1. In a language, new words are constantly formed on the basis of existing ones. All words of a language can be divided into derivatives and non-derivatives.
Non-derivative words- these are those that are not formed from any other cognate word existing in the language. The basis of such words is non-derivative.
For example, table□ is a non-derivative word, that is, in modern Russian there is no word from which this noun would be formed. The stem of the word stol- is also non-derivative (it includes only the root stol-).
2. Non-derivative basis usually includes only the root, although sometimes a non-derived stem may include, in addition to the root, a suffix, or less often a prefix.
Brother□, night□, wall-a, window-o.
Note! 1) When we talk about non-derivative or derived stems, only the stems of words are considered, that is, the stems of the initial form of the word. Formative suffixes and prefixes are not taken into account.
For example, the form read includes the formative suffix of the past tense -l, but in word formation we do not take this suffix into account. We determine the stem of a word by the infinitive read.
2) Most prefixless non-derivative verbs have stems that include, in addition to the root, special verbal suffixes (-a-, -e-, -i-, etc.). It is by these suffixes that we determine the conjugation of the verb.
Wed: write, run, lead, decide.
There are very few prefixless verbs without special verbal suffixes (when the root is directly related to the ending of the infinitive -т) in the Russian language.
To be, to be, to be, to be, to be.
In order to determine whether the final vowel of the verb stem is part of the root or is a suffix, you can put the word in the present tense form. Part of the root is preserved (although alternations may occur).
Compare: pi-th - pj-yu (alternations at the root pi-/пj-), we-th - moj-yu (alternations at the root we-/moj-).
The verb suffix of underived verbs in the present tense is often (but not always!) lost.
Wed: write - write - run, run - run.
3) Do not forget that the postfix -sya (to study, to wash) is not formative, therefore it is necessarily included in the word-formation base of the word (to teach and learn is different words, but not different shapes one word!).3. Derived words– these are words that are formed from other words of the same root (or combinations of words).
For example: the adjective night is formed from the noun night; the noun reader is formed from the verb to read; The adjective broad-shouldered is formed from the adjective broad and the noun shoulder.
4. The word from which the derivative word is formed is called producing(or motivating).
For example, the noun night is a generating (motivating) word for the adjective night, the verb to read is a generating word for the noun reader.
The group of a derived word and a generating word(s) forms word pair.For example: night → night; read → reader.5. The stem of the derived word is called derivative base, the basis of the producing (motivating) word is called productive (motivating) basis.
For example: noch□ (producing base noch-) → nochn-oh (derived base nochn-); read-th (producing base read-) → reader□ (derived base read-).
Difficult words have two or more producing bases. For example: seven years → seven-year-old; nose□, horn□ → nose-o-hornFor word formation, it is important to find out from which word the given word is directly derived. It is often important to decide which of the two fundamentally producing, and which word is secondary. Therefore, it is necessary to establish the direction of production.
In scientific and educational literature There are several terms that refer to generating and derivative base:
base and output word;
motivating and motivated words;
productive and derived base.
Derivative base– this is the basis from which the given basis is directly formed. There are certain rules that help determine the direction of production. Derivative and generating bases are closest relatives, this is manifested in the fact that:
derivative base more difficult producing on semantics: red – blush(turn red);
derivative base more difficult producing formally: earth-ya – earth-yang-oh;
with the same formal complexity, a derivative is a word that is more complex in semantics: methodology – methodologist; student - student(it is traditionally accepted that nouns female formed from nouns male);
Regardless of the formal complexity of word formation, the motivating word is the one whose meaning corresponds to the categorical meaning of the part of speech. This rule is especially relevant in relation to words formed using zero affixes: dry - sushi(the categorical meaning of a noun is an object or phenomenon, and the word dry denotes a sign);
words marked stylistically are derivative, they cannot be productive: intimate – intimate, neutral – neutral;
in words with connected by root It is impossible to unambiguously determine the direction of productivity: put on shoes - take off shoes;
There are words in the Russian language that are characterized by multiple production(have not one, but several motivating words): nice - nice, nice - nice; introduce - get acquainted, get acquainted - get acquainted.
40. Ways of word formation in Russian
In the languages of the world there are several ways of word formation. Among them the following stand out:
1) morphological(most productive way word formation in all Slavic languages): it consists in creating new words by combining morphemes according to the rules existing in the language. This method includes prefixal, suffixal, prefixal-suffixal, suffixless, addition;
2) lexical-semantic, which consists of creating a new word by splitting an old one into two or more homonym:“boxer” is a breed of dog and “boxer” is a boxing athlete;
3) morphological-syntactic: the formation of a new word by moving it from one part of speech to another: dining room, ice cream. At the same time, the word acquires new grammatical features;
4) lexico-syntactic, which consists in creating a new word by merging a combination of words into one lexical unit: evergreen, now evergreen, now.
Prefix method
When words are formed in this way, a prefix is added to the original word. The new word belongs to the same part of speech as the original ones. In this way, nouns are formed: move - exit, light - dawn; adjectives: big - small, tasty - tasteless, sonic - supersonic; pronouns: someone, someone, nobody; verbs: walk - come in, go out, approach, leave; adverbs: always - forever, through the day before yesterday, through, yesterday - the day before yesterday.
Suffix method
With the suffix method, a suffix is added to the base of the original word.
Words formed in this way can be either the same part of speech (forest - forester) or another (les - forest).
The suffix is attached not to the whole word, but to its base, and sometimes the base is modified: part of the base may be cut off, the sound composition may change, sounds alternate: cast - casting, weaver - weaver.
Prefix-suffixal
With this method, a prefix and a suffix are simultaneously attached to the original word: homestead, plantain, Moscow region, rider.
Most often, nouns are formed in this way: premise, window sill; verbs: sign, get carried away; adverbs: in spring, in Russian.
Suffixless
This method is that the ending is discarded from the word (black - mob) or the ending can be discarded and the suffix can be cut off at the same time: rest - rest, scold - scold.
Addition
Addition is the formation of a new word by combining two words or two or more stems into one verbal whole. Words formed as a result of addition are called complex.
Compound words are formed:
1) adding whole words: pay phone, boarding school;
2) laying down the basics: salary, head teacher;
3) addition using the connecting vowels O and E: pathfinder, steelmaker, agriculture;
4) adding the initial letters: RGU, ATS;
5) adding the initial sounds: tyuz, Moscow Art Theater.
41 . Historical changes in the morphemic structure of words
Morphemic composition words are not immutable. In the process of language development, changes could occur in it.
For example, the word sheet was formed from an adjective simple, the suffix once stood out in it -yn’-(a). Thus, this word once consisted of three morphemes - a root, a suffix and an ending. Now, only two morphemes are distinguished in it - the root and the ending: sheet Consequently, the morphemic structure of the word has become simpler. And this phenomenon - the merging of two morphemes into one, i.e. reducing the number of morphemes in a word - is called simplification. Another example of simplification is the word sour cream.
But in language one can find examples of the exact opposite phenomenon. It's called complication morphemic structure of the word. As a result of complication, one morpheme begins to be divided into two. An example would be the words umbrella And flask. Both of these words are borrowed words, one from the Dutch language (zonnedek), other from Polish (flaszka), therefore, neither originally had a suffix. Later, these borrowings were perceived as diminutive and words were formed for them umbrella And flask.
Finally, the third type of change in the morphemic structure of a word is re-decomposition . The number of morphemes remains the same, but the boundary between morphemes changes: from one of the morphemes one or more sounds move to another morpheme. For example: in the Old Russian language there were the prefixes вън-, сь- and the corresponding prepositions вън, кън, сн. If the root of a word began with a consonant sound, the prefixes въ- and съ- were used, for example: въ-Бати, съ-Бати, but if the root began with a vowel sound, then a variant of the prefix ending in -n- , for example: vn-imati, sun-imati (cf. the colloquial verb imat ‘grab; take’). The use of prepositions before pronouns was distributed in the same way: to that, in that, with that, but to him, to him, to him, to him. Later consonant n went to the root. So, now we are identifying morphemes take off; in-him-a-t. Root him- By analogy with these words, it also appeared in those cognate verbs where it did not appear in this form in the Old Russian language: accept(Old Russian pri-im-a-ti); behind him(Old Russian for-im-a-ti). Similar origin and combination of prepositions with forms of pronouns in him, to him, with him, compare: I say hello to him, But happy with him.
42. Grammar as a science, there is a branch of linguistics that studies grammatical structure language, patterns of constructing correct meaningful speech segments in this language (word forms, syntagmas, sentences, texts). Grammar formulates these patterns in the form of general grammatical rules.
Morphology(Greek “morphe” - form, “logos” - science) is a section of grammar in which words are studied as parts of speech.
Morphology is closely related to spelling, so the study of morphology is associated with the study of spelling rules.
Spelling(Greek “ortho” - correct, “grapho” - I write) or spelling - a section of the science of language, which sets out a system of rules on the spelling of words and their significant parts, on continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings, on the use of capital letters and hyphens words
Spelling(Greek “ortho” - correct, “gram” - letter sign) - spelling in a word that corresponds to the spelling rule
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of language. It includes all the sound means of the language, that is, not only sounds and their combinations, but also stress and intonation.
Orthoepy is an area of phonetics that deals with the study of pronunciation norms.
Graphics is a set of signs used in a given writing system along with rules establishing correspondence between signs (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes)
Morphemics- a branch of linguistics in which the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms are studied.
Word formation- a section of linguistics in which the formal semantic derivative of words in a language, means and methods of word formation are studied.
Syntax is a branch of the science of language that studies phrases and sentences. Its main sections are phrase syntax and sentence syntax.
Sentences are formed from words and phrases.
Collocation- unit of syntax. A phrase is a combination of two or more independent words related to each other in meaning and grammatically. A phrase consists of a main and a dependent word.
Offer- one of the basic units of language and the basic unit of syntax. A sentence is one or more words that contain message, question or encouragement(order, advice, request). The sentence is characterized by intonation and semantic completeness, i.e. represents separate statement.
The offer has grammatical basis, consisting of main members (subject and predicate) or one of them.
43 . Grammatical meaning- meaning expressed by an inflectional morpheme (grammatical indicator).
The difference between lexical and grammatical meanings (each of these rules is not absolute and has counterexamples):
1. grammatical meanings are not universal, are less numerous, and form a closed, more clearly structured class.
2. grammatical meanings, in contrast to lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “forced” order. For example, a Russian speaker cannot “evade” the expression of the category of number of a verb, an English speaker cannot “evade” the category of definiteness of a noun, etc. At the same time, for example, in Japanese the category of number is not grammatical, since it is expressed optionally at the request of the speaker. The idea of mandatory grammatical meanings goes back to the works of F. Boas and R. O. Jacobson. According to the informal definition given by A. A. Zaliznyak, grammatical meanings are those meanings, “the expression of which is mandatory for all word forms of a given class of lexemes” (“Russian nominal inflection”, 1967)
3. Lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of the methods and means of their formal expression.
4. grammatical meanings may not have complete correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (for example, the categories of number and tense usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while the feminine gender of a noun stool and masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).
44-45. ways of expressing grammatical meanings. Methods of forming word forms.
Synthetic method. Expressing meanings in the word itself. This includes;
a) affixation (formation of word forms using endings, prefixes, formative suffixes). Table, table, table etc. Do - do, write - write and so on. Justify - justify, exchange - exchange and so on.;
b) internal inflection (alternation of sounds). Lock - lock, die - die, dial - dial and so on.;
c) emphasis. pour - pour, cut - cut and so on.;
d) suppletivism. Talk - say, catch - catch and so on. Person people. Good is better, much is more;
d) repetitions. Blue-blue, walked and walked, barely (see. repeat).
Analytical method. Expressing meanings outside of words. I write and I will write. Handsome is more beautiful.
Mixed (hybrid) method. In the book(preposition and case ending). I I'm reading(personal pronoun and verb ending to express the meaning of the 1st person).
46. Grammatical meanings – abstract, generalized intralingual meanings, which are formed on the basis of generalization of linguistic facts themselves, abstraction from them.
Grammatical form(GF) is a linguistic sign in which the GL finds its regular (standard) expression. Within the GF, the means of expressing GL can be various linguistic means (affixation, reduplication, supletivism, etc.).
On the one hand there is opposition, on the other there is homogeneity.
Members of the same group united by a common civil law(numbers) and differ in private values(meanings of singularity - plurality). Civil Code is a certain system of relations.
An integral feature of the Civil Code is opposition. No opposition - no category.
47. Part of speech(tracing paper from lat. pars orationis, other Greek μέρος τοῦ λόγου) - a category of words in a language, determined by morphological and syntactic features. In the languages of the world, first of all, the name (which can be further divided into a noun, adjective, etc., but this is not universal) and verb, in most languages it is also generally accepted to divide parts of speech into independent and auxiliary.
Principles of classifying words by parts of speech
Independent parts of speech
functional parts of speech,
interjections and
onomatopoeic words.
Independent parts of speech are a group of words with a common grammatical meaning (subject, attribute of an object, action, attribute of an action, number of objects). Functional parts of speech are a group of words that do not have eigenvalue, since they do not name objects, signs, actions and it is impossible to pose a question to them.
48. The origin of language is an integral part of the problem of the origin of man and human society. There are many theories about the origin of language, which can be divided into two main groups: 1) biological, 2) social.
Biological theories explain the origin of language by the evolution of the human body - sensory organs, speech apparatus and brain. Biological theories primarily include the theory of onomatopoeia and interjection.
Proponents of the onomatopoeia hypothesis believe that words arose from a person’s unconscious or conscious desire to imitate the sounds of the world around him - the roar of animals, the cry of birds, the sound of the wind, etc.
The basis for such views was that all languages actually have onomatopoeic words, such as woof-woof, cuckoo, meow, shadow, ding, bam. But firstly, there are relatively few such words. Secondly, most people need and the most common words do not show even a hint of imitation of any sounds: water, earth, sky, sun, grass, man, smart, walk, think, etc.
Thirdly, in order to imitate the sounds of the nature surrounding a person using combinations of sounds, you need to have very flexible speech, which presupposes its long-term previous development. It is hardly possible in our time to take the onomatopoeia hypothesis seriously.
The second influential hypothesis in its time - interjectional (reflexive), which was adhered to by scientists such as Humboldt, Jacob Grimm and others, is that the word is considered as an expressive states of mind person. The first words, according to this theory, are involuntary cries, interjections, and reflexes. They emotionally expressed pain or joy, fear or despair.
Some supporters of the hypothesis under consideration assumed that words arose interjectionally only in the distant past, and later they developed according to the laws of word formation and independently of involuntary emotional cries.
the fact that man and human society arise, essentially different from the animal and its herd.
This is how it appeared social theories the origin of the language, which explain its appearance by social needs. Arose in work and as a result of the development of consciousness.
Even in antiquity, the Greek philosopher Diodorus Siculus put forward the theory of the social contract, as a result of which language is viewed as a conscious invention and creation of people. In the 18th century it was supported by Adam Smith and Rousseau, in whom Rousseau's theory of the social contract is associated with the division of human life into two periods - natural and civilized.
At the end of the 70s of the 19th century. German philosopher Noiret put forward working theory the origin of language, or the theory of labor cries. Noiret noted that when working together shouts and exclamations facilitate and organize labor activity. These cries, at first involuntary, gradually turned into symbols of labor processes. The theory of labor cries, in fact, turns out to be a variant of the interjection theory.
49 .Language- a sign system that correlates conceptual content and typical sound (spelling).
One of the main concepts of the theory of language contacts is the concept of bilingualism, as a result of which the study of bilingualism is often recognized even as the main task of contact research (the concept of multilingualism or multilingualism, which in principle is reduced to a set of bilingualisms, is not touched upon here). Bilingual persons are usually understood as speakers of a certain language A, who switch to language B when communicating with native speakers of the latter (more often than not, one of these languages turns out to be native to them, and the other is acquired).
Bilingualism(bilingualism) - the ability of certain groups of the population to communicate in two languages. People who speak two languages are called bilinguals, more than two are called polylinguals, and more than six are called polyglots. Since language is a function of social groupings, being bilingual means belonging to two different social groups at the same time.
Differentiation of languages(in linguistics) - the process of structural divergence of languages as a result of the gradual loss of common elements and acquisition specific features. Within language family modeled by circuit family tree, the “root” of which is the proto-language, and the “branches” are related languages.
Language integration, reverse process differentiation of languages. At Language integration language groups that previously used different languages(dialects), begin to use the same language, i.e. merge into one linguistic community. There are two possible ways Language integration: 1) complete loss of one language and transition to another, as happened with the Torques, Berendeys, etc. non-Slavic peoples who lived on the territory Ancient Rus'; 2) the merging of languages into a new language that has features that distinguish it from any of the original languages. Yes, modern English language is the result of the integration of ancient Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) dialects and French Norman conquerors. Process Language integration usually associated with the political, economic and cultural integration of the peoples concerned and involves ethnic mixing. Especially often Language integration occurs between closely related languages and dialects.
50. The evolution of a language is a quantitative and qualitative update of its structure. It happens continuously.
The causes of language evolution are traditionally divided into external and internal.
EXTERNAL:
- · This includes changes in the inventory and properties of objects in the objective world;
- · Development of science and technology
- · Culture and art
- · Change in the composition of the language community
- · In a word, everything that happens in reality and is reflected in language.
INTERNAL:
- · These include impulses that “arise in connection with the improvement trend that exists in the language system” (B.A. Serebryannikov).
). WITH basis The main lexical meaning of the word is connected: ne-th, chita-l, eid-uschy, new th and so on.
Basics reflexive verbs with postfix -xia- such basics are called intermittent: teach-th- Xia, daring-la- sya.
Derivative and non-derivative bases
Basics are divided into derivatives And non-derivatives. Derived stems educated from others basics. Living affixes are found in their composition. Derived stems name objects and phenomena of reality motivated: house-ik
(little house), na-dom-n th(located on the house), room-k-A(small room) and so on.
Non-derivative bases- This basics, in which living affixes are not distinguished. Living affix is a morph, the meaning of which is determined from the standpoint of synchronous word formation. Non-derivative basis names objects and phenomena unmotivated, directly: house, rooms-A, white th. Non-derivative basis is indivisible and consists only of the root.
Related Basics
Term "related basics"(“connected roots”) belongs to Professor G.O. Vinokuru. Examples of such concepts are, in particular, the words: put on shoes, take off shoes; subtract, add and so on. Bound roots are characterized by a certain set of characteristics that are abstracted from free roots:
connected roots cannot be used independently, they are necessarily associated with affixes;
meaning associated root outside of affixes it is not clear;
connected roots must be repeated in a series of words, in several words ( overthrow, overthrow, reject);
in many cases the meaning of the word is connected roots understandable thanks to the prefix. It is worth noting that words with a specific meaning are better divided, and words with an abstract meaning lose their division, so it is worth dividing the words like this: ot-nya-t, ra-nya-t, understand, hey and so on;
if at least one allomorph of a root is used freely, then the entire root is considered free.
Basics with a specific structure
Except related fundamentals there are words with a specific morphemic structure (boiled pork, raspberries, viburnum, rowan, currants). Opinions differ regarding the division of these foundations. So, according to prof. Smirnitsky, Zemskaya, Arutyunova, in these words the roots stand out buzhen’, mal’, kal’, ryab’, currant’. When viewed in this way, the root in these words is followed by a suffix meaning the type of berry or meat.
However, prof. Vinokur and Academician Shansky consider these words indivisible.
Prof. Kubrikova considers such division defective, and calls the separated parts quasimorphs(false morphs), since according to the rules they cannot be identified.
Producing and derivative bases
For word formation, it is important to find out from which word the given word is directly derived. It is often important to decide which of the two fundamentally producing, and which word is secondary. Therefore, it is necessary to establish the direction of production.
In the scientific and educational literature there are several terms that mean generating and derivative base:
base and output word;
motivating and motivated words;
productive and derived base.
Derivative base– this is the basis from which the given basis is directly formed. There are certain rules that help determine the direction of production. Derivative and generating bases are closest relatives, this is manifested in the fact that:
derivative base more difficult producing on semantics: red – blush(turn red);
derivative base more difficult producing formally: earth-ya – earth-yang-oh;
with the same formal complexity, a derivative is a word that is more complex in semantics: methodology – methodologist; student - student(it is traditionally accepted that feminine nouns are formed from masculine nouns);
Regardless of the formal complexity of word formation, the motivating word is the one whose meaning corresponds to the categorical meaning of the part of speech. This rule is especially relevant in relation to words formed using zero affixes: dry - sushi(the categorical meaning of a noun is an object or phenomenon, and the word dry denotes a sign);
words marked stylistically are derivative, they cannot be productive: intimate – intimate, neutral – neutral;
in words with connected by root It is impossible to unambiguously determine the direction of productivity: put on shoes - take off shoes;
There are words in the Russian language that are characterized by multiple production(have not one, but several motivating words): nice - nice, nice - nice; introduce - get acquainted, get acquainted - get acquainted.
Words in the Russian language differ in the structure of the stem, or morphological composition.
The stems of all significant words, according to their morphological composition, are divided into two groups: non-derivative stems and derived stems. The words water and mountain have a non-derivative basis, and flood, hillock- derivative ( water-a, mountain-a, pa-water-ok, pri-gor-ok).
Non-derivative basis(unmotivated) is a single whole, indecomposable into individual morphemes (meaningful parts); derivative base(motivated) - a composite unity divided into individual morphemes.
The division of a derivative base into significant parts is morphological feature this basis and distinguishes it from the non-derivative. This property of a derivative base is present in it only if and as long as there is a non-derivative base corresponding to a given derivative in the language. Word Basics Highlander, chicken, stick are derivatives; they are divided into separate morphemes because in the modern language there are corresponding non-derivative stems: mountains, chickens, sticks.
A derived stem loses the ability to be divided into morphemes and becomes non-derivative if the corresponding non-derivative stem disappears from the language or ceases to correlate with it. So, the basics of words stick, bench, bowl, hummock lost their division into individual morphemes, became non-derivative in the modern language because the non-derivative stems that correlated with them in the Old Russian language ( fell, lava, misa, kocha) dropped out of the dictionary of the modern Russian literary language. Word Basics bag, capital, hoop, churchyard, belly, beauty also moved into the category of non-derivatives, since they ceased to correlate with those existing in modern Russian literary language non-derivative bases ( fur, table, hand, guest, live, flattery).
A non-derivative base, correlated with a derivative, can be present in a language in two varieties: as a separate word (in pure form) and as a separate morpheme (in a bound form), combined with affixes or other stems. Word Basics ponytail, bell ringer, forest are derivatives, since they correlate with the non-derivative stems tail, ringing, forest, which act in the modern Russian language as separate, independent words. Word Basics rush, delay, wash are derivatives, but the non-derivative bases associated with them ( hurry-, hold-, wash-) are not independent words, but act exclusively as related stems, as morphemes-roots ( hurry up, hold up, wash).
To classify a stem as a derived stem, it is sufficient that there is at least one related word in the modern language that has a correlated stem in pure or associated form (cf.: peacock - peahen, finger - six-toed, branch - branch). A stem is considered derivative even if the suffix that stands out when correlating stems is unproductive and is not found in other stems (cf.: young - youth, decay - decay).
The difference between the bases of non-derivative and derivative is not limited to their morphological properties. This difference extends to the lexical meaning of stems.
Non-derivative stem of words shaft, glass, city, sea does not make it possible to answer the question of why these objects are actually called that way. The meaning of the non-derivative basis is, as it were, inherent in itself and is unmotivated. Meanings of derived word stems cushion, glass holder, ancient settlement, seaside somewhat meaningful and motivated. The meanings of such stems are made up of the meanings of individual morphemes included in the stem: we interpret a roller as a “small shaft”, a glass holder as “a stand into which a glass is inserted”, a fortified settlement as a “huge city”, a coastal one as “located on the seashore” "
Thus, a derivative basis designates an object of reality by establishing a connection between this object and other objects indirectly, and a non-derivative basis - directly, purely conditionally. The indicated difference in the meaning of a non-derivative and a derivative stem is not universal; compare: knife - knife, umbrella - umbrella.
The contrast between derived and non-derivative stems is expressed in the fact that the derived stem: 1) is divided into separate morphemes, 2) exists as a derivative as long as there is a corresponding non-derivative, 3) denotes objects of reality indirectly; non-derivative basis: 1) is not morphologically divided, 2) designates objects of reality conditionally and unmotivated.
The morphologically unchangeable part of the word that carries the lexical meaning is the base; it is depending on it that non-derivative and derived words are distinguished. Each basis is characterized in two ways: structurally and semantically.
Differences
The non-derivative stem is not semantically motivated, since it cannot be explained with the help of related words, and morphologically it is indivisible. In its structure it is equivalent. For example: forest-A; brave-th; kind-O; rivers-and so on.
These bases are non-derivative. And derived words can be distinguished precisely by these characteristics: semantically motivated, explained by selection related basis. Its structure is easily divided into two blocks of equal importance, that is, the base itself, which forms derivative words, and the word-forming affix. The examples will be the same: forest-Noah; brave-ost; kind-from-a;
The first block is the base
Non-derivative and derived words belong to the area of word formation, where the central concept is the basis - basic or productive. From the basic one in form and meaning, that is, bilaterally, a derivative is derived, which is why it is considered motivating for the derivative basis. This means that the base of the derivative word is the base of the motivating one. For example, in the word forest-east- y basic foundation - forest, and here woodsman- is the basis of the adjective motivating. This is how non-derivative and derived words are distinguished.
The first block of this word-formation structure is the stem forest, it is basic, as in any other derivative word. It, in turn, can become non-derivative, because everything depends on the ability to be broken down into individual terms. For example, the word woodsman-ost. In all cases, everything is decided by the stage of production. That is, the first stage is a derivative word derived from the root morpheme, here the base is non-derivative, and all subsequent stages make the word derivative.
Scheme
Derivative and non-derivative in their word-formation structure can be represented by the following schemes:
1. Basic basis (I) + (II) + inflection. Examples: proud-ost; speech-k-a; books-n-y.
2. Derivational prefix (II) + basic stem (I) + inflection. Examples: on- always-Yes; great- vnu-To.
3. Derivational prefix (II) + basic stem (I) + derivational suffix (II) + inflection. Examples: co- conversations-Nick; at- pestilence-sk-y.
In this way, it is possible to formulate the basic patterns from the above diagrams. The derived and non-derivative basis of the word are quite easily distinguished.
Basic Basics
The first rule: a word is always formed from a basic basis that exists in the language, and word-forming affixes help in this process. In general, the basic basis is a functional concept, since it can be the same for a whole range of words, because from one root we form several, and sometimes many others. For example, all sorts of adjectives come from a noun, which differ only in word-forming affixes: goals-A - goals-n-oh- goals-ast-y; eye - eye-n-oh- eye-ast-y and so on.
All words have the property of derivative and non-derivative, the meaning of the word mainly depends on this. But all derivatives have a basic basis. If the base itself is segmented, then difficulties and even errors arise in determining word-forming affixes. For example: a noun like talent, comes from the adjective talented, and not vice versa, as always happens. Noun talent first had to form talent-liv-yy, and from here a new noun appeared with the help of the affix - awn. Otherwise it would have happened" talent-ost", somehow ugly.
Affixes
Second rule: all words in the same meaning of the basic stems are obtained using the same affix or the same type of affix. The principle of semantic inference operates here, serving as the foundation of motivational relations between basic words and their derivatives. Of course, the phenomenon that adds complexity to this principle is that in the Russian language, most of them are polysemic, and this is reflected in word formation.
The semantic structure of a derivative and a polysemantic original word is quite often radically different from each other. A derived word usually has one, isolated meaning, which is what makes it different from the base word. Here main role the derivative and non-derivative stem of the word plays. Examples can be found everywhere. Let's take an adjective old. It has several meanings: a person, animal or object that has reached old age; something ancient, existing since ancient times; long-used, dilapidated, deteriorated by time; old; worthless, invalid; old, outdated, outdated and much, much more. The group of derivatives from this word is numerous and is associated with the first, original meaning of the basic stem: senile, old man, grow old, old man, old woman, old age, growing old and so on. From here derivatives appear that change the original meaning.
Non-derivative words
It is known that the boundary between classes that would represent an exact opposition, which words are derived and which are non-derivative, is not strict enough. Accentological analysis makes this distinction so that the category of non-derivatives includes words that do not have any semantic connection with any really existing word in the Russian language. A lot of them: luggage, author, alive, water, strong, take and so on. In addition, words with a monomorphic stem must be non-derivative - barking, running and so on. Also among the non-derivatives there will be words, so to speak, “simplified”.
What does "derivatives and non-derivative words"becomes more understandable when the principle of joining morphemes becomes clear. The joining can be tight or not. How are two word forms combined into one word? Its main part is an independently existing word form. Recycling And oil refining, red And beautiful entrance And exit- a million examples. The last one is tightly connected, and the first one is loose.
Working words
One should never confuse a derivative and a producing word. What produces - works, directly from it a derivative appears, with its material backbone repeating the parental traits, but not completely, but in the same way that a son resembles his mother, his father, or even his great-aunt: there the ending is truncated, and sometimes and the suffix disappears. Worker - work; trailer-trailer - to-trail-it and so on. Now, the producing word here is unchanged, and the derivative is obtained with the help of affixes and is often not identical to the usual base of the word.
This topic - “Derived and non-derivative words” - would be interesting, since word formation is very strongly connected with all manifestations human existence. The teacher simply has freedom in the selection of examples, comparisons, illustrations.
Analysis
In the analysis, it is impossible to compare a derived word with words related to it, that is, close in meaning and sound, and this is done very often. It is very difficult to give an exhaustive answer to the question of which words are called non-derivatives. It is easier to operate with derivatives. This term in itself is too broad, since it covers a huge word-formation nest, where there are derivatives not only with the generating base that interests us, but also a lot of words that are not directly related to it, a lot of related formations.
For example, adjective talkative. Here are related words: I'm talking, I'm talking, I'm talking, I'm talking, I'm talking. And here only one, the second, will be productive, it is from it that this adjective is directly formed. The last two are completely unnecessary; they do not contribute to the direction of analysis we have chosen, because the adjective talkative formed not from a verb, but from a noun talk, that is, from its substantive productive base, and the past tense (form) - from the infinitive, which included, among other things, suffixes as additional elements. From here you can observe what the derived and non-derivative basis of a word means in word formation.
And yet - the definition
Non-derivative words can be considered those that are not formed or derived from any other word of the same root existing in the language. Regarding derivative words, the opposite is true. These are formations from words that already exist in the language, using various models of word formation. It is motivated by the relationship between two words with the same root. The value of one of them is determined either through the value of the other ( crab - crab-ik, that is, small, but still a crab), or through identity in all components, excluding the grammatical meaning of the part of speech ( white - white-from-a, beg-a-t - run and so on).
Name a series of words with a single root that are consistently motivated. The initial, initial link is an unmotivated word, then with each newly formed word, motivation grows. Both derived and non-derivative words are defined in this way. Examples: old - old - old - old - old - old - old - old. There are four degrees of motivation here, and all together they form a word-forming nest in which there are many more chicks. The original word is like a mother bird, a kind of peak - it is unmotivated. From it come word-forming chains that have the same initial word.
Morphemes
First, you need to define each element of the structure. The part of the word where its lexical meaning is expressed is called the stem. Inflection is an ending that always indicates the relationship of this word to others. A root is a part of a word that is common to all related ones. Affixes (or formants) are morphemes that are attached to the root and serve to form new words.
Modern Russian word formation occurs different ways- both morphological and non-morphological. First of all, there is a pattern in the combination of morphemes in the process of word formation.
Methods of word formation
Morphological methods of word formation are quite numerous.
1. Addition of basics, that is, the formation of complex and compound words (earth-quake, sky-vault, steam-stroke And ray-com, lik-bez, sber-bank).
2. A rarely used affix-free method, it works only for nouns, where the consonant sound at the end and the stress change, but the stem remains unchanged.
3. Affix - one of the most productive, when morphemes are attached to the root, creating both lexical and grammatical forms.
4. Suffixal - a suffix is added to the base.
5. Prefixal - a prefix is added.
6. Suffix-prefix - both are added accordingly.
7. Postfixal - an affix is added after the ending.
There are only three non-morphological ways of word formation: lexical-semantic (a word with a new meaning), lexical-syntactic (former phrases like crazy) and morphological-syntactic, when words become other parts of speech. Having mastered these rules of word formation, a person will be able to answer which words are derivative and which are never non-derivative.