Gradually, the symbolic language of the painting became richer.
Franciscus Geysbrechts, XVII century.
The symbols found on the canvases were intended to remind us of the frailty of human life and the transience of pleasures and achievements:
The skull is a reminder of the inevitability of death.
Rotten fruits are a symbol of aging.
Ripe fruits symbolize fertility, abundance, figuratively wealth and prosperity.
A number of fruits have their own meaning: the Fall is represented by pears, tomatoes, citrus fruits, grapes, peaches and cherries, and of course, the apple. Figs, plums, cherries, apples or peaches have erotic connotations.
Sprouts of grain, branches of ivy or laurel (rarely) are a symbol of rebirth and the cycle of life.
Sea shells, sometimes living snails - a mollusk shell is the remains of a once living animal; it signifies death and mortality.
The creeping snail is the personification of the mortal sin of laziness.
Large clams denote duality of nature, a symbol of lust, another of the deadly sins.
Soap bubbles - the brevity of life and the suddenness of death; a reference to the expression homo bulla - “a person is a soap bubble.”
A dying, smoking candle (cinder) or oil lamp; cap for extinguishing candles - a burning candle is a symbol of the human soul, its extinguishing symbolizes departure.
Cups, playing cards or dice, chess (rarely) - a sign of an erroneous life goal, a search for pleasure and a sinful life. Equality of opportunity in gambling also meant reprehensible anonymity.
A smoking pipe is a symbol of fleeting and elusive earthly pleasures.
A carnival mask is a sign of the absence of a person inside it. Also intended for festive masquerade, irresponsible pleasure.
Mirrors, glass (mirror) balls - a mirror is a symbol of vanity, in addition, it is also a sign of reflection, shadow, and not a real phenomenon.
Beyeren. Still life with lobster, 1667
Broken dishes, usually glass glasses. An empty glass opposed to a full one symbolizes death.
Glass symbolizes fragility, snow-white porcelain symbolizes purity.
The mortar and pestle are symbols of male and female sexuality.
The bottle is a symbol of the sin of drunkenness.
A knife reminds us of human vulnerability and mortality.
Hourglass and mechanical watches - the transience of time.
Musical instruments, notes - the brevity and ephemeral nature of life, a symbol of the arts.
Books and geographical maps (mappa mundi), a writing pen is a symbol of science. The globe, both the earth and the starry sky.
A palette with tassels, a laurel wreath (usually on the head of a skull) are symbols of painting and poetry.
Letters symbolize human relationships.
Medical instruments are a reminder of the diseases and frailty of the human body.
Wallets with coins, boxes with jewelry - jewelry and cosmetics are intended to create beauty, feminine attractiveness, at the same time they are associated with vanity, narcissism and the mortal sin of arrogance. They also signal the absence of their owners on the canvas.
Weapons and armor are a symbol of power and might, a designation of what cannot be taken with you to the grave.
Crowns and papal tiaras, scepters and orbs, wreaths of leaves are signs of transient earthly domination, which is opposed to the heavenly world order. Like masks, they symbolize the absence of those who wore them.
Keys - symbolize the power of the housewife managing supplies.
Ruins symbolize the transitory life of those who once inhabited them.
Still lifes often depicted insects, birds and animals. Flies and spiders, for example, were considered symbols of stinginess and evil, while lizards and snakes were symbols of deceit. Crayfish or lobsters represented adversity or wisdom.
Jacques Andre Joseph Aved. Around 1670.
The book is Sophocles' tragedy “Electra” - in this case, the symbol is multi-valued. By placing it in the composition, the artist reminds of the inevitability of retribution for every crime, not on earth, but in heaven, since it is precisely this thought that permeates the tragedy. The antique motif in such still lifes often symbolized the continuity of art. On title page stands the name of the translator, the famous Dutch poet Joost van den Vondel, whose works on ancient and biblical stories were so topical that he was even persecuted. It is unlikely that the artist placed Vondel by accident - it is possible that, speaking about the vanity of the world, he decided to mention the vanity of power.
The sword and helmet are the emblem of transitory military glory.
The white and red plume is the compositional center of the picture. Feathers always mean vanity and vanity. The painting is dated based on the plumed helmet. Lodewijk van der Helst depicted him wearing such a helmet in his posthumous portrait of Admiral Stirlingwerf in 1670. The admiral's helmet is present in several more still lifes by van Streck.
Portrait of a sanguine. Unlike oil, sanguine is very poorly preserved, as is paper in contrast to canvas. This sheet speaks of the futility of the artist’s efforts; the frayed and torn edges are intended to reinforce this idea.
Golden fringe is the vanity of luxury.
Skull - in ancient culture attribute of Kronos (Saturn), that is, a symbol of time. The Wheel of Fortune was also depicted with a skull. For Christians, it is a sign of worldly vanity, mental contemplation of death, an attribute of hermit life. Saint Francis of Assisi, Saint Jerome, Mary Magdalene, and the Apostle Paul were depicted with him. The skull is also a symbol of the eternal life of Christ, crucified on Golgotha, where, according to legend, the skull of Adam was buried. The ear wrapped around the skull is a symbol of the immortality of the soul (“I am the bread of life” - John 6:48), hope for eternal life.
A stack of old papers is the vanity of knowledge.
A powder horn on a chain is a very characteristic item for Dutch still life. Here it, apparently, should be interpreted as something that brings death, in contrast to the cornucopia
Adrian van Utrecht."Vanitas". 1642.
lilies of the valley, violets, forget-me-nots surrounded by roses, carnations, anemones - symbols of modesty and purity;
a large flower in the center of the composition is the “crown of virtue”;
crumbled petals near the vase are signs of frailty;
a withered flower is a hint of the disappearance of feelings;
irises are a sign of the Virgin Mary;
white roses – platonic love and a symbol of purity;
red roses are a symbol of passionate love and a symbol of the Virgin Mary;
red flowers are a symbol of Christ’s atoning sacrifice;
the white lily is not only a beautiful flower, but also a symbol of the purity of the Virgin Mary;
blue and blue flowers– a reminder of heavenly azure;
thistle is a symbol of evil;
carnation - a symbol of the shed blood of Christ;
poppy - an allegory of sleep, oblivion, a symbol of one of the deadly sins - laziness;
anemone - help in illness;
tulips - a symbol of quickly disappearing beauty; growing these flowers was considered one of the most vain and futile activities; the tulip also symbolized love, sympathy, mutual understanding; a white tulip - false love, a red tulip - passionate love (in Europe and America, the tulip is associated with spring, light, life, colors and is considered a cozy, welcoming flower; in Iran, Turkey and other countries of the East, the tulip associated with feelings of love and eroticism).
The emergence of the “still life” genre in the Netherlands is a gift from Protestantism. In Catholic times, the main customer for artists was the Church, and, naturally, painting was limited to religious and edifying subjects. Calvinism did not recognize icons and church art in general. The painters were looking for a new market, and found it in the houses of innkeepers, merchants and farmers.
In Holland, paintings depicting objects were called “stilleven”, which can be translated both as “still nature, model”, and as “ quiet life", which very accurately conveys the specifics of Dutch still life.
The focus of the artists' attention came down from heaven to earth; now they were interested not in pious reflections, but in a close study of the details of the material world. But in the Creation they looked for the Creator.
“The Lord gave us two books: the book of Scripture and the book of Creation. From the first we learn about His mercy as the Savior, from the second - about the greatness of the Creator,” wrote the medieval philosopher Alan of Lille. Creation also participates in the history of salvation: man fell through the apple, and through bread and wine he regains salvation. The symbolism contained in the image also remains from previous traditions.
The first stilleven are simple - bread, a glass of wine, fruit, fish, bacon. But all the objects in them are symbolic: the fish is a symbol of Jesus Christ; meat - mortal flesh; knife - symbol of sacrifice; lemon is a symbol of unquenched thirst; a few nuts in the shell - a soul bound by sin; the apple reminds of the Fall; wine or grapes are a symbol of Blood; bread is a symbol of the Flesh of Christ. Insects, human skulls, broken dishes and dead game, often included in the composition of the paintings, remind us of the frailty of earthly existence. A shell is a shell left behind by a creature that once lived in it; withered flowers are a symbol of death. A butterfly born from a cocoon means resurrection.
As a result of the activities of the Dutch East India Company, which equipped merchant ships to the Far East, spices, Chinese porcelain, silk and other exotic goods were sold in Dutch shops. In addition, Dutch colonies were formed at the Cape of Good Hope, in Indonesia, Suriname, the Antilles, and throughout Asia. The colonies enriched the country, and still lifes began to be filled with earthly wealth: carpet tablecloths, silver goblets, mother-of-pearl. Simple food was replaced by oysters, ham, exotic fruits. Symbolism gives way to naive admiration for the creation of human hands.
A feature of Dutch painting was the specialization of artists by genre. Within the still life genre, there was even a division into separate themes, and different cities had their own favorite types of still life, and if a painter happened to move to another city, he often abruptly changed his art and began to paint those varieties of the genre that were popular in that place.
Haarlem became the birthplace of the most characteristic type of Dutch still life - the “breakfast”. The paintings of Peter Claes depict a laid table with dishes and dishes. A tin plate, a herring or ham, a bun, a glass of wine, a crumpled napkin, a lemon or a branch of grapes, cutlery - the meager and precise selection of items creates the impression of a table set for one person.
The presence of a person is indicated by the “picturesque” disorder introduced into the arrangement of things, and the atmosphere of a cozy residential interior, achieved by the transmission of a light-air environment. The dominant gray-brownish tone unites objects into a single picture, while the still life itself becomes a reflection of a person’s individual tastes and lifestyle.
Another Haarlem resident, Willem Heda, worked in the same vein as Klas. The coloring of his paintings is still to a greater extent subordinated to tonal unity, it is dominated by a gray-silver tone, set by the image of silver or pewter utensils. For this colorful restraint, the paintings began to be called “monochrome breakfasts.”
In Utrecht, lush and elegant floral still life was developed. Its main representatives are Jan Davids de Heem, Justus van Huysum and his son Jan van Huysum, who became especially famous for his careful writing and light coloring.
The University of Leiden created and improved the type of philosophical still life "vanitas" (vanity of vanities). In the paintings of Harmen van Steenwijk and Jan Davids de Heem, objects embodying earthly glory and wealth (armor, books, attributes of art, precious utensils) or sensual pleasures (flowers, fruits) are juxtaposed with a skull or an hourglass as a reminder of the transience of life.
In the middle of the century, the theme of modest “breakfasts” was transformed into luxurious “banquets” and “desserts” in the works of Willem van Elst, Willem Kalf and Abraham van Beyeren. Gilded goblets, Chinese porcelain and Delft faience, carpet tablecloth, southern fruits emphasize the taste for grace and wealth that established itself in Dutch society in the middle of the century. Accordingly, “monochrome” breakfasts are being replaced by a juicy, colorfully rich, golden-warm flavor.
Dutch artists achieved great achievements in creating art of a realistic direction, naturally depicting reality, precisely because such art was in demand in Dutch society.
For Dutch artists easel painting was important in art. The canvases of the Dutch of this time do not have the same dimensions as the works of Rubens, and preferably solve not monumental-decorative tasks; the clients of the Dutch painters were envoys of the ruling leadership of the organization, but also the second class - burghers and artisans.
One of the main concerns of Dutch painters was man and the environment. The main place in Dutch painting was everyday genre and portrait, landscape and still life. The better the painters depicted the natural world impartially and deeply, the more numerous the significant and demanding subjects of their work were.
Dutch painters They carried out work for sale and sold their paintings at fairs. Their works were bought mainly by people from upper strata societies were rich peasants, artisans, merchants, and factory owners. Ordinary people could not afford this, and looked at and admired the paintings with pleasure. The general disposition of art in its prime XVII century, deprived of such powerful consumers as the court, the nobility and the church.
The works were produced in a small format, designed to fit modest and not large-sized furnishings in Dutch houses. One of the favorite pastimes of the Dutch was easel painting, since it was receptive to reflect the reality of actions with great reliability and in a variety of ways. The paintings of the Dutch depict the reality of their country, close to them; they wanted to see what was very familiar to them - the sea and ships, the nature of their land, their home, the action of everyday life, the things that surrounded them everywhere.
One important attraction to learning environment appeared in Dutch painting in such natural forms and with such clear continuity as nowhere else in Dutch art of these times. In connection with this, the depth of its scale is also connected: portraits and landscapes, still lifes and everyday genres were formed in it. A few of them, still life and everyday painting, were the first to emerge in mature forms in Holland and flourished to such an extent that they became the only example of this genre.
In the first two decades, the main tendency of the search for the main Dutch artists, counteracting the correct artistic trends, clearly manifests itself - the desire for a faithful reproduction of reality, for the accuracy of its expression. It was not by coincidence that the artists of Holland were attracted by the art of Caravaggio. The work of the so-called Utrecht Caravaggists - G. Honthorst, H. Terbruggen, D. Van Baburen - showed an impact on Dutch artistic culture.
Dutch painters in the 20s - 30s of the 17th century created main view a suitable small-figure painting depicting scenes from the life of ordinary peasants and their everyday activities. In the 40s - 50s household painting is one of the main genres, the authors of which in history have acquired the name “little Dutch”, either because of the artlessness of the plot, or because of the small size of the paintings, or maybe for both. The images of peasants in the paintings are covered with traits of good-natured humor Adriana van Ostade. He was a democratic writer of everyday life and an entertaining storyteller. Jan Steen.
One of the major portrait painters of Holland, the founder of the Dutch realistic portrait was Franz Hals. He created his fame with group portraits of shooting guilds, in which he expressed the ideals of the young republic, feelings of freedom, equality, and camaraderie.
The pinnacle of creativity Dutch realism is Harmens van Rijn Rembrandt, distinguished by its extraordinary vitality and emotionality, deep humanity of images, and great thematic breadth. He painted historical, biblical, mythological and everyday paintings, portraits and landscapes, and was one of the greatest masters of etching and drawing. But no matter what technique he worked with, the center of his attention was always the person, his inner world. He often found his heroes among the Dutch poor. In his works, Rembrandt combined strength and penetration psychological characteristics with exceptional mastery of painting, in which neat tones of chiaroscuro acquire the main importance.
During the first third of the 17th century, the views of the Dutch realistic landscape emerged, which flourished in the middle of the century. The landscape of the Dutch masters is not nature in general, as in the paintings of the classicists, but a national, specifically Dutch landscape: windmills, desert dunes, canals with boats gliding along them in the summer and with skaters in the winter. The artists sought to convey the atmosphere of the season, humid air and space.
Still life has developed vividly in Dutch painting and is distinguished by its small size and character. Peter Claes And Willem Heda most often they depicted so-called breakfasts: dishes with ham or pie on a relatively modestly served table. The recent presence of a person is palpable in the disorder and naturalness with which the things that have just served him are arranged. But this disorder is only apparent, since the composition of each still life is carefully thought out. In a skillful arrangement, objects are shown in such a way that one feels the inner life of things; it is not for nothing that the Dutch called still life “still leven” - “quiet life”, and not “nature morte” - “dead nature”.
Still life. Peter Claes and Willem Heda
Subtlety and truthfulness in recreating reality are combined by the Dutch masters with keen sense the beauty revealed in any of its phenomena, even the most inconspicuous and everyday. This trait of the Dutch artistic genius manifested itself perhaps most clearly in still life; it is no coincidence that this genre was a favorite in Holland.
The Dutch called still life "stilleven", which means "quiet life", and this word expresses incomparably more accurately the meaning that Dutch painters put into the depiction of things than "nature morte" - dead nature. In inanimate objects they saw a special, hidden life associated with the life of a person, with his way of life, habits, and tastes. Dutch painters created the impression of natural “mess” in the arrangement of things: they showed a cut pie, a peeled lemon with the peel hanging in a spiral, an unfinished glass of wine, a burning candle, an open book - it always seems that someone touched these objects, just used them , the invisible presence of a person is always felt.
Leading masters of Dutch still life half XVII centuries were Pieter Claes (1597/98-1661) and Willem Heda (1594-ca. 1680). A favorite theme of their still lifes is the so-called “breakfasts”. In "Breakfast with Lobster" by V. Kheda, objects of various shapes and materials - a coffee pot, a glass, a lemon, an earthenware dish, a silver plate, etc. - are compared with each other in such a way as to reveal the characteristics and attractiveness of each. Using a variety of techniques, Heda perfectly conveys the material and the specificity of their texture; Thus, reflections of light play differently on the surface of glass and metal: on glass - light, with sharp outlines, on metal - pale, matte, on a gilded glass - shining, bright. All elements of the composition are united by light and color - a grayish-green color scheme.
In “Still Life with a Candle” by P. Klass, not only the accuracy of the reproduction of the material qualities of objects is remarkable - the composition and lighting give them great emotional expressiveness.
The still lifes of Klass and Kheda are filled with a special mood that brings each other closer together - this is a mood of intimacy and comfort, giving rise to the idea of the well-established and calm life of a burgher’s home, where prosperity reigns and where care is felt in everything human hands and the attentive eyes of the owner. Dutch painters affirm the aesthetic value of things, and still life, as it were, indirectly glorifies the way of life with which their existence is inextricably linked. Therefore, it can be considered as one of artistic embodiments important theme of Dutch art - the theme of the life of a private person. She received her main decision in genre picture.[&&] Rotenberg I. E. Western European art of the 17th century. Moscow, 1971;
In the second half of the 17th century, changes took place in Dutch society: the bourgeoisie’s desire for aristocracy increased. Klas and Heda's modest "Breakfasts" give way to rich "desserts" Abraham van Beijern And Willem Kalf, which included spectacular earthenware dishes, silver vessels, precious goblets and shells in still lifes. Compositional structures become more complex, and colors become more decorative. Subsequently, still life loses its democracy, intimacy, its spirituality and poetry. It turns into a magnificent decoration for the homes of high-ranking customers. For all their decorativeness and mastery of execution, the late still lifes anticipate the decline of the great Dutch realistic painting, which began at the beginning of the 18th century and was caused by the social degeneration of the Dutch bourgeoisie in the last third of the 17th century, the spread of new trends in art associated with the bourgeoisie’s attraction to the tastes of the French nobility. Dutch art is losing ties with the democratic tradition, losing its realistic basis, losing its national identity and entering a period of long-term decline.
Still life ("Stilleven" - which means "quiet life" in Dutch) - is a unique and quite popular branch of Dutch painting. Dutch still life painting of the 17th century is characterized by the narrow specialization of Dutch masters within the genre. The theme "Flowers and Fruits" usually includes a variety of insects. "Hunting trophies" are, first of all, hunting trophies - killed birds and game. "Breakfasts" and "Desserts", as well as images of fish - alive and asleep, various birds - are only some of the most famous topics still lifes. Taken together, these individual subjects characterize the Dutch’s keen interest in the subjects of everyday life, their favorite activities, and passion for the exoticism of distant lands (the compositions contain outlandish shells and fruits). Often in works with motifs of “living” and “dead” nature there is a symbolic subtext that is easily understandable to an educated viewer of the 17th century.
Thus, the combination of individual objects could serve as a hint of the frailty of earthly existence: fading roses, an incense burner, a candle, a clock; or associated with habits condemned by morality: splinters, smoking pipes; or indicated a love affair; writing, musical instruments, brazier. There is no doubt that the meaning of these compositions is much broader than their symbolic content.
Dutch still lifes attract, first of all, their artistic expression, completeness, the ability to reveal a spiritual life objective world. Preferring large-sized paintings with an abundance of all kinds of objects, Dutch painters limit themselves to a few objects of contemplation, striving for the utmost compositional and color unity.
Still life is one of the genres in which Dutch national traits were especially clearly manifested. Still lifes depicting humble utensils, so common in Dutch painting and very rare in Flemish painting, or still lifes with household items of the wealthy classes. Still lifes by Pieter Claes and Willem Heda, shrouded in cold diffused light, with an almost monochrome color scheme, or later still lifes by Willem Kalf, where, at the will of the artist, golden lighting brings to life the forms and vibrant colors of objects from the twilight. They all have common national features that will not allow them to be mixed with the paintings of another school, including the related Flemish one. In Dutch still life there is always a sense of calm contemplation and a special love for rendering real forms tangible material world.
De Heem gained worldwide recognition for his magnificent images of flowers and fruits. He combined the detail of the image down to the smallest detail with a brilliant choice of colors and refined taste in composition. He painted flowers in bouquets and vases, in which butterflies and insects often fluttered, flower wreaths in niches, windows and images of Madonnas in gray tones, garlands of fruit, still lifes with glasses filled with wine, grapes and other fruits and products. Hem masterfully used the possibilities of color and achieved a high degree of transparency; his images of inanimate nature are completely realistic. His paintings are in almost all major art galleries. Still life painting, which was distinguished by its character, became widespread in 17th-century Holland. Dutch artists chose a wide variety of objects for their still lifes, knew how to arrange them perfectly, reveal the characteristics of each object and its inner life, inextricably linked with human life. The 17th century Dutch painters Pieter Claes (c. 1597 - 1661) and Willem Heda (1594 - 1680/1682) painted numerous versions of “breakfasts”, depicting hams, ruddy buns, blackberry pies, fragile glass glasses half filled with wine on the table, with amazing skill conveying the color, volume, texture of each item. The recent presence of a person is noticeable in the disorder, the randomness of the arrangement of things that have just served him. But this disorder is only apparent, since the composition of each still life is strictly thought out and found. A restrained grayish-golden, olive tonal range unites objects and gives a special sonority to those pure colors that emphasize the freshness of a freshly cut lemon or the soft silk of a blue ribbon. Over time, the “breakfasts” of the still life masters, painters Claes and Heda give way to the “desserts” of the Dutch artists Abraham van Beyeren (1620/1621-1690) and Willem Kalf (1622-1693). Beyeren's still lifes are strict in composition, emotionally rich, and colorful. Throughout his life, Willem Kalf painted in a free manner and democratic “kitchens” - pots, vegetables and aristocratic still lifes in the selection of exquisite precious objects, full of restrained nobility, like silver vessels, cups, shells saturated with the internal combustion of colors. IN further development still life follows the same paths as everyone else Dutch art, losing its democracy, its spirituality and poetry, its charm. Still life turns into decoration for the home of high-ranking customers. For all their decorativeness and skillful execution, the late still lifes anticipate the decline of Dutch painting. Social degeneration and the well-known aristocratization of the Dutch bourgeoisie in the last third of the 17th century gave rise to a tendency towards convergence with the aesthetic views of the French nobility, leading to the idealization of artistic images and their reduction. Art is losing connections with the democratic tradition, losing its realistic basis and entering a period of long-term decline. Severely exhausted in the wars with England, Holland is losing its position as a great trading power and a major artistic center.
Willem Heda (c. 1594 - c. 1682) was one of the first masters of Dutch still life painting in the 17th century, whose work was highly valued by his contemporaries. Particularly popular in Holland was this type of painting called “breakfast”. They were created to suit every taste: from the rich to the more modest. The painting "Breakfast with Crab" is distinguished by its uncharacteristic character for a Dutch still life. large size(Appendix I). The overall color scheme of the work is cold, silver-gray with a few pinkish and brown spots. Kheda exquisitely depicted a set table on which the items that make up breakfast are arranged in carefully thought out disorder. On the platter lies a crab, depicted with all its peculiarities, next to it is a yellowing lemon, the gracefully cut rind of which, curling, hangs down. On the right are green olives and a delicious bun with a golden crust. Glass and metal vessels add solidity to the still life; their color almost merges with the overall palette.
An amazing phenomenon in the history of world fine art took place in Northern Europe in the 17th century. It is known as the Dutch still life and is considered one of the pinnacles of oil painting.
Connoisseurs and professionals have a firm belief that so many magnificent masters who possessed the highest technology and created so many world-class masterpieces, while living on a small patch of the European continent, have never been seen in the history of art.
New meaning of the artist's profession
The particular importance that the profession of an artist acquired in Holland from the beginning of the 17th century was the result of the emergence, after the first anti-feudal revolutions, of the beginnings of a new bourgeois system, the formation of a class of urban burghers and wealthy peasants. For painters, these were potential customers who shaped the fashion for works of art, making Dutch still life a sought-after product in the emerging market.
In the northern lands of the Netherlands, reformist movements of Christianity, which arose in the struggle against Catholicism, became the most influential ideology. This circumstance, among others, made the Dutch still life the main genre for entire art guilds. The spiritual leaders of Protestantism, in particular the Calvinists, denied the soul-saving significance of sculpture and painting on religious subjects, they even expelled music from the church, which forced painters to look for new subjects.
In neighboring Flanders, which remained under Catholic influence, fine arts developed according to different laws, but the territorial proximity caused inevitable mutual influence. Scientists - art historians - find a lot that unites Dutch and Flemish still life, noting their inherent fundamental differences and unique features.
Early floral still life
The “pure” genre of still life, which appeared in the 17th century, takes on special forms in Holland and symbolic name“quiet life” - stilleven. In many ways, Dutch still life was a reflection of the vigorous activity of the East India Company, which brought luxury goods from the East that had not been seen in Europe before. From Persia the company brought the first tulips, which later became a symbol of Holland, and it was the flowers depicted in the paintings that became the most popular decoration of residential buildings, numerous offices, shops and banks.
The purpose of masterfully painted floral arrangements was varied. Decorating homes and offices, they emphasized the well-being of their owners, and for sellers of flower seedlings and tulip bulbs, they were what is now called a visual advertising product: posters and booklets. Therefore, the Dutch still life with flowers is, first of all, a botanically accurate depiction of flowers and fruits, at the same time filled with many symbols and allegories. These are the best paintings of entire workshops, headed by Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder, Jacob de Geyn the Younger, Jan Baptist van Fornenburg, Jacob Wouters Vosmar and others.
Set tables and breakfasts
Painting in Holland in the 17th century could not escape the influence of new social relations and economic development. Dutch still life painting of the 17th century was a profitable commodity, and large workshops were organized to “produce” paintings. In addition to the painters, among whom strict specialization and division of labor appeared, those who prepared the base for the paintings - boards or canvas, primed them, made frames, etc. worked there. Fierce competition, as with any market relations, led to an increase in the quality of still lifes to a very high level.
The genre specialization of artists also took on a geographical character. Floral compositions were painted in many Dutch cities - Utrecht, Delft, The Hague, but it was Haarlem that became the center for the development of still lifes depicting served tables, food and ready meals. Such paintings can be varied in scale and character, from complex and multi-subject to laconic. “Breakfasts” appeared - still lifes by Dutch artists depicting different stages of a meal. They depict the presence of a person in the form of crumbs, bitten buns, etc. They told interesting stories, filled with allusions and moralizing symbols common to paintings of that time. The paintings of Nicholas Gillies, Floris Gerrits van Schoten, Clara Peters, Hans Van Essen, Roelof Coots and others are considered particularly significant.
Tonal still life. Pieter Claes and Willem Claes Heda
For contemporaries, the symbols that filled the traditional Dutch still life were relevant and understandable. The contents of the paintings were similar to multi-page books and were especially valued for this. But there is a concept that is no less impressive to both modern connoisseurs and art lovers. It is called a “tonal still life”, and the main thing in it is the highest technical skill, amazingly refined color, amazing skill in conveying the subtle nuances of lighting.
These qualities are fully consistent with the paintings of two leading masters, whose paintings are considered among the best examples of tonal still life: Peter Claes and Willem Claes Heed. They chose compositions from a small number of objects, devoid of bright colors and special decorativeness, which did not prevent them from creating things of amazing beauty and expressiveness, the value of which does not decrease over time.
Vanity of Vanities
The theme of the frailty of life, the equality before death of both the king and the beggar, was very popular in the literature and philosophy of that transitional time. And in painting it found expression in paintings depicting scenes in which the main element was the skull. This genre is called vanitas - from Latin “vanity of vanities”. The popularity of still lifes, similar to philosophical treatises, was facilitated by the development of science and education, the center of which was the university in Leiden, famous throughout Europe.
Vanitas occupies a serious place in the works of many Dutch masters of that time: Jacob de Gein the Younger, David Gein, Harmen Steenwijk and others. The best examples of “vanitas” are not simple horror stories, they do not evoke unconscious horror, but calm and wise contemplation, filled with thoughts about the most important issues being.
Trick paintings
Paintings are the most popular decoration of the Dutch interior since the late Middle Ages, which the growing population of cities could afford. To interest buyers, artists resorted to various tricks. If their skill allowed, they created “trompe l’oeil”, or “trompe l’oeil”, from the French trompe-l'oeil - an optical illusion. The point was that a typical Dutch still life - flowers and fruits, dead birds and fish, or objects related to science - books, optical instruments, etc. - contained a complete illusion of reality. A book that has moved out of the space of the picture and is about to fall, a fly that has landed on a vase that you want to slam - typical subjects for a decoy painting.
Paintings by leading masters of still life in the trompe l'oeil style - Gerard Dou, Samuel van Hoogstraten and others - often depict a niche recessed into the wall with shelves on which there is a mass of various things. The artist's technical skill in conveying textures and surfaces, light and shadow was so great that the hand itself reached for a book or glass.
Heyday and sunset time
By the middle of the 17th century, the main types of still life in the paintings of Dutch masters reached their peak. “Luxurious” still life is becoming popular, because the welfare of the burghers is growing and rich dishes, precious fabrics and food abundance do not look alien in the interior of a city house or a rich rural estate.
The paintings increase in size, they amaze with the number of different textures. At the same time, the authors are looking for ways to increase entertainment for the viewer. To achieve this, the traditional Dutch still life - with fruits and flowers, hunting trophies and dishes of various materials - is complemented by exotic insects or small animals and birds. In addition to creating the usual allegorical associations, the artist often introduced them simply for positive emotions, to increase the commercial attractiveness of the plot.
The masters of “luxurious still life” - Jan van Huysum, Jan Davids de Heem, Francois Reichals, Willem Kalf - became the harbingers of the coming time, when increased decorativeness and the creation of an impressive impression became important.
End of the golden age
Priorities and fashion changed, the influence of religious dogmas on the choice of subjects for painters gradually became a thing of the past, and the very concept of the golden age that Dutch painting knew became a thing of the past. Still lifes entered the history of this era as one of the most important and impressive pages.