Feudal fragmentation is most often understood as the political and economic decentralization of the state, the creation on the territory of one state of practically independent state entities that formally had a common supreme ruler (in Rus', the period of the 12th - 15th centuries).
Already in the word “fragmentation” the political processes of this period are recorded. By the middle of the 12th century, approximately 15 principalities had emerged. By the beginning of the 13th century - about 50. By the 14th century - approximately 250.
How to evaluate this process? But are there any problems here? The unified state disintegrated and was relatively easily conquered by the Mongol-Tatars. And before that there were bloody strife between the princes, from which the common people, peasants and artisans suffered.
Indeed, approximately this stereotype emerged recently when reading scientific and journalistic literature, and even some scientific works. True, these works also spoke about the pattern of fragmentation of Russian lands, the growth of cities, the development of trade and crafts. All this is true, however, the smoke of the fires in which Russian cities disappeared during the years of Batu’s invasion still obscures the eyes of many today. But can the significance of one event be measured by the tragic consequences of another? "If not for the invasion, Rus' would have survived."
But the Mongol-Tatars also conquered huge empires, such as China. The battle with Batu’s countless armies was a much more complex undertaking than the victorious campaign against Constantinople, the defeat of Khazaria, or the successful military operations of the Russian princes in the Polovtsian steppes. For example, the forces of only one of the Russian lands - Novgorod - turned out to be enough to defeat the German, Swedish and Danish invaders by Alexander Nevsky. In the person of the Mongol-Tatars, there was a clash with a qualitatively different enemy. So, if we pose the question in the subjunctive mood, we can ask another way: could the Russian early feudal state have been able to resist the Tatars? Who dares to answer in the affirmative? And most importantly. The success of the invasion cannot in any way be attributed to fragmentation.
There is no direct cause-and-effect relationship between them. Fragmentation is the result of progressive internal development Ancient Rus'. An invasion is an external influence with tragic consequences. Therefore, to say: “Fragmentation is bad because the Mongols conquered Rus'” does not make sense.
It is also wrong to exaggerate the role of feudal strife. In the joint work of N. I. Pavlenko, V. B. Kobrin and V. A. Fedorov, “History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861,” they write: “You cannot imagine feudal fragmentation as a kind of feudal anarchy. Moreover, princely strife in one state, when it came to the struggle for power, for the grand princely throne or certain rich principalities and cities, were sometimes more bloody than during the period of feudal fragmentation. There was no disintegration. ancient Russian state, but its transformation into a kind of federation of principalities headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv, although his power was weakening all the time and was rather nominal... The purpose of the strife during the period of fragmentation was already different than in a single state: not the seizure of power in the entire country, but the strengthening of one’s own principality, expanding its borders at the expense of its neighbors."
Thus, fragmentation differs from the times of state unity not by the presence of strife, but by the fundamentally different goals of the warring parties.
Main dates of the period of feudal fragmentation in Rus':
1097 year - Lyubechsky Congress of Princes.
1132 year - Death of Mstislav I the Great and political collapse Kievan Rus.
1169 year - The capture of Kyiv by Andrei Bogolyubsky and the plunder of the city by his troops, which testified to the socio-political and ethnocultural isolation of individual lands of Kievan Rus.
1212 year - Death of Vsevolod "Big Nest" - the last autocrat of Kievan Rus.
1240 year - Defeat of Kyiv by the Mongol-Tatars.
1252 year - Presentation of the label for the great reign to Alexander Nevsky.
1328 year - Presentation of the label for the great reign to Moscow Prince Ivan Kalita.
1389 year - Battle of Kulikovo.
1471 year - Ivan III's campaign against Novgorod the Great.
1478 year - Inclusion of Novgorod into the Moscow state.
1485 year - Inclusion of the Tver Principality into the Moscow State.
1510 year - Inclusion of the Pskov land into the Moscow state.
1521 year - Inclusion of the Ryazan principality into the Moscow state.
Causes of feudal fragmentation.
Formation of feudal land ownership: the old tribal nobility, once pushed into the shadow of the capital's military service nobility, turned into zemstvo boyars and, together with other categories of feudal lords, formed a corporation of land owners (boyar land ownership emerged). Gradually, tables turned into hereditary tables in princely families (princely land ownership). “Settling” on the ground, the ability to do without the help of Kyiv led to the desire to “settle” on the ground.
Development agriculture: 40 types of rural agricultural and fishing equipment. Steam (two- and three-field) crop rotation system. The practice of fertilizing the land with manure. The peasant population often moves to "free" (free lands). The bulk of the peasants are personally free and farm on the lands of the princes. Decisive role The direct violence of the feudal lords played a role in the enslavement of the peasants. Along with this, economic enslavement was also used: mainly food rent, and to a lesser extent, labor.
Development of crafts and cities. In the middle of the 13th century, according to chronicles, there were over 300 cities in Kievan Rus, in which there were almost 60 craft specialties. The degree of specialization in the field of metal processing technology was especially high. In Kievan Rus, the formation of the internal market is taking place, but priority still remains with the external market. “Detintsi” are trade and craft settlements made up of runaway slaves. The bulk of the urban population are lesser people, bonded "hiremen" and declassed "poor people", servants who lived in the yards of feudal lords. Urban feudal nobility also live in cities and a trade and craft elite is formed. XII - XIII centuries in Rus' this is the era of the heyday of veche meetings.
The main reason for feudal fragmentation is the change in the nature of the relationship between the Grand Duke and his warriors as a result of the latter settling on the ground. In the first century and a half of the existence of Kievan Rus, the squad was completely supported by the prince. The prince, as well as his state apparatus, collected tribute and other exactions. As the warriors received land and received from the prince the right to collect taxes and duties themselves, they came to the conclusion that income from military spoils was less reliable than fees from peasants and townspeople. In the 11th century, the process of the squad’s “settling” to the ground intensified. And from the first half of the 12th century in Kievan Rus, the predominant form of property became the patrimony, the owner of which could dispose of it at his own discretion. And although ownership of the estate imposed on the feudal lord the obligation to bear military service, his economic dependence on the Grand Duke weakened significantly. The income of the former feudal warriors no longer depended on the mercy of the prince. They provided for their own existence. With the weakening of economic dependence on the Grand Duke, political dependence also weakens.
A significant role in the process of feudal fragmentation in Rus' was played by the developing institution of feudal immunity, which provided for a certain level of sovereignty of the feudal lord within the boundaries of his estate. In this territory, the feudal lord had the rights of the head of state. The Grand Duke and his authorities did not have the right to act in this territory. The feudal lord himself collected taxes, duties, and administered justice. As a result, a state apparatus, squads, courts, prisons, etc. are formed in independent principalities-patrimonial lands, appanage princes begin to manage communal lands, transferring them in their own name to the power of boyars and monasteries. In this way, local princely dynasties are formed, and local feudal lords make up the court and squad of this dynasty. The introduction of the institution of heredity to the land and the people inhabiting it played a huge role in this process. Under the influence of all these processes, the nature of relations between local principalities and Kiev changed. Service dependence is replaced by relations of political partners, sometimes in the form of equal allies, sometimes suzerain and vassal.
All these economic and political processes in political terms meant the fragmentation of power, the collapse of the former centralized statehood of Kievan Rus. This collapse, as was the case in Western Europe, was accompanied by internecine wars. Three most influential states were formed on the territory of Kievan Rus: the Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal (North-Eastern Rus'), the Principality of Galicia-Volyn (South-Western Rus') and Novgorod land(Northwestern Rus'). Both within these principalities and between them, fierce clashes took place for a long time, destructive wars, which weakened the power of Rus' and led to the destruction of cities and villages.
The main dividing force was the boyars. Relying on his power, local princes were able to establish their power in each land. However, subsequently, contradictions and a struggle for power arose between the growing boyars and the local princes. Causes of feudal fragmentation
Internal political. A single Russian state no longer existed under the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, and unity was supported rather by family ties and common interests in defense from the steppe nomads. The movement of princes through cities along the “Yaroslav Row” created instability. The decision of the Lyubech Congress eliminated this established rule, finally fragmenting the state. Yaroslav's descendants were more interested not in the struggle for seniority, but in increasing their own possessions at the expense of their neighbors. Foreign policy. Polovtsian raids on Rus' largely contributed to the consolidation of Russian princes to repel external danger. The weakening of the onslaught from the south broke the alliance of the Russian princes, who themselves more than once brought Polovtsian troops to Rus' in civil strife. Economic. Marxist historiography brought economic reasons to the fore. The period of feudal fragmentation was considered as a natural stage in the development of feudalism. The dominance of subsistence farming did not contribute to the establishment of strong economic ties between regions and led to isolation. The emergence of a feudal fiefdom with the exploitation of the dependent population required strong power locally, and not in the center. The growth of cities, colonization and the development of new lands led to the emergence of new large centers of Rus', loosely connected with Kiev.
Conclusion.
During the period of feudal fragmentation, Rus', remaining large European country, did not have a single state power, which would pursue a common foreign policy for the entire country. In the middle of the 12th century. Russian princes entered into allied relations with states that were part of mutually hostile coalitions.
Nevertheless, the largest Russian principalities had a significant influence on the fate of neighboring countries. Back in 1091, when Byzantium was looking everywhere for help against the Seljuk Turks and Pechenegs, it received military support from Prince Vasilko of Galicia. In general, the Russian princes occupied a much more independent position in relation to the ecclesiastical center of Orthodoxy, Byzantium, than other European states did in relation to the center of Catholicism, Rome.
The papal curia sought to draw Rus' into the orbit of its policy, but the most far-sighted papal emissaries even then saw the unrealizability of these hopes. Thus, in response to a request from one of the ideologists of militant Catholicism, Bernard of Clairvaux, about the possibility of introducing Catholicism in Rus', Bishop Matthew of Krakow in the middle of the 12th century. wrote that “the Russian people, like the stars in their numbers, do not want to conform to either the Latin or the Greek Church.”
Russian princes actively intervened in the international relations of their time. The Vladimir-Suzdal and allied Galician princes maintained diplomatic relations with Byzantium, and their opponents, the Volyn princes, maintained diplomatic relations with Hungary. The army of the Galician princes contributed to the strengthening of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom and helped at the beginning of the 13th century. return the throne to Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Asen II. The Russian princes helped strengthen the position of the Mazovian princes in Poland. Later, the Mazovian princes were for some time in vassal dependence on Rus'.
Individual principalities of Rus' had significant armed forces, who managed to repel and partially subjugate the Polovtsians. The rulers of Byzantium, Hungary, Poland, Germany and other countries sought dynastic ties with the Russian princes, especially with the strongest of them - the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galician-Volyn princes. Rumors about the treasures of Rus' captured the imagination of medieval chroniclers in France, Germany and England.
Russian travelers visited different countries. Thus, the Novgorod boyar Dobrynya Yadreikovich visited at the beginning of the 13th century. Byzantium. He left interesting description sights of the country. The Chernigov abbot Daniel visited Palestine and also described his journey, which took place shortly after the first crusade. Chronicles and other monuments show good awareness of Russian people about a number of countries in Europe and Asia.
Nevertheless international situation Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation deteriorated significantly. This was noted by contemporaries and publicists. The “Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land,” created in the first half of the 13th century, describes the beauty and wealth of Rus' and at the same time speaks with alarm about the weakening of its international significance. Gone are the days when the rulers of neighboring countries trembled at the mere name of Rus', when the Byzantine emperor, fearing the Grand Duke of Kyiv, “sent great gifts to him,” when the German knights rejoiced that they were far “across the blue sea.”
The weakening of the foreign policy position of Rus' and the reduction of its territory were facilitated by the feudal feuds of the princes, which did not stop even when enemies invaded the country. The nomadic Cumans, having occupied the Northern Black Sea region, carried out devastating raids on the southern Russian lands, taking the Russian population captive and selling them into slavery. They undermined the trade and political ties of Rus' with the Black Sea region and the countries of the East. This led to the loss of Russia's possessions in the North Caucasus, as well as the loss of the Taman Peninsula and part of Crimea, captured by Byzantium. In the west, Hungarian feudal lords captured Carpathian Rus'. In the Baltics, the lands of Latvians and Estonians came under the attack of German and Danish feudal lords, and the lands of Finns and Karelians came under the attack of the Swedish ones. In the 13th century The Mongol invasion led to the conquest, devastation and dismemberment of Rus' itself.
List of used literature:
1) V.K. Gubarev,
2) Saracheva T.G.
3) Gumilyov L.N. From Rus' to Russia L.N. / Gumilev. : Mysl, 1992. - 589 p.
4) History of public administration in Russia: textbook / edited by. ed. R. G. Pihoi. – M.: Publishing house RAGS, 2006. – 414 p.
5) Kobrin V.B. "History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861." , M., 1989
6) Alexandrov I.N. , Kropotkina Yu.L. Story Russian state M.: ESKMO, 2007
7) "History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, decisions.",
vol. 1-2. M., 1991
8) Karamzin N. M. “History of the Russian State.”, M., 1991.
9) Syrov S.N. "Pages of history.", M.: Russian language, 1977
The feudal fragmentation of Rus' is a natural result of the development of early feudal Russian society.
The reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus' can be called economic and political.
Economic ones consisted in the spread of subsistence farming at that time, and therefore in the opportunity to separate from the state, because production was carried out not for sale, but “for oneself.” The emergence and development of crafts led to the enrichment of the estate. The prince’s warriors turned into landowners and “settled” on their lands. The number of dependent slaves who needed to be kept in line was growing, and this required the presence of a police apparatus, but without government intervention. The development of production led to economic and political isolation. Local boyars did not intend to share their income with the Grand Duke of Kyiv and actively supported their rulers in the struggle for independence and strengthening of their own principality.
The political ones were that all the princes and patrimonial lords were relatives and considered themselves equal to each other. Outwardly, the collapse was a division of territories between representatives of the princely family, which had grown during this time.
Stages of decay.
The first attempts to secede were made after his death in 1052. But the prince united the Russian lands by force and cunning. In 1097, there was an attempt to unite the Russian lands under a treaty. The Russian princes Svyatopolk, Vladimir, Davyd Svyatoslavich, Davyd Igorevich, Oleg and Vasilko gathered in Lyubech for a congress, where two issues were resolved:
1) who should rule where;
2) on what conditions to maintain a unified state.
Kyiv was recognized as the capital, where tribute is paid no matter how much. Depending on the amount of tribute, help comes from Kyiv.
But already on the way from Kyiv to their lands, two princes kill Prince Vasilko in order to divide his lands. Only the king who reigned from 1113 to 1125 was able to restore order. in Kyiv, but after his death it became impossible to stop the collapse.
In the second quarter of the 12th century, the Polovtsians were completely defeated, the number of nomadic raids on Russian lands sharply decreased, unification became unnecessary and, starting from the 12th century, the Principality of Kiev gradually faded away.
The consequences of feudal fragmentation in Rus' were that out of 12 principalities, 250 were formed, as a result of which the Russian land became very vulnerable, but at the same time feudal fragmentation contributed to the development of feudal relations. land - the principality and the Galician-Volyn principality were the three largest lands after the collapse. The two names for the land - Vladimir-Suzdal - were explained by the fact that it had two rulers: in Vladimir - a prince, in Suzdal - a boyar council. In these lands, the common traditions and principles of management and culture that developed during the existence of a single state continued to be preserved and developed. But at the same time, different lands had their own peculiarities of development, and so the process of formation of local art schools in architecture, painting, literature, there were differences in management.
Novgorod feudal republic
The main governing body in Novgorod Republic there was a meeting-meeting of adult men, later - representatives of clans, regardless of social origin. The leading role at the veche was played by “200 golden belts” (200 boyars); they constituted the boyar council. The veche was held only on important occasions; the rest of the time the boyar council ruled, headed by the archbishop. The functions of the archbishop were to keep state seal, control of the issue of coins and control of the treasury (he had the keys to the treasury), measures of weight, length and volume (this was important for trade). In addition, he was the supreme judge.
The veche elected a mayor and a thousand, who helped the archbishop.
The posadnik is a person who directs foreign policy, monitors the implementation of court decisions, and is the head of the militia. The mayor was chosen from among the trade people, because foreign policy is primarily about trade.
Tysyatsky was an executor of punishments, a deputy mayor, he oversaw the collection of taxes.
The prince was invited from the Vladimir-Suzdal land in case of war or rebellion. He was entrusted with defense, and then he was expelled.
The symbol of freedom of Novgorod was the veche bell, which rang until the end of the 16th century. After the conquest of Novgorod by the Moscow princes, the bell “took out its tongue, beat it with whips and exiled it to Siberia.” From that moment on, the existence of the Novgorod land ceased.
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality.
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality occupied the area between the Oka and Volga rivers. The prince was the sovereign ruler of the principality. The Vladimir princes built the principality as an eastern state, on the principles of despotism, i.e. the prince led the entire life of society.
It was in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality that the Moscow dynasty was formed. The first of the famous Vladimir princes was, one of the younger sons of Vladimir Monomakh, he ruled in Vladimir at the beginning of the 12th century, united a number of lands into a single Vladimir-Suzdal principality, went to Kyiv and burned it.
The son of Yuri (1157-1174) first began the fight against the boyars for sole power and at the same time relied on the nobles. The difference between the boyars and the nobles was that the boyars had an estate, and the nobles did not have land; they were the prince’s warriors, to whom the prince gave land for their service.
During his reign, Andrei managed to separate the power of the prince from the boyar council, for which the boyars poisoned him.
After his death, Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) ascended the throne. He was so nicknamed because he had 17 children, all boys (according to some historical estimates). After his death, hostility and strife began.
Galicia-Volyn Principality
The Galician-Volyn principality is the westernmost principality, bordering Poland and Hungary. The Volyn princes did not have the same rights and privileges as the Vladimir princes.
The system of government in this principality was close to the European one (vassalage). The prince's feudal lords were independent of him. The prince shared power with the boyar Duma, and the boyars had the right to remove the prince. The economy depended on trade relations with Europe, the main product being bread.
In addition, the slave trade was developed in the principality, because it was close to the Mediterranean Sea, and the Mediterranean had a developed slave market.
The collapse of the Galician-Volyn principality began in the 14th century, when Volyn was captured by Lithuania, and the Galician land by Poland.
All lands had three paths of development: republic, despotism or monarchy. Due to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, despotism began to dominate.
Feudal fragmentation in Rus' existed until the end of the 15th century, when most of the territory of the former Kyiv principality became part of the Moscow one.
In the second half of the 11th century. In Rus', signs of increasing feudal fragmentation are becoming more and more clearly evident.
Prince Yaroslav the Wise gained the paternal throne in the most severe internecine struggle. With this in mind, he left a will in which he clearly defined the inheritance rights of his sons. He divided the entire Russian land into five “districts” and determined which of the brothers should reign in which. The Yaroslavich brothers (Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod, Igor, Vyacheslav) fought together for two decades against invasions and preserved the unity of the Russian land.
However, in 1073 Svyatoslav expelled his brother from Kyiv Izyaslav, deciding to become the sole ruler. Izyaslav, having lost his possessions, wandered for a long time and was able to return to Rus' only after the death of Svyatoslav in 1076. From that time on, a bloody struggle for power began.
The bloody unrest was based on the imperfection of the appanage system created by Yaroslav, which could not satisfy the expanded clan Rurikovich. There was no clear order in the distribution of inheritance and inheritance. According to ancient custom, the eldest in the family was supposed to inherit the reign. But Byzantine law, which came with the adoption of Christianity, recognized inheritance only by direct descendants. The inconsistency of inheritance rights and the uncertainty of the boundaries of inheritance gave rise to more and more civil strife.
The bloody feuds were aggravated by the continuous raids of the Polovtsians, who skillfully exploited the disunity of the Russian princes. Other princes took the Polovtsians as allies and brought them to Rus'.
In 1097, on the initiative of Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, son of Vsevolod Yaroslavovich, a congress of princes took place in Lyubech. To stop civil strife, it was decided to install new order organization of power in Rus'. In accordance with the new principle, each principality became the hereditary property of the local princely family.
The adopted law became the main one reason feudal fragmentation and destroyed the integrity of the ancient Russian state. It became a turning point, as there was a turning point in the distribution of land ownership in Rus'.
The disastrous mistake in lawmaking did not immediately make itself felt. The need for a joint struggle against the Polovtsians, the strong power and patriotism of Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) postponed the inevitable for a while. His son continued his work Mstislav the Great(1125-1132). However, from 1132, the former counties, having become hereditary “fatherlands,” gradually turned into independent principalities.
In the middle of the 12th century. civil strife reached unprecedented severity, the number of participants increased as a result of the fragmentation of the princely possessions. At that time there were 15 principalities in Rus', in the next century - 50, and during the reign Ivan Kalita- 250. Many historians consider one of the reasons underlying these events to be the large number of children of the princely families (by distributing lands by inheritance, they multiplied the number of principalities).
The largest state entities were:
- Principality of Kiev(despite the loss of all-Russian status, the struggle for its possession continued until the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars);
- Vladimir-Suzdalskoe principality (in the 12th-13th centuries, economic growth began, the cities of Vladimir, Dmitrov Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Gorodets, Kostroma, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod);
- Chernigovskoe And Smolensk principalities (the most important trade routes to the upper reaches of the Volga and Dnieper);
- Galicia-Volynskoe principality (located between the Bug and Dniester rivers, the center of arable land-owning culture);
Polotsk-Minsk land (had an advantageous location at the crossroads of trade routes).
Feudal fragmentation was characteristic of the history of many states of the Middle Ages. The uniqueness and grave consequences for the Old Russian state lay in its duration - about 3.5 centuries.
Feudal fragmentation is the decentralization of the state, the formation of independent regions on its territory. This is a natural stage in the development of all European countries. During the Middle Ages, the single state was disunited under the influence of many reasons.
The Old Russian state was no exception to this rule. By the middle of the 12th century, Kievan Rus consisted of 15 principalities; they were subordinate to Kyiv only formally. By the beginning of the thirteenth century, Rus' was already divided into 50 principalities, by the fourteenth century their number increased to 250.
The movement towards fragmentation began in the 11th century, when Yaroslav the Wise bequeathed the country to six heirs, each of whom handed over the reins of government to his family. Initially it was assumed that they would rule Russia together. For a long time, the brothers jointly maintained the independence of the state, together they opposed external threat. But already at the beginning of the 12th century the state split into many principalities.
Economic reasons for the fragmentation of Rus'
The development of the economy of Kievan Rus was due to the increase in the territory of the state. The Slavs developed the East European Plain, settled in new lands, and cultivated fields. Arable farming spread throughout the state. Boyar estates, that is, lands belonging to the nobility, began to appear even in the most remote corners of the Russian state. The number of cities increased to three hundred.
The boyars tried to provide for their needs at the expense of their own income from cultivating the land. The development of subsistence farming led to an increase in the amount of surplus. The boyars received the opportunity to separate their lands from the capital of Rus' and fully manage them.
The economic development of Rus' led to social divisions and conflicts. To stop them, a strong and stable local government was needed. The boyars relied on the military strength of the prince, with the help of which they quickly gained power. The princes and boyars no longer needed Kyiv's help.
Thus, one of the main reasons for the disunity of Rus' was the strengthening of the boyars. Together with the princes, they quickly consolidated power in the acquired possessions. However, soon disagreements began to arise between the princes and boyars. Boyar republics were formed in some areas. In others, princes began to govern territories independently.
One of the reasons for the fragmentation of Rus' was the order of succession to the throne. It caused instability and slowed economic development. The state needed a new form of political structure, and fragmentation became it. The appropriation of territory by individual princely families made it possible to more effectively respond to internal problems. The throne no longer considered its lands as spoils of war; it became more interested in managing and enriching its possessions.
Kyiv became the first city among equals. Other Russian lands very soon outstripped the capital in development. On the territory of the once unified state, 15 independent lands were formed, ruled by local clans. Not only the Kyiv sovereign, but also the owners of the regions were called the Grand Duke.
Political and social reasons for the fragmentation of Rus'
The reason for the division of Rus' into many principalities was also the development of feudal relations in all regions. The capital did not ensure the economic development of its lands, but, on the contrary, slowed it down by demanding tribute. The squad and local nobility organized their own state apparatus. It included: the army, the court, the boyars, prisons, etc. The prince could control the peasants and deal with local conflicts without the help of Kyiv, while simultaneously protecting his own lands from external threats.
The principalities were liberated from the sole power of Kyiv, the princes proclaimed their independence and pursued their own domestic and foreign policies. Local government tried to increase the territory of her lands, seizing neighboring properties, including those belonging to related princes. This was the reason for the start internecine wars and oppression of peasants.
Economic growth influenced the political system of Rus'. The nature of the relationship between the boyars and the prince changed. IN XI-X centuries the boyars supported the ruler, since he provided for them financial well-being and power. In the 11th century, landowners were already subordinate to the prince as vassals; they were almost not dependent on him economically. The ruler was forced to distribute lands to his subordinates in order to provide himself required quantity servants Large boyars enriched themselves even more, acquired enormous political influence, surrounding themselves with their own vassals.
The princely court expanded its range of activities. The control center was still Kyiv prince and his close servants. The ruler and boyars regularly met in council and discussed state affairs.
Consequences of the fragmentation of Rus'
Negative:
1. Feudal fragmentation led to the military weakening of Rus'. The divided principalities could not resist the enemy alone. Russian lands have become vulnerable.
2. Civil strife arose. The princes tried to expand their territory and started wars with neighboring rulers. These discords weakened military power and slowed the pace of economic development.
3. The state was fragmented into small principalities. Initially, 15 possessions were formed, later they split into 50, and over time - into 250. Rus' was losing political unity.
Positive:
1. The division of a large state into small holdings made it possible to develop a vast territory. Subsistence farming developed rapidly, the people became richer. New tools and technologies for cultivating the land appeared.
2. The patrimonial economy developed. The land now belonged to the feudal lords, they sought to get as much income as possible from it. This allowed the economy to develop not only in the center, but also in the most remote areas of the ancient Russian state.
3. Each principality independently established foreign trade relations. Trade with neighboring countries ensured the economy, strengthened power and increased the material well-being of the population.
4. The rulers conducted an independent foreign policy.
5. The development of trade relations and the establishment of an independent foreign policy gave impetus to the growth of cities, the rise of crafts and production relations.
6. Each independent principality developed culture. They created their own chronicles, which made it possible to record the history of the ancient Russian state in more detail. Temples were built, writing developed. The period of fragmentation is associated with the flourishing of Russian culture.
Currently, some historians are skeptical about the fact of the fragmentation of Rus'. They compare Rus' with European states. Any independent Russian principality was huge compared to the city-states of Europe. Some historians believe that there was no complete collapse of the ancient Russian state. Despite the political fragmentation, the connection between the Russian principalities was not broken. A single religion, a common language and a centuries-old history did not allow the state to split completely. Russians have always been aware of their kinship and common destiny.
The period of feudal fragmentation, traditionally called the “appanage period,” lasted from the 12th to the end of the 15th centuries.
Feudal fragmentation weakened the defensive capabilities of the Russian lands. This became noticeable in the second half of the 11th century, when a new strong enemy- Polovtsians (Turkic nomadic tribes). According to the chronicles, it is estimated that from 1061 to beginning of XIII V. There were more than 46 major Cuman invasions.
The internecine wars of the princes, the associated destruction of cities and villages, and the removal of the population into slavery became a disaster for peasants and townspeople. From 1228 to 1462, according to S. M. Solovyov, there were 90 wars between Russian principalities, in which there were 35 cases of taking cities, and 106 external wars, of which: 45 - with the Tatars, 41 - with the Lithuanians, 30 - with Livonian Order, the rest - with the Swedes and Bulgars. The population begins to leave Kyiv and neighboring lands to the northeast to the Rostov-Suzdal land and partially to the southwest to Galicia. Occupying the southern Russian steppes, the Polovtsians cut off Rus' from foreign markets, which led to a decline in trade. During the same period, European trade routes changed to Balkan-Asian directions as a result of the Crusades. In this regard, the Russian principalities experienced difficulties in international trade.
In addition to external ones, there were also internal reasons decline of Kievan Rus. Klyuchevsky believed that this process was influenced by the degraded legal and economic position of the working population and the significant development of slavery. The courtyards and villages of the princes were full of “servants”; the position of the “purchasers” and “hiremen” (semi-free) was on the verge of a slave state. The Smerds, who retained their communities, were crushed by princely exactions and the growing appetites of the boyars. Feudal fragmentation, the growth of political contradictions between independent principalities expanding their territories led to changes in their social order. The power of the princes became strictly hereditary, the boyars, who received the right to freely choose their overlord, grew stronger, and the category of free servants (former ordinary warriors) multiplied. In the princely economy, the number of unfree servants grew, engaged in production and material support for the prince himself, his family, and members of the princely court.
Features of the divided Russian principalities
As a result of the fragmentation of the ancient Russian state by the middle of the 12th century. separated into independent ten states-principalities. Subsequently, by the middle of the 13th century, their number reached eighteen. They were given names based on their capital cities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Muromo-Ryazans. Suzdal (Vladimir). Smolensk, Galicia, Vladimir-Volynsk, Polotsk, Novgorod Boyar Republic. In each of the principalities, one of the branches of the Rurikovichs ruled, and the sons of princes and governor-boyars ruled individual appanages and volosts. However, all lands retained the same written language, a single religion and church organization, the legal norms of the “Russian Truth”, and most importantly, an awareness of common roots, a common historical destiny. At the same time, each of the established independent states had its own development characteristics. The largest of them, which played a significant role in the subsequent history of Rus', were: Suzdal (later - Vladimir) principality - North-Eastern Rus'; Galician (later - Galician-Volyn) principality - South-Western Rus'; Novgorod boyar republic - Novgorod land (North-Western Rus').
Principality of Suzdal was located between the Oka and Volga rivers. Its territory was well protected from external invasions by forests and rivers, it had profitable trade routes along the Volga with the countries of the East, and through the upper reaches of the Volga - to Novgorod and to the countries of Western Europe. The economic recovery was also facilitated by a constant influx of population. The Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky (1125 - 1157), in the struggle with his nephew Izyaslav Mstislavich for the Kiev throne, repeatedly captured Kyiv. For the first time in the chronicle under 1147, Moscow is mentioned, where negotiations between Yuri and the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav took place. Yuri's son, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157 - 1174) moved the capital of the principality from Suzdal to Vladimir, which he rebuilt with great pomp. The northeastern princes ceased to lay claim to rule in Kyiv, but sought to maintain their influence here, first by organizing military campaigns, then through diplomacy and dynastic marriages. In the fight against the boyars, Andrei was killed by the conspirators. His policy was continued by his half-brother, Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176 - 1212). He had many sons, for which he received such a nickname.
The settlers, who made up a significant proportion of the population, did not preserve the state traditions of Kievan Rus - the role of the “veche” and “mirs”. Under these conditions, the despotism of the power of the princes is growing, and they are intensifying the fight against the boyars. Under Vsevolod it ended in favor of the princely power. Vsevolod managed to establish close ties with Novgorod, where his sons and relatives reigned; defeated the Ryazan principality, organizing the resettlement of some of its inhabitants to his own possessions; successfully fought with Volga Bulgaria, putting a number of its lands under his control, and became related to the Kyiv and Chernigov princes. He became one of the strongest princes in Rus'. His son Yuri (1218 - 1238) founded Nizhny Novgorod and strengthened himself in the Mordovian lands. The further development of the principality was interrupted by the Mongol invasion.
Galicia-Volyn Principality occupied the northeastern slopes of the Carpathians and the territory between the Dniester and Prut rivers. Profitable geographical location(neighborhood with European countries) and climatic conditions contributed economic development, the second migration flow from the southern Russian principalities was also sent here (to safer areas). Poles and Germans also settled here.
The rise of the Galician principality began under Yaroslav I Osmomysl (1153 - 1187), and under the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich in 1199 the unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities took place. In 1203 Roman captured Kyiv. The Galician-Volyn principality became one of the largest states in feudal-fragmented Europe, its close ties were established with European states, and Catholicism began to penetrate Russian soil. His son Daniel (1221 - 1264) waged a long struggle for the Galician throne with its western neighbors (Hungarian and Polish princes) and the expansion of the state. In 1240 he united Southwestern Rus' and Kyiv land, established his power in the fight against the boyars. But in 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality was subjected to Mongol devastation. In the subsequent struggle, Daniel strengthened the principality, and in 1254 he accepted the royal title from the Pope. However, the Catholic West did not help Daniel in his fight against the Tatars. Daniel was forced to recognize himself as a vassal of the Horde khan. Having existed for about another hundred years, the Galician-Volyn state became part of Poland and Lithuania, which had a great influence on the formation of the Ukrainian people. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania included Western Russian principalities - Polotsk, Vitebsk, Minsk, Drutsk, Turovo-Pinsk, Novgorod-Seversk, etc. The Belarusian nation was formed within this state.
Novgorod Boyar Republic. Novgorod land is the most important component of the ancient Russian state. During the period of feudal fragmentation, it retained its political significance, economic and trade relations with the West and the East, covering the territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga from north to south, from the Baltic states and almost to the Urals from west to east. A huge land fund belonged to the local boyars. The latter, using the uprising of the Novgorodians in 1136, managed to defeat the princely power and establish a boyar republic. The supreme body became the veche, where the most important issues of life were decided and the Novgorod administration was elected. In fact, the owners of it were the largest boyars of Novgorod. The mayor became the main official in the department. He was elected from the noblest families of Novgorodians. The veche also elected the head of the Novgorod church, who managed the treasury, controlled foreign relations and even had his own army. From the end of the 12th century. The position of the head of the trade and economic sphere of life in Novgorod society was called “tysyatsky”. It was usually occupied by large merchants. The princely power also retained certain positions in Novgorod. The veche invited the prince to wage war, but even the prince’s residence was located outside the Novgorod Kremlin. The wealth and military power of Novgorod made the Novgorod Republic an influential force in Rus'. Novgorodians became a military support in the fight against German and Swedish aggression against Russian lands. Mongol invasion did not reach Novgorod. Wide trade ties with Europe determined the significant influence of the West in the Novgorod Republic. Novgorod became one of the largest trade, craft and cultural centers not only in Rus', but also in Europe. High level The culture of the Novgorodians shows the degree of literacy of the population, as can be seen from the “birch bark letters” discovered by archaeologists, the number of which exceeds a thousand.
Appearance in the second half of the 11th century. - first third of the 13th century. new political centers contributed to the growth and development of culture. During the period of feudal fragmentation, one of the greatest creations arose ancient Russian culture"The Tale of Igor's Campaign." Its author, touching upon the circumstances of the defeat of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich in an everyday clash with the Polovtsians (1185), was able to turn it into a tragedy on a national scale. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” became a prophetic warning against the danger of princely strife, sounded four decades before the crushing Tatar-Mongol invasion.