The significance of Alexander’s reforms 3. Counter-reforms of Alexander III (briefly)

After the assassination of the king Alexandra 2 his son Alexander 3 (1881-1894) ascended the throne. Shocked by the violent death of his father, fearing the intensification of revolutionary manifestations, at the beginning of his reign he hesitated in choosing a political course. But, having fallen under the influence of the initiators of the reactionary ideology K.P. Pobedonostsev and D.A. Tolstoy, Alexander 3 gave political priorities to the preservation of autocracy, the insulation of the class system, traditions and foundations Russian society, hostility to liberal reforms.

Only public pressure could influence the policy of Alexander 3. However, after the brutal murder of Alexander 2, the expected revolutionary upsurge did not occur. Moreover, the murder of the reformer tsar recoiled society from the Narodnaya Volya, showing the senselessness of terror; intensified police repression finally changed the balance in the social situation in favor of conservative forces.

Under these conditions, a turn to counter-reforms in the policy of Alexander 3 became possible. This was clearly outlined in the Manifesto published on April 29, 1881, in which the emperor declared his will to preserve the foundations of autocracy and thereby eliminated the hopes of the democrats for the transformation of the regime into a constitutional monarchy - not We will describe the reforms of Alexander 3 in the table, but instead we will describe them in more detail.

Alexander III replaced liberal figures in the government with hardliners. The concept of counter-reforms was developed by its main ideologist K.N. Pobedonostsev. He claimed that liberal reforms The 60s led to upheavals in society, and the people, left without guardianship, became lazy and wild; called for a return to the traditional foundations of national existence.

To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of zemstvo self-government was subjected to changes. Judicial and administrative powers were combined in the hands of zemstvo chiefs. They had unlimited power over the peasants.

The “Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions,” published in 1890, strengthened the role of the nobility in zemstvo institutions and the administration’s control over them. The representation of landowners in zemstvos increased significantly through the introduction of a high property qualification.

Seeing the main threat to the existing system in the face of the intelligentsia, the emperor, in order to strengthen the positions of the nobility and bureaucracy loyal to him, in 1881 issued the “Regulations on measures to preserve state security and public peace,” which granted numerous repressive rights to the local administration (to declare a state of emergency, to expel without trial, court-martial, close educational institutions). This law was used until the reforms of 1917 and became a tool for the fight against the revolutionary and liberal movement.

In 1892, a new “City Regulation” was published, which infringed on the independence of city government bodies. The government included them in common system government institutions, thereby putting them under control.

Alexander the Third considered strengthening the peasant community an important direction of his policy. In the 80s, a process began to free peasants from the shackles of the community, which interfered with their free movement and initiative. Alexander 3, by law of 1893, prohibited the sale and mortgage of peasant lands, negating all the successes of previous years.

In 1884, Alexander undertook a university counter-reform, the goal of which was to educate the intelligentsia obedient to the authorities. The new university charter sharply limited the autonomy of universities, placing them under the control of trustees.

Under Alexander 3, the development of factory legislation began, which restrained the initiative of the owners of the enterprise and excluded the possibility of workers fighting for their rights.

The results of the counter-reforms of Alexander 3 are contradictory: the country managed to achieve industrial growth and refrain from participating in wars, but at the same time social unrest and tension increased.

Reforms Alexandra III.

On April 29, 1881, Alexander III issued a manifesto on the establishment of autocracy, which meant a transition to a reactionary course in domestic policy. However, in the first half of the 1880s, under the influence of economic development and the current political situation, the government of Alexander III was forced to carry out a number of reforms. In 1882, a peasant bank was established, with the help of which peasants could acquire land property. This decision was made by Speransky, but did not receive the support of Alexander I. This decision was a logical step before the abolition of taxes and permission to buy out (redemption was allowed earlier) the land. In 1890, a new position was introduced - the zemstvo chief, who concentrated administrative and judicial power in his hands. This was a step back to autocracy, but it was necessary, since today's Russia was not ready (and, perhaps, will never be ready for democracy). The year 1884 was marked by the introduction of a new university charter - military gymnasiums were transformed into cadet corps. With the resignation of the Minister of Internal Affairs Count N.I. Ignatiev (1882) and the appointment of Count D.A. Tolstoy to this post, a period of open reaction began. During the reign of Alexander III, administrative arbitrariness increased significantly. Administrative arbitrariness was strengthened by a series of decrees in 1890. Basically, these decrees appointed new positions that limited the democratic beginning of the previous ones - in particular, a new position of zemstvo chief was introduced, who had judicial and administrative power, which could not have a positive effect on Russian democracy. In order to develop new lands, under Alexander III, the resettlement of peasant families to Siberia proceeded at a rapid pace. In total, during the reign of Alexander III, up to 400 thousand peasants were resettled to Siberia, and in Central Asia- 60 thousand. The government was to some extent concerned about improving the living conditions of workers - rules were introduced on hiring for rural and factory work, the supervision of which was entrusted to factory inspectors (1882), the work of minors and women was limited. In foreign policy During these years, there was a deterioration in Russian-German relations and a gradual rapprochement between Russia and France took place, ending with the conclusion of the Franco-Russian alliance (1891-1893).

Since the mid-70s. XIX century The peasant movement is growing again. On March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander II was killed by Narodnaya Volya. The tsarist government switched to reactionary policies. Counter-reforms 1880- 1890 in Russia this is a change in domestic policy, a revision of a number of significant provisions established during the bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century Counter-reforms begin with the adoption in 1881 Provisions on measures to protect state order and public peace. This document provided for the introduction of a state of enhanced or emergency security in a particular area or throughout the country. In 1889 it was adopted Regulations on zemstvo district commanders, which abolished the principle of separation of the court from the administration. According to the Regulations in the counties, instead of justices of the peace, Institute of Zemstvo District Chiefs. They were entrusted with police, judicial and administrative functions: exercising control over rural and volost self-government bodies, managing the police, supervising the activities of volost courts, etc. The situation dealt a serious blow to the system of magistrates' courts, their number began to decline, and by 1913 they disappeared completely. In 1890 it was revised Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions. According to the new Regulations, the curial election system was preserved. However, in the first curia, instead of the qualification principle of formation, the class principle was established: it included only hereditary and personal nobles. In the second, urban curia, the property qualification was significantly increased. In relation to the peasant curia, the control of the administration increased - the governor himself appointed vowels from among the peasant electors. In 1892 a new one was adopted City situation. In accordance with this document, the property qualification was increased, which led to the exclusion of the petty and part of the middle bourgeoisie from elections to city dumas. Only those townspeople who owned real estate, as well as owners of commercial and industrial enterprises who had guild certificates, had voting rights. Thus, the representation of the nobility and big bourgeoisie in city councils increased. For small towns, the Regulations established “simplified governance”: a meeting of city householders elected a meeting of commissioners, and it elected a city mayor. With the growing reaction in the country, it began to develop system of administrative repression. The note to Art. played a certain role. 1 of the Charter of Criminal Proceedings, which allowed for cases in which the administrative authority takes measures in accordance with the procedure established by law to prevent and suppress crimes and misdemeanors.

Corporal punishment, although abolished by the Decree of 1863, continued to be used in practice by decision of the Committee of Ministers.

In 1871, the rights of the gendarmerie in the field of inquiry and investigation of state crimes were expanded. Inquiries into such cases were carried out corps of gendarmes.

Since 1872, all the most important cases of political crimes began to be considered Special presence of the Senate with the participation of class representatives.

In 1866, cases of the press were removed from the jurisdiction of the jury, in 1874, cases of illegal communities and participation in them were removed from the jurisdiction of general courts, and in 1878, cases of opposition or resistance to the authorities. All these and many other cases were transferred to military district courts. In 1887, the court was given the right to consider “sensitive” and “secret” cases behind closed doors.

The theme of “Alexander 3 Counter-Reforms” is key to understanding why three subsequent revolutions took place in Russia, and a murder occurred royal family and much more in the first quarter of the 20th century. And although Alexander the Third is the penultimate ruler of the Romanov dynasty (if you don’t count Mikhail Romanov), the emphasis made during his reign was continued by his son Nicholas II.

Reasons for counter-reforms

The reasons for such a policy should be sought, in my opinion, in the Manifesto “On the Inviolability of Autocracy” dated April 29, 1881. At the very beginning we find these lines: “It was pleasing to God, in His inscrutable destinies, to complete the glorious Reign of Our Beloved Parent with a martyr’s death, and to entrust to Us the Sacred duty of Autocratic Rule.”.

Thus, we see that the first, and I think the main reason for the policy of counter-reforms was rooted in the author of the Manifesto: he sincerely believed that God had punished his father, Alexander II, for his reforms and so placed his son on the throne, placing it on him "sacred duty". Let me remind you that at this time conservative ideology in Russia was represented by the Theory official nationality, and the words of the document directly appeal to it.

The second reason for counter-reforms follows from the first: ruling circles in Russia they were against rapid development, rapid changes. And they have already begun: the stratification of the peasantry caused by, the strengthening of property inequality in the countryside, the growth of the proletariat - the working class. The old government could not keep track of all this, because it thought in old archetypes: how can society be protected from its development?

Characteristics of counter-reforms

Printing and education

• 1882 Tightening censorship. Closing of liberal newspapers and magazines (“Otechestvennye zapiski”, “Delo”...)
• 1884 Reactionary university charter. Abolition of university self-government.
• 1887 Circular “On cook's children” (prohibition of admission of lower-class children to the gymnasium).

These actions were taken against, one of which again granted the country university self-government.

Local government

• The institution of zemstvo chiefs (from the nobility) was introduced to strengthen control over zemstvos
• The rights and powers of zemstvos are limited.
• In zemstvos, the number of deputies from nobles has been increased at the expense of the number of deputies from other classes

These actions were carried out with the aim of downplaying the role of local self-government and turning zemstvos into a purely executive and administrative body of the state. The latter did not trust his people. How will he manage himself?

Judicial counter-reform

• An emergency law has been passed to combat revolutionary movement(1881). In accordance with it, in the event of revolutionary unrest, governors received the right to introduce a state of emergency in the provinces, which gave them a free hand in relation to revolutionaries or their accomplices.
• The openness of legal proceedings in political cases was limited (1887).
• Magistrates' courts were liquidated (1889), which could deal with minor court cases.

These actions were aimed at limiting the capabilities of the courts. Many people know that the court has become more objective, a jury trial was introduced, which could go far behind the defense. It is not for nothing that the second half of the 19th century was the heyday of the legal profession, which, for example, showed .

Peasant question

Although Alexander the Third could not reverse the peasant reform, contrary to our expectations, something useful was done for the peasants. Thus, in 1881, the temporarily obliged position of the peasantry was abolished. Now all peasant communities were transferred to the purchase of land from the landowner, simply - to the purchase. In the same year, redemption payments were reduced by one ruble.

In 1882, the Peasant Bank was created for settlements on the peasant issue and redemption payments. And from 1882 to 1887 the poll tax was abolished.

But not everything was so rosy. Thus, in 1893, the state limited the exit of peasants from the community. Alexander the Third saw in the peasant community the guarantee of preserving both autocracy and stability in Russia. Moreover, by doing this, the state reduced the flow of peasants into the city and their replenishment of the impoverished proletariat.

Consequences of counter-reforms

The policy of counter-reforms did not contribute to the development of those directions that were laid down in the previous reign. The life of the peasants was still miserable and remained so. To characterize everyday life, the following example can be given.

Somehow L.N. Tolstoy, traveling around Russia, saw a peasant who was carrying a cart of potato tops. “Where are you taking?” - the Great Russian writer asked the peasant. “Yes, here it is - from the master.” "For what?" - asked Tolstoy. “For these tops, which we will now eat, we will have to sow the master’s field next year, cultivate and reap,” answered the poor fellow (Told from the book by S.G. Kara-Murza “ Civil war in Russia").

All the more terrible is the meaning of the words of Nicholas II, that all sentiments for change are groundless. The more definite becomes the understanding of the causes of the three revolutions in Russia in the first quarter of the 20th century.

Post Scriptum: Of course, we were not able to cover many important aspects topics. Get a holistic understanding of Russian history and World history and also understand how to solve Unified State Exam tests in history you can study, as well as on our Unified State Exam preparation courses .

Best regards, Andrey Puchkov

After the sudden death of Alexander II in 1881, Alexander III took the throne. His policies were far from ideal, and the reforms carried out became the cause of the crisis of royal power that the country faced in the 20th century. Many of the emperor's associates believed that he was wasting money on illogical and often contradictory reforms, but the ruler himself preferred not to hear any grumbling. Nicholas II will have to pay heavily for such an attitude of the royals. Despite the fact that the reforms of Alexander III raised many questions, the monarch had a clear algorithm of actions that he preferred to follow. The emperor's reforms often directly contradicted the measures of Alexander II, which clearly demonstrated the conflict between father and son.

The desire to stop the terror of “Narodnaya Volya” and to restore order in the country explains the transition of Alexander III in 1881 to a policy of counter-reforms.

The New Deal aimed to strengthen the local power of the nobility. Reforms of the 1860-70s did not develop, but were conserved and even truncated. The rejection of liberal reforms and the national-chauvinistic course of the government slowed down the process of economic and social development countries (B.V. Ananich, V.G. Chernukha).

M.N. Katkov is a well-known conservative publicist, one of the ideologists of the counter-reforms of the 80s. XIX century, editor-in-chief newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti".

Foreign policy

Bulgarian affairs occupied an important place. The struggle to strengthen Bulgarian statehood ended in failure in 1887. – neutrality of Russia and Germany (Bismarck’s goal is to prevent Russian-French rapprochement).

Conclusions on the reforms of Alexander III

During the reign of Alexander III, the country developed one-sidedly. Despite the fact that heavy industry and railway construction made great strides forward, the social reforms of Alexander III could not be called logical. The emperor continued to work on peasant reform, trying to rebuild the state on a new model of social perception of classes. However, many of Alexander III's actions in this direction were illogical and incomplete. The economic reforms of the monarch can also be called illogical. His successor, Nicholas II, was to reap the fruits of restless counter-reforms, while simultaneously fighting the growing wave of popular discontent.

Counter-reforms of Alexander III

Below is information about the internal policies of Alexander III. Check it out and draw your own conclusion. Prove that the policy of Alexander III was aimed at strengthening the reaction and at the same time stabilizing the internal social order.

1 source

After the assassination of Tsar Alexander 2, his son Alexander 3 (1881-1894) ascended the throne. Shocked violent death his father, fearing the strengthening of revolutionary manifestations, at the beginning of his reign he hesitated in choosing a political course. But, having fallen under the influence of the initiators of the reactionary ideology K.P. Pobedonostsev and D.A. Tolstoy, Alexander 3 gave political priorities to the preservation of autocracy, the warming of the class system, traditions and foundations of Russian society, and hostility to liberal reforms.

Only public pressure could influence the policy of Alexander 3. However, after the brutal murder of Alexander 2, the expected revolutionary upsurge did not occur. Moreover, the murder of the reformer tsar recoiled society from the Narodnaya Volya, showing the senselessness of terror; intensified police repression finally changed the balance in the social situation in favor of conservative forces.

Under these conditions, a turn to counter-reforms in the policy of Alexander 3 became possible. This was clearly outlined in the Manifesto published on April 29, 1881, in which the emperor declared his will to preserve the foundations of autocracy and thereby eliminated the hopes of the democrats for the transformation of the regime into a constitutional monarchy - not We will describe the reforms of Alexander 3 in the table, but instead we will describe them in more detail.

Alexander III replaced liberal figures in the government with hardliners. The concept of counter-reforms was developed by its main ideologist K.N. Pobedonostsev. He argued that the liberal reforms of the 60s led to upheavals in society, and the people, left without guardianship, became lazy and savage; called for a return to the traditional foundations of national existence.

To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of zemstvo self-government was subjected to changes. Judicial and administrative powers were combined in the hands of zemstvo chiefs. They had unlimited power over the peasants.

The “Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions,” published in 1890, strengthened the role of the nobility in zemstvo institutions and the administration’s control over them. The representation of landowners in zemstvos increased significantly through the introduction of a high property qualification.

Seeing the main threat to the existing system in the person of the intelligentsia, the emperor, in order to strengthen the positions of the nobility and bureaucracy loyal to him, in 1881 issued the “Regulations on measures to preserve state security and public peace”, which granted numerous repressive rights to the local administration (to declare a state of emergency, expel without trial, put before a military court, close educational institutions). This law was used until the reforms of 1917 and became a tool for the fight against the revolutionary and liberal movement.

In 1892, a new “City Regulation” was published, which infringed on the independence of city government bodies. The government included them in the general system of government institutions, thereby putting them under control.

Alexander III considered strengthening peasant community. In the 80s, a process began to free peasants from the shackles of the community, which interfered with their free movement and initiative. Alexander 3, by law of 1893, prohibited the sale and mortgage of peasant lands, negating all the successes of previous years.

In 1884, Alexander undertook a university counter-reform, the goal of which was to educate the intelligentsia obedient to the authorities. The new university charter sharply limited the autonomy of universities, placing them under the control of trustees.

Under Alexander 3, the development of factory legislation began, which restrained the initiative of the owners of the enterprise and excluded the possibility of workers fighting for their rights.

The results of the counter-reforms of Alexander 3 are contradictory: the country managed to achieve industrial growth and refrain from participating in wars, but at the same time social unrest and tension increased.

2 source

The reforms were not canceled, but significant amendments were made to them. Administrative and police supervision has been established over zemstvo self-government. The nobility received the opportunity to elect most of the elected zemstvo officials, and the property qualification for the urban population increased. The peasantry was generally excluded from the elections. Was canceled main principle zemstvos - independence. Judicial reform did not undergo major changes, but transparency in legal proceedings in political cases was limited. Locally, justices of the peace were replaced by zemstvo district chiefs, who were selected exclusively from the nobles.

Universities were dealt a serious blow. In 1884, their autonomy was eliminated. Teachers were now confirmed in office directly by the Minister of Education. Tuition fees increased. In 1887, a decree on the so-called “cook’s children” was issued, prohibiting the admission to school of “children of coachmen, footmen, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like.”

Significant restrictions were placed on freedom of speech and the press. “Temporary Rules on the Press” were established, establishing strict administrative supervision over any press. From now on, the administration received the right to close newspapers and magazines under any pretext. In 1883-1884, the publication of not only radical publications was banned, but also many others of a moderate nature.

3 source