By the 1860s Russia has changed radically. In 1861, Alexander II abolished serfdom- there were many free peasants and impoverished landowners in the country, the number of cities grew and new cities were built. All this required new reforms and changes. A kind of compensation from the government to the nobility was the implementation of the zemstvo reform of local government bodies, allowing representatives of all classes to participate in these bodies, but the main role belonged to the nobility. New local government bodies were also created in cities - City Dumas and Councils. All these bodies resolved issues of agriculture and urban economy, as well as actual problems settlements. One more great reform became judicial reform Russian Empire, which brought the Russian judicial system to a qualitative level new level. You will learn about all this in more detail from this lesson.
As a result, AlexanderII carried out a reform of local government bodies - zemstvos. According to the government’s idea, all layers should have been involved in participation in local government bodies Russian society. However, in reality main role The nobles played, since they suffered the greatest losses during the peasant reform and the authorities wanted to partially compensate them for their losses. In addition, the government of Alexander II was confident that participation in the economic life of the regions would help distract the most radical forces of Russian society from activities destructive to the state.
On January 1, 1864, by imperial decree, the Regulations on provincial and zemstvo institutions were introduced. Only men, who were elected through three curiae, had the right to take part in zemstvo bodies. The first curia is landowners - the richest people, the second - the urban population, the third - free peasants who received the right of representation in zemstvo bodies. Money for zemstvo activities had to be collected using a special tax, which was introduced on all real estate in the counties: factories, plots, houses (Fig. 2), etc.
Rice. 2. Factory in Russia XIX V. ()
Zemstvo bodies were divided into administrative and executive. Administrative bodies were zemstvo assemblies that met once a year. They were attended by deputies - vowels chosen from three curiae. The administrative bodies met at short term to solve the most important economic problems of the region. The rest of the time, the executive bodies of zemstvos - zemstvo councils - acted. They were much smaller in number of deputies, but zemstvo councils were permanent local government bodies that resolved the daily issues of the population.
Zemstvos dealt with a fairly wide range of issues. They built schools and hospitals (Fig. 3), provided them with supplies, created new routes of communication, and resolved issues of local trade (Fig. 4). The sphere of administration of zemstvos also included charity, insurance, veterinary affairs and much more. In general, it is worth saying that the zemstvos did a lot. Even opponents of the reforms of Alexander II admitted that the old bureaucratic apparatus of local self-government would not have been able to resolve as many issues as the new zemstvo bodies did.
Rice. 3. Rural school of the 19th century. ()
Rice. 4. Rural trade in the 19th century. ()
In 1870, a city reform of local government bodies was carried out on the model of the zemstvo. According to it, the old city authorities were replaced by new all-estate councils and councils. Now residents of all areas could be involved in the management of the city. social strata. This made the authorities fear the new city governments and tightly control them. Thus, the city mayor could be appointed only with the consent of the Minister of Internal Affairs or the governor. In addition, these two officials could veto any decision of the City Duma (Fig. 5).
Rice. 5. City Duma of the 19th century. ()
Men at least 25 years old could take part in city government bodies, and they were required to pay taxes to the treasury. City councils resolved a number of issues related to the development of the city: entrepreneurial and trading activity, improvement, maintenance of police and prisons.
Urban reform has become important stage on the path of development of Russian cities in general.
In the conditions of post-reform Russia, there appeared great amount free people, at the same time disoriented, not understanding how to live in the country. Before Alexander's government IIa serious problem arose with the courts. The old courts of the Russian Empire were fairly corrupt; power in them belonged to representatives of the nobility or local administration. All this could lead to deep social upheaval.
In connection with the above circumstances, one of the most systematic and consistent reforms of Alexander IIwas judicial reform. According to the plan of this reform, two types of courts were created: general and magistrates.
Magistrates' courts operated in cities and counties. They tried minor civil and criminal cases. Justices of the peace (Fig. 6) were elected by officials of the City or Zemstvo government. They were the sole arbiters of justice in their area and tried their best to resolve problems between the residents of their locality amicably.
Rice. 6. Justice of the Peace ()
The general courts were divided into district courts and judicial chambers. They were located in provincial cities and decided a large number of questions. The district courts heard civil, criminal and political cases. Important distinctive feature district courts had the presence of jurors. These were people who were chosen by lot from among ordinary townspeople. They rendered a verdict: whether the accused was guilty or not. The judge only determined the measure of restraint in case of his guilt or released the innocent person to freedom.
If dissatisfied with the verdict, the convicted person could file an appeal to the Trial Chamber. The supreme authority of the Russian judicial system became the Senate, where an appeal could be filed if there was a complaint about the actions of the Judicial Chamber. The Senate also exercised general management of the judicial system of the Russian Empire.
Among other things, other changes have occurred in the judicial system. For example, such positions as a prosecutor, who headed the prosecution, and a lawyer, who defended the interests of the defendant, appeared. Court hearings were henceforth held in an atmosphere of openness: representatives of the press and inquisitive citizens were allowed into the courtroom.
All of the above has made the Russian judicial system more flexible.
In general it can be said that judicial system After the reform of Alexander II, Russia became the most effective and most advanced in the world. City and zemstvo reforms of self-government bodies also allowed the country's public administration to reach a new, qualitative level.
Bibliography
- Zayonchkovsky P.A. Abolition of serfdom in Russia. - M., 1964.
- Lazukova N.N., Zhuravleva O.N. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Ventana-Graf”, 2013.
- Lonskaya S.V. World justice in Russia. - Kaliningrad, 2000.
- Lyashenko L.M. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Drofa”, 2012.
- History of state and law of Russia: textbook / ed. Yu.P. Titova. - M.: Prospekt, 1998.
- After the reforms: government reaction // Troitsky N.A. Russia in the 19th century: a course of lectures. - M.: graduate School, 1997.
- Russian Military Historical Society ().
- History.ru ().
- Grandars.ru ().
- Studopedia.ru ().
Homework
- Describe the zemstvo reform of local governments. How did it go? What was the impact of this reform?
- How did the city reform of local governments proceed? What did this reform lead to?
- How did the judicial system of the Russian Empire change after the judicial reform of 1864?
Zemstvo reform was carried out in 1864. As part of the reform, zemstvos were established in counties and provinces. The zemstvos had executive bodies represented by councils and legislative bodies represented by assemblies. The zemstvo was headed by a governor who held an elected position. Thanks to this reform, local self-government appeared in Russia, and the “local” level ceased to depend on the central government.
Judicial reform was also carried out in 1864 and installed modern look judicial system. According to the reform, the old courts were abolished, and instead of them there were now magistrates and crown courts, where cases of any class were heard. The principle of publicity and openness was introduced, the parties competed, and the judges became independent. Plus, there was a jury trial.
Military reform took the longest to implement between 1862 and 1874. As part of the reform, military districts appeared, rearmament was carried out, and soldiers received military education. And also universal conscription was introduced - after 20 years, everyone had to serve in the army.
Peasant reform began in 1861 and continued until 1907. This reform implied the transfer of peasants from a dependent position to a temporary one with the obligation of redemption and the provision of “allotments.” This began the fight against serfdom.
The reform of 1861 made the peasants free, solving the most important problem of Russian reality, but, at the same time, it retained many traces of the old system, which could become an obstacle to the economic development of the country. Change legal status so large group population could not but affect all aspects of life in Russia. Therefore, the liberation of the peasants had to be complemented by a number of other reforms. First of all, this affected local government, in which the government tried to involve the public. As a result of the implementation of zemstvo (1864) and city (1870) reforms, elected bodies of self-government were created. Having relatively broad powers in the sphere of economic development, education, health care and culture, zemstvos, at the same time, did not have any rights in political life. The state also sought to prevent coordination of the activities of zemstvos, fearing their possible self-organization into a social movement. And yet, with all the restrictions imposed on the work of zemstvos, they played a very noticeable role in the development of the Russian province. No less decisive changes occurred thanks to judicial reform (1864). She, perhaps, most of all stood out from the traditional framework of Russian political system. Universality, independence of the court from the administration, publicity, oral and competitive proceedings, participation of jurors - all these principles decisively broke with the traditional foundations of the old judicial system. Therefore, despite a number of subsequent restrictive acts of the government, the judicial system became the first and, perhaps, the only institution in Russia completely independent of the state. Towards liberalization public life Other steps taken by the state also developed: the relaxation of censorship rules (1865), the granting of autonomy to universities (1863) and even military reform (1874), as a result of which not only universal conscription and a reduction in service periods were introduced, but and attempts were made to humanize the army. Thus, the reforms of the 60s and 70s. XIX century made huge changes in the life of the country. They allowed Russia to emerge from a protracted and deep crisis and significantly accelerated its development, both in socio-economic and political terms. At the same time, it was only the first step on a rather long path leading to a new model of statehood in Russia. Although absolutism was clearly exhausting its capabilities and increasingly had to make concessions to the public, it made these movements very reluctantly, as a rule, under pressure from below. Therefore, the success of the reforms of the 60s and 70s. did not receive proper completion in the form constant movement towards complete democratization of society. Being a conservative response to the challenge of the time, a reaction from above, the reforms did not satisfy the public and caused more and more attempts to put pressure on the authorities in order to implement new liberal reforms. The government’s refusal to make these changes led to increased radicalism in social movement, which, in turn, created the conditions for a new escalation of the crisis. On top of the contradictions that were not resolved by the reforms of the 60s and 70s, new ones generated by the post-reform reality were superimposed and, thereby, increased conflict in Russian state. The revolution was avoided, but it was not possible to prevent it in the future.
Zemstvo reform of 1864 Russia approached the peasant reform with an extremely backward and neglected local (zemstvo, as they said then) economy. Honey. There was practically no help in the village. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know basic hygiene rules. Public education could not get out of its infancy. Some landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. No one cared about the country roads. Meanwhile, the state treasury was depleted, and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the liberal community halfway, which petitioned for the introduction of local self-government.
On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. It was established for the management of households. affairs: construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, for organizing food assistance to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and collecting statistical information.
The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were the provincial and district zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were the district and provincial zemstvo councils. To carry out their tasks, zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.
Elections of zemstvo bodies were held every three years. In each county, for the election of members of the district zemstvo assembly, a three elect. congress. The first congress was attended by landowners, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatines. land (land qualifications were different in different counties). The second congress included city property owners with a certain property qualification. The third, peasant congress, brought together elected officials from the volost assemblies. Each of the congresses elected certain number vowels. District zemstvo assemblies elected members of the provincial zemstvo.
As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with Liber. landowners, the autocracy considered landed nobility its main support. Therefore, zemstvo was not introduced in Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, where there were no landowners. Zemstvos were not introduced in the Don Army Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.
Zemstvos played a big role positive role in improving the life of the Russian village, in the development of education. Soon after their creation, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.
With the advent of the zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian province began to change. Previously, all affairs in the districts were carried out by government officials together with the landowners. Now, when a network of schools, hospitals and statistical bureaus developed, a “third element” appeared, as zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, and statisticians began to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high examples of serving the people. The peasants trusted them, and the government listened to their advice. Government officials watched with alarm the growing influence of the “third element.”
Urban reform of 1870 In 1870, according to the Zemskaya type, a city reform was carried out7"0 and replaced the previous estate dumas, created in accordance with the “Charter Granted to Cities” of 1785, with all-class elective city institutions - city dumas and city councils.
The right to elect to the city council was enjoyed by persons who had reached 25 years of age and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of taxes paid to the city, were divided into three curiae. The first curia was made up of a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and trading enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers, who contributed another 1/3 of city taxes. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. Moreover, each curia elected equal number members of the city duma, which ensured the predominance of representatives of the large financial and commercial-industrial bourgeoisie.
The city public self-government was in charge of household decisions. issues: improvement of the city, development of local trade and industry, health care and public education, maintenance of the police, prisons, etc.
The activities of city government were controlled by the state. The mayor elected by the City Duma was approved by the governor or the Minister of Internal Affairs. These same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. To control the activities of city government in each province, a special body was created - the provincial presence for city affairs. Nevertheless, for all its limitations, the urban reform was a step forward compared to the pre-reform organization of urban government of the time of Ek II. It, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of a civil society and a rule-of-law state in Russia.
Judicial reform of 1864 The most consistent transformation of A II was the judicial reform, carried out on the basis of new judicial statutes adopted in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: the formal equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the trial; independence of judges; adversarial nature of prosecution and defense; election of some judicial bodies.
According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - magistrates and general.
Magistrates' courts heard minor criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice individually. They were elected by district zemstvo assemblies, and in the capitals by city dumas. A high educational and property qualification was established for judges - no lower than secondary education and ownership of real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles or 400 acres of land. At the same time, the judges received quite a high wages- from 2200 to 9000 rubles per year,
The general court system included district courts and judicial chambers
The district court was appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered complex criminal and civil cases. The consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of 12 jurors. The juror could be a Russian citizen between the ages of 25 and 70 with impeccable personal characteristics, who had lived in the area for at least two years. A fairly significant property qualification was also established - ownership real estate for an amount of at least 2 thousand rubles. Lists of jurors approved. governor.
The court of appeal for the district court was the trial chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict passed by the jury was not allowed.
The Trial Chamber considered cases of malfeasance committed by persons with a rank higher than a titular councilor (i.e., from class VIII of the table of ranks). Such cases were equated to state affairs. crimes and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate.
The reform established the transparency of trials, which began to be held openly, the public was allowed to attend, and newspapers printed reports on trials of public interest. The adversarial principle of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of a prosecutor - a representative of the prosecution and a lawyer who defended the interests of the accused. An extraordinary interest in advocacy has arisen in Russian society.
And although the new judicial system still retained a number of feudal remnants (the existence of a special volost court for peasants, courts for the clergy, military and senior officials), nevertheless, it was the most advanced.
History lesson plan in 8th gradeLesson topic: Liberal reforms 60-70s
The purpose of the lesson :
1. To form an idea of the essence of bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s. 19th century:
changes in the local government system;
the main provisions of zemstvo and city reform;
functions of local government bodies;
the essence of judicial reform;
main directions military reform;
changes in the principle of recruiting the army;
reforming primary and high school;
introduction of university autonomy.
2 .Continue to develop skills in working with documents, the ability to analyze, find cause-and-effect relationships, express your point of view, give your own assessment of historical events.
3.Form an active life and civic position.
Basic Concepts : zemstvo; curial election system; property qualification; age limit; civil society; constitutional state; jury trial; magistrate's Court; universal conscription; university autonomy.
Key dates : June 18, 1863 - new University Charter; January 1, 1864 - “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions”; November 20, 1864 - publication of the Judicial Statutes; June 16, 1870 - City Regulations; January 1, 1874 - Charter on military service.
Personalities : Alexander II, D. A. Milyutin.
Lesson equipment: textbook documents, workbook, presentation .
Lesson Plan :
1. Local government reform.
2. Judicial reform.
3. Military reform.
5. The significance of liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century.
During the classes:
1. Organizational moment.
2.Checking homework.
Working with individual cards
1. Consider the historical situation and answer the questions: A) During the development of projects for the Peasant Reform in 1859-1861. the authors of individual projects proposed different conditions liberation of peasants from serfdom.
On what main issues were contradictions evident during the preparation of the Peasant Reform of 1861? How were these issues resolved during the reform of 1861?
2). What are the reasons for the Peasant Reform of 1861?
3). Describe it point by point historical meaning reforms of 1861
Work at the board with terms and dates
Terms: rescript, temporarily obligated, Charter, cut, ransom, Editorial commissions.
Dates: manifesto on the abolition of serfdom, work of editorial commissions, rescript to Nazimov .
Survey on paragraph 20.
Preparation of peasant reform
The main provisions of the peasant reform
The meaning of the abolition of serfdom.
Frontal survey
1.What did the reform of 1861 give to the peasants?
(personal freedom)
2.Which peasants were considered temporarily liable?
(those who did not enter into buyout deals with their landowners after the announcement of the reform)
3.What are segments?
(part of the peasant allotment that turned out to be “extra” compared to the norm established in 1861)
4.The progressive features of the peasant reform include:
(liberation of peasants with the right to have trades, enter into transactions, buy land)
3.Learning new material
1. . Reform of local government (zemstvo and city)
The abolition of serfdom led to the need to carry out bourgeois reforms in other areas of public life.
In 1864, Alexander II (on the advice of liberals) heldzemstvo reform. The “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were published, according to which classless elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were created. They were called upon to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems, and on the other hand, to partially compensate the nobles for the loss of their former power.
In the provinces and districts, zemstvo assemblies were created, which performed the functions of administrative bodies, and zemstvo councils - executive bodies. Elections to district zemstvo assemblies were held once every 3 years at three electoral congresses. Voters (men only) were divided into three curia: county landowners (landowners, as well as rich peasant landowners), urban voters (urban commercial and industrial bourgeoisie) and elected from rural societies (mainly peasants). Vowels (deputies) from all classes were elected to zemstvo assemblies; at its head was the leader of the nobility. The nobles predominated in the zemstvos; the representatives of the peasants did not play a big role. The governor controlled the zemstvos and could cancel any decision of the zemstvo assembly or council.
zemstvo
zemstvo assembly zemstvo council
(administrative (executive body,
representative body worked for 3 years, was elected
of all classes by the zemstvo assembly)
represented by deputies,
worked for 3 years).
The zemstvos were in charge of issues of local importance:
> construction and maintenance of roads locally;
> opening of schools, hospitals, nursing homes, etc.;
> providing food assistance to the population in lean years;
> providing agronomic assistance to peasants;
> collection of statistical information.
The importance of creating zemstvos
1. Zemstvos improved the life of the Russian village, schools, hospitals, post offices appeared, they helped in organizing local credit and road construction.
2. Without initially having any political functions, they began to play an important political role, becoming an opposition force to the bureaucracy and autocracy.
In 1870, according to the zemstvo type, aurban reform. City councils and city councils were created.
A city mayor was elected, who headed the city duma and government, coordinating their activities. Only those residents who had property qualifications, i.e. bankers, owners of houses, commercial and industrial establishments, had the right to vote and be elected. The bulk of the population was excluded from participation in city government. The governor and the minister of internal affairs could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. City councils took little part in the social movement, since the merchants and manufacturers had little interest in politics.
city government
city council city government
(administrative body, (executive body)
consists of elected deputies)
city councils and councils were in charge
mainly economic issues:
> improvement of city streets, squares, gardens, parks;
> organizing local healthcare, opening hospitals;
> care about public education, opening schools;
> opening shops, setting up markets, bazaars;
> maintenance of the police, prisons;
> organization of fire safety measures;
> doing charity work.
The importance of creating city government bodies
1. Contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues.
2. The prerequisites for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia were in place.
2. Judicial reform.
At the insistence of the public, in 1864 the government carried out judicial reform, which was developed by progressive lawyers. Before the reform, the court in Russia was class-based, secret, without the participation of the parties, and was widely used Physical punishment. The trial depended on the administration and the police.
In 1864 Russia received a new court based on the principles of bourgeois law. It was an unclassified, transparent, adversarial, independent court; some judicial bodies were elected.
Two court systems were established:
> magistrates - courts that heard minor criminal and civil cases with a claim of up to 500 rubles, they were created in cities and counties, magistrates were approved by the Senate;
> general - district courts, usually created within the provinces, and judicial chambers, uniting several judicial districts. The district court was appointed by the emperor and decided complex criminal and civil cases. The Trial Chamber heard appeals, official misconduct and political cases. If the decision was made with the participation of a jury, it was considered final. If without them, then it could be appealed in the judicial chamber. The highest authority was the Senate. He considered appeals against decisions of district courts and judicial chambers made with the participation of jurors, if these decisions violated the legal order of legal proceedings.
Judicial reform was the most consistent and progressive of all the reforms of this period. The outstanding Russian lawyer A.F. Koni, criminal law specialist N.S. Tagantsev, and lawyers F.N. Plevako and V.D. Maklakov gained great popularity in society. Judges have repeatedly acquitted defendants even in political cases. True, there remained separate courts for the clergy, military and high officials. But soon people’s judges and investigators began to be removed from conducting political cases, and investigations into them were increasingly transferred to the gendarmerie authorities.
Court system according to new judicial statutes (1864)
SENATE
(Highest court)
Magistrates Court General Court
(considered minor criminal and
civil cases; was created indistrict court judicial chamber
cities and counties; justice of the peace (members of this court(considered
judged alone; the judge could appoint an imper- appeal on
become " local» from 25 years old; torus; considered decisions
for judges, high criminal and complex district courts were established and
educational and property civil cases with cases of officials
qualification). 12 jury crimes
aged 25 to 70 years). officials).
The new trial meant:
> the same courts heard the cases of all citizens, regardless of what class they belonged to;
> the trial was held openly, reports about the trial could be published in newspapers;
> an adversarial process was introduced: the prosecutor supported the prosecution, and the defense was carried out by the lawyer;
> jurors selected from all classes (except workers and servants) - 12 people determined the guilt or innocence of the defendant;
> the measure of punishment was determined by the judge and two members of the court, and death penalty could only be sentenced by special authorities
(military court or Senate);
> judges were appointed by the government, but they can be dismissed
was only in court - this is the most important principle of judicial
devices, the principle of irremovability of judges.
3.Military reform .
Russia's defeat in Crimean War showed that it was necessary to reconstruct the entire military system. The commission “to improve military affairs” was created during the war. However, transformations began only in 1861, when D. A. Milyutin, a highly educated and progressive figure, became Minister of War. Military reform was carried out until 1874.
Milyutin proceeded from the principle of the need to reduce the army in Peaceful time and its significant increase during the war through trained reserves. Were reformed military educational institutions. Military gymnasiums and cadet schools for the training of junior officers were opened for all classes, and the Military Law and Naval Academies were created.
As a result of the reform, conscription was abolished and universal conscription was introduced. It was served by all men, regardless of class, who had reached the age of 20 and were fit for service due to their health. The length of service in the army was significantly reduced: instead of 25 years in the infantry - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. From military service exempted: the only son, the only breadwinner in the family, a conscript whose older brother is serving or has served in the army, as well as the peoples of the North, Central Asia, part of the inhabitants of the Caucasus and Siberia. For those who have higher education service lasted six months, for gymnasium graduates - one and a half years, for those who graduated from city schools - up to three years, for those who received elementary education- up to four years.
The system of military administration was changed: 15 military districts were introduced in Russia, the management of which was subordinate only to the Minister of War. Corporal punishment was abolished, food was improved, barracks were refurbished, and soldiers began to be taught literacy. The Russian army was being rearmed.
Result: As a result of military reform, Russia received a massive army of a modern type.
4. Reforms in the field of education.
N Popular education also attracted the attention of the king. Of particular importance in this regard was the publication of a new and general charter of Russian universities on July 18, 1863, in the development of which, on the initiative of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovkin, a special commission under the main board of schools, composed mainly of professors from St. Petersburg University, participated. The charter provided universities with fairly broad autonomy: the election of the rector, deans, and professors was introduced, and the University Council received the right to independently resolve all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. And in connection with the development of universities, science began to develop at a correspondingly rapid pace.
According to the Regulations on Primary Public Schools approved on June 14, 1864, the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to jointly educate the people.
November 19, 1864 appeared new charter about gymnasiums, which proclaimed equality in admission to all classes. But due to the high fees, this was only available to children of wealthy parents.
Attention was also paid to women's education. Already in the 60s, instead of the previous closed women's institutions, open ones began to be established, with the admission of girls of all classes, and these new institutions were under the department of the institutions of Empress Maria. The Ministry of Public Education began to approve similar gymnasiums. In 1870, on May 24, a new Regulation on women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education was approved. The need for higher women's education led to the establishment of pedagogical courses and higher women's courses in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan and Odessa.
Education system after 1864:
primary education secondary education higher education
different types:gymnasiums
state,
zemstvo, church
parish, resurrected - classic realUniversities
new; duration of study - (training 8 years, (training 7 years, (1864 - new
3 years). prepared young - prepared for the un- university charter,
help for the post-personal industries that restored them
depletion of autonomy in uni- industry).
universities). and trade; access
to universities for
their graduates were
closed).
Children of all classes were accepted
but there was a high tuition fee
5. The significance of liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century.
The implementation of the reform was very difficult. The reforms were developed by young liberals and implemented by old conservative officials. Alexander II sought to adjust reforms in order to maintain social stability in the country.
Liberal reforms became a major phenomenon in the history of Russia; they changed the entire way of life of the state. Modern bodies of self-government and courts were created. The reforms contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces and its defense capability. The civic consciousness of the population grew sharply, education began to spread rapidly, and the quality of life improved. Russia has taken the first steps in the process of creating civilized forms of statehood.
4. Generalization of new material.
Testing:
1) Which of these issues were among those dealt with by the zemstvos?
a) issues of rural improvement and medical care;
b) legislative activity;
c) redistribution of peasant land within the community;
d) legal proceedings.
2) Which of the following was the result of the judicial reform of 1864?
a) a single court was formed for representatives of all classes;
b) landowners lost the right to court over peasants;
c) the adversarial nature of the trial is limited;
d) jurors were given the functions of lawyers.
3). The term “era of Great Reforms” refers to the reign of which monarch?
a) Alexander I;
b) Nicholas I;
c) Alexander II;
d) Alexander III.
4) . What name did the elected bodies of local self-government created during the Great Reforms of the 60s and 70s receive? XIX century?
a) volosts;
b) magistrates;
c) zemstvo;
d) assemblies.
5). Which of the following refers to the consequences of the reforms of the 1860–1870s?
a) limitation of autocracy;
b) strengthening the class system;
c) development of the civilian labor market;
d) destruction of the peasant community.
6).
Which of the following provisions relate to the content of military reforms of the 1860–1870s?
A) creation of Reitar troops
B) dividing the country into military districts
B) the introduction of universal conscription
D) technical re-equipment of the army
D) establishment of the War Ministry
E) creation of the General Staff.
5. Homework : § 21-22 (before “Putting reforms into practice”).
Bibliography:
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