As we already know, the biomass of organisms simultaneously living on Earth is approximately 2423 billion tons, of which 99.9% (2420 billion tons) are terrestrial organisms and only about 0.1% (3 billion tons) are the proportion of inhabitants of the aquatic environment (aquatic organisms).
Of the 2732 thousand species of living organisms on our planet, 2274 thousand species of animals,
and 352 thousand species of plants (the rest are mushrooms and shotguns).
Vegetation
On land, about 99.2% of the total biomass comes from vegetation, which has the property of photosynthesis, and only 0.8% from animals and microorganisms. It is interesting that in the World Ocean the opposite picture is observed: there animals form the basis of biomass (93.7%), and aquatic vegetation - only 6.3% (the reason lies in significant differences in the reproduction rate of land and ocean plants: in the ocean it produces annually many generations, that is, it effectively uses solar energy in the process of photosynthesis and is highly productive).
In total, the share of “living matter” in the biosphere is only 0.25% of the mass of the entire biosphere and 0.01% of the mass of the entire planet.
Man uses for his own purposes only about 3% of the annual productivity of phytomass on land, and of this amount only 10% is converted into food. According to various estimates, even with modern agricultural technology, the resources of our planet will allow us to feed more than 15 billion (according to other estimates - up to 40 billion) people.
To solve the food problem, which we already talked about in the introductory lecture, people use methods of chemicalization, land reclamation, selection and genetics, and biotechnology. Vegetation is also an inexhaustible source of various medicines; it is used in the textile industry, construction, production of furniture and various household items. Special role play forest resources, which we talked about a little earlier.
There is a process of extinction of some types of vegetation. Plants disappear where ecosystems die or are transformed. On average, each extinct plant species takes with it more than 5 species of invertebrate animals.
Animal world.
This is the most important part of the planet’s biosphere, numbering approximately 2,274 thousand species of living organisms. Fauna is necessary for the normal functioning of the entire biosphere and the cycles of substances in nature.
Many animal species are used as food or for pharmaceutical purposes, as well as for clothing, footwear and manufacturing. handicrafts. Many of the animals are friends of humans, objects of domestication, selection and genetics (dogs, cats, etc.).
The fauna belongs to the group of exhaustible renewable natural resources, however, the deliberate extermination by humans of some species of animals has led to the fact that some of them can be considered exhaustible non-renewable resources.
Over the past 370 years, 130 species of birds and mammals have disappeared from the Earth's fauna. The rate of extinction has increased continuously, especially over the last 2 centuries. Currently, approximately 1 thousand species of birds and mammals are threatened with extinction.
In addition to the complete and irreversible extinction of species, a sharp decline in the number of species and populations intensively exploited by humans has become widespread. In just 27 years, the Steller's sea cow, a marine mammal in the waters of the Commander Islands of the Pacific Ocean, has disappeared. In a short time, the North American bison, the “passenger pigeon” and the “great auk” were almost completely wiped out in the northern part of America and Europe. A great threat hangs over the largest animals - whales; some species of these ocean inhabitants are already on the verge of extinction. As we already know, anthropogenic changes in ecosystems and uncontrolled hunting of wild animals have led to significant changes in the animal world on the planet. This applies, for example, to African elephants, whose numbers have decreased by 4 times over 15 years, and to African rhinoceroses, whose numbers have decreased by 30 times over the same period. Since 1966, a “Red Book” of endangered species has been maintained, which includes, for example, lemurs, orangutans, gorilla, Japanese and white cranes, condors, Comorian monitor lizards, and some species of sea turtles. Protected areas prohibited for hunting and fishing cover only 2% of the planet's area, but more than 30% is necessary for the conservation of wildlife.
In a number of cases, humans destroyed en masse some animals that allegedly threatened human life or agriculture. This was the case, for example, with the tiger in south asia, with some ungulates in Africa purportedly being former carriers of sleeping sickness, which afflicted livestock.
Sport hunting, unregulated recreational fishing and poaching also cause great harm. many animals are killed due to the supposedly high medicinal value of certain parts of their bodies or organs. In addition to the direct destruction of animals, humans have an indirect influence on them - they change natural environment, changes the composition and structure of natural communities and ecosystems.
Thus, the reduction of forest area in Europe led to the disappearance of many small animals here. Hydraulic construction on the rivers of the European part of the USSR led to a change in the regime and composition of the fauna of the South European and East Asian seas - the Black, Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas.
In order to preserve animals, they create nature reserves and sanctuaries, limit production and develop measures for the reproduction of useful and valuable species. However, it cannot be said that these measures are quite effective. I repeat that protected areas prohibited for hunting and fishing cover only 2% of the planet's area, while more than 30% is necessary for the conservation of wildlife.
The problem of preserving biodiversity on the planet.
The enormous diversity of life on our planet has always amazed people, especially researchers.
Not only are there millions of species of living and plant organisms in nature, each species consists of many subspecies and populations, which in turn are also represented by many groups of organisms. In nature, there are not even two completely identical organisms - representatives of the same population or species. Even identical twins with the same heredity are at least somewhat different from each other.
It seemed to many that this diversity was excessive, redundant. The processes of extinction of species always occurred for natural reasons; some species and groups of species, even higher taxonomic groups of living and plant organisms, were replaced by others both in the processes of evolution and during periods of sharp changes in the planet’s climate or during periods of major cosmic catastrophes. This is evidenced by data from archeology and paleontology.
However, in the last 2-3 centuries, especially in the 20th century, the biological diversity on our planet began to noticeably decline due to the fault of people, and the process of impoverishment of biodiversity assumed alarming proportions. The development of agriculture and livestock farming has led to a sharp reduction in the area of forests and natural grasslands. Drainage of swamps, irrigation of dry lands, expansion of urban settlements, open-pit mining, fires, pollution and many other types of human activities have worsened the condition of natural flora and fauna.
Among the most important features of the negative anthropogenic impact on biodiversity are the following:
1. Huge areas of our planet’s surface are occupied by a few species cultivated plants(monocultures) with pure varieties aligned according to hereditary qualities.
2. Many types of natural ecosystems are destroyed and replaced by anthropogenic cultural and technogenic landscapes.
3. The number of species in some biocenoses is decreasing, which leads to a decrease in the stability of ecosystems, disruption of established trophic chains, a reduction in the bioproductivity of ecosystems, and a decrease in the aesthetic value of landscapes.
4. Some species and populations are becoming extinct due to change environment or are completely destroyed by humans, many others significantly reduce their numbers and biomass under the influence of hunting and fishing.
Communities of living organisms and ecosystems themselves can exist and function stably only if a certain level of biodiversity is maintained, which ensures:
Mutual complementarity of parts necessary for the normal functioning of communities, biocenoses and ecosystems
(example: primary producers - consumers - decomposers), cycles of substances and energy;
Interchangeability of types (actors in a “play” can be replaced);
Reliability of self-regulation of ecosystems (based on the principle of “feedback”, the stability of any ecosystem is ensured: an increase or decrease in something leads to an increase in resistance, as a result, the entire system seems to fluctuate around a certain norm).
Thus, biodiversity is one of the the most important conditions sustainability of life on Earth. It creates complementarity and interchangeability of species in ecosystems, ensures the self-healing abilities of communities and ecosystems, and their self-regulation at an optimal level.
Back in the middle of the 19th century, the American geographer G. Marsh noticed the essence of the problem of protecting animal and plant species. He paid attention. that humans, by consuming animal and plant products, reduce the abundance of species. serving his needs. At the same time, he destroys so-called “harmful” (from his point of view) species that harm the number of “useful” species. Thus, man changes the natural balance between various forms of living and plant life.
In the twentieth century, the process of depletion of biodiversity on our planet assumed alarming proportions.
In small areas the process of biota depletion is most noticeable. Thus, the flora of Belarus, numbering about 1800 species. during the twentieth century it decreased by almost 100 species. Mainly species useful to humans are destroyed - food, medicinal and beautifully flowering plants, animals. possessing delicious meat, beautiful fur or plumage, valuable species of fish.
The rate of natural extinction of species is incomparably less than the rate of their destruction by humans.
Why is each species, regardless of the degree of its usefulness to humans, valuable?
Each species has a unique gene pool, which has developed in the process of long evolution. We do not know anything in advance about the degree of usefulness for a person of a particular species in the future.
In addition, the disappearance of one or another species of animal or plant from the face of the Earth means an irreversible change in the germplasm of the biosphere, an irreparable loss of potentially very valuable genetic information for humans. Therefore, the entire gene pool of the biosphere is subject to protection, except for pathogens.
Wildlife protection. Specially protected areas.
Reserve– a territory or water area where fishing or economic use of protected species is scientifically limited. In nature reserves, the protection and reproduction of some species is combined with the regulated exploitation of others. There are more than 1,500 reserves in Russia.
Reserve- a territory or water area where any economic activity is prohibited by law. Biosphere reserve – an unmodified or slightly modified typical area of the biosphere, designated as a conservation area for the purposes of environmental monitoring.
State reserve - a protected natural area or water area that includes natural objects of great scientific, cultural or historical value. Z.g. completely excluded from economic use. Protected areas prohibited for hunting and fishing today cover only 2% of the planet's area, but more than 30% is necessary for the conservation of wildlife. IN Russian Federation There are about 80 nature reserves. They have the status of environmental research organizations. Of these, 16 are included in the global network of UNESCO biosphere reserves, and 6 have integrated background monitoring stations. A number of reserves have nurseries for breeding rare species of animals. For example, in the Oksky Nature Reserve there are nurseries for bison, cranes, and birds of prey. In the Prioksko-terrace reserve there is a central bison nursery.
Red books.Red books– one of the areas of protection of species of living organisms is the preparation and publication of Red Books. K.k. - a systematic list of rare and endangered species of plants and animals (international, national, local KK, see also “living resources”). .
Red Books are official documents containing systematized information about plants and animals of the world, individual states or regions that are in danger of rapid extinction. The first edition of the international K.K. , which was called the “Red Data Book”, was carried out in 1966 at the IUCN headquarters in Maurice, Switzerland. A total of 5 volumes of the IUCN Red Book have been published. It includes 321 species and subspecies of mammals (volume 1), 485 species of birds (volume 2), 41 species of amphibians and 141 reptiles (volume 3), 194 species of fish (volume 4) and rare, endangered and endemic plants (5 volume).
Species included in the International Red Book are divided into 5 categories:
1- endangered species that are in danger of extinction and the salvation of which is impossible without special measures of protection and reproduction (these species are placed on the red pages of the book);
2- rare species that persist in small numbers or in a limited area, but there is a danger of their extinction (on white pages);
3-species, the number of which is still high. although rapidly declining (on yellow pages);
4- unidentified species. have not yet been sufficiently studied, but their condition and numbers are alarming (on gray pages);
5- recovering species, the threat of extinction of which is decreasing.
Of the valuable animals listed in the IUCN Red List, the marsupial wolf, Madagascar aye-aye, giant panda, lion, Przewalski's horse, wild camel, Indian, Javan and Sumatran rhinoceroses, dwarf buffalo, white oryx, sand gazelle, red-footed ibis, California condor, etc.
As the flora and fauna of the Earth are studied, the number of species that are subject to protection. is constantly being updated.
Each country in whose territory a species listed in the International Red Book lives is responsible to humanity for its conservation.
In the USSR, a decision was made to create the Red Book of our country and this book was published for the first time in 1974. In this book, the animals included in it were classified into two categories: rare and endangered species.
37 species of mammals, 37 species of birds were classified as rare, 25 species of animals and 26 species of plants were classified as endangered.
However, it soon became clear that the Red Book of the USSR does not cover all representatives of the organic world that need protection. In the second edition, 1116 species and subspecies of fauna and flora of the USSR were listed in it, including in volume 1 - 94 species and subspecies of mammals, 80 birds, 37 reptiles, 9 amphibians, 9 fish, 219 insects, 2 - crustaceans, 11 species of worms, in the second volume - 608 species of higher plants, 20 species of fungi and 29 species of lichens. Among the mammals included in the Red Book of the USSR are the muskrat, Daurian hedgehog, Menzbier's marmot, Asian beaver, Turkmen jerboa, red wolf, Transcaucasian brown bear, Himalayan (or white-breasted) bear, northern and Kuril sea otters, manul, leopard, Amur tiger, cheetah, Atlantic and Laptev walruses, blue whale, narwhal, bison, etc.
From birds to K.K. The USSR includes the white-backed albatross, pink and Dalmatian pelicans, black stork, pink flamingo, red-breasted goose, mandarin duck, Steller's sea eagle, bearded vulture, Siberian crane, white-naped and black-headed cranes, bustard, little bustard, pink gull, etc., among reptiles - Mediterranean and Far Eastern turtles, Crimean gecko, Far Eastern skink, Central Asian cobra, Caucasian viper, Transcaucasian and Japanese snakes, and fish - Atlantic and Sakhalin sturgeon. large and small Amur, Syrdarya silverfish, Sevan trout, Volkhov whitefish and pike asp.
The Red Book of the USSR also included an extensive list of plants with medicinal, food, fodder, technical and decorative value, as well as relict and endemic plants, for example, water chestnut, nut lotus, Turkmen mandrake, ginseng, edelweiss, Russian hazel grouse, sleep -grass, European cedar pine.
After the publication of the Red Book of the USSR, similar publications began to appear in the Union republics (now the CIS countries and the Baltic republics).
Of the 65 species of animals listed in the Red Book of Russia, 37 species, or 75%, are protected, of 109 species of birds, 84 species (82%) are protected, of 533 species and subspecies of rare plants, 65 species (12%) are protected.
Problems associated with the extraction of raw materials. IN modern world There are quite a lot of problems associated with the extraction of raw materials. Both economic and technical.
The most pressing is ignorance of real data about how many resources are left. Let's look at two examples. 3.3.1 Oil. Proven oil reserves in the world are estimated at 140 billion tons, and annual production is about 3.5 billion tons. However, it is hardly worth predicting the onset of a global crisis in 40 years due to the depletion of oil in the bowels of the Earth, because economic statistics operate on the figures of proven reserves, that is, reserves that have been fully explored, described and calculated.
And this is not all of the planet’s reserves. Even within many explored fields, unaccounted for or not fully accounted for oil-bearing sectors remain, and how many fields are still waiting for their discoverers. Over the past two decades, humanity has extracted more than 60 billion tons of oil from the depths. Do you think that proven reserves decreased by the same amount? It didn’t happen at all. The situation is paradoxical: the more we extract, the more there will be left.
Meanwhile, this geological paradox does not seem to be an economic paradox at all. After all, the higher the demand for oil, the more it is produced, the more capital is poured into the industry, the more active oil exploration is, the more people, equipment, and brains are involved in exploration and the faster new fields are discovered and described. In addition, the improvement of oil production technology makes it possible to include in the reserves that oil, the presence and quantity of which was previously known, but which could not be obtained at the technical level of previous years. Of course, this does not mean that oil reserves are limitless, but it is obvious that humanity still has more than forty years to improve energy-saving technologies and introduce alternative energy sources into circulation.
The most striking feature of the distribution of oil reserves is the superconcentration in one relatively small region of the Persian Gulf basin. Here, in the Arab monarchies of Iran and Iraq, there are 23 proven reserves, with most of the world's more than 25 reserves being in three Arabian countries with small indigenous populations: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates.
Even taking into account huge amount The foreign workers who flooded these countries in the second half of the 20th century number just over 20 million, about 0.3 of the world's population. Among the countries with very large reserves of more than 10 billion tons each or more than 6 of the world are Iraq, Iran and Venezuela.
These countries have long had a significant population and a more or less developed economy, and Iraq and Iran are the oldest centers of world civilization. In all major regions of the world, except for Foreign Europe and the territory of the Russian Federation, the ratio of oil reserves as of 1997 is more than 100. Even North America, despite mothballing reserves in the US, has significantly increased its total proven reserves thanks to intensive exploration in Mexico.
In Europe, the depletion of reserves is associated with the relatively small natural oil content of the region and very intensive production in last decades By speeding up production, Western European countries are trying to break the monopoly of Middle Eastern exporters. However, the North Sea shelf, Europe's main oil tank, is not infinitely oil-bearing. As for the noticeable decrease in proven reserves on the territory of the Russian Federation, this is due not only to the physical depletion of subsoil, as in Western Europe, and somewhat to the desire to hold back their oil, as in the USA, but also to the crisis in the domestic geological exploration industry.
The pace of exploration for new reserves lags behind that of other countries. 3.3.2 Coal. There is no unified system for accounting for coal reserves and its classification. Reserve estimates are reviewed by both individual specialists and specialized organizations. At the 10th session of the World Energy Conference MIREK in 1983. reliable reserves of coal of all types were determined at 1520 billion tons. From a technical and economic point of view, 23 reliable reserves are considered recoverable.
At the beginning of the 90s, according to MIREK, about 1040 billion tons. The United States has small reliable reserves outside the territory of the Russian Federation, 14 world reserves, China 16, Poland, South Africa and Australia each have 5-9 world reserves, more than 910 reliable reserves of hard coal extracted using currently existing technologies, estimated worldwide at approximately 515 billion tons are concentrated, according to MIREK 1983 estimates, in the USA 14, in the Russian Federation more than 15, China about 15, South Africa more than 110, Germany, Great Britain, Australia and Poland.
Among other industrialized countries, Canada and Japan have significant reserves of coal, among developing countries in Asia are India and Indonesia, in Africa Botswana, Swaziland, Zimbabwe and Mozambique, in Latin America Colombia and Venezuela. The most economical development of coal deposits is open pit mining.
In Canada, Mozambique and Venezuela, up to 45 of all reserves can be developed in this way, in India 23, in Australia about 13, in the USA more than 15, in China 110. These reserves are used more intensively, and the share of coal mined in the open pit is, for example , in Australia more than 12, in the USA more than 35. Of the total world coal production, about 11 are exported, of which more than 45 are sent by sea transport. The main directions of coal export are from Australia and Canada to Japan, from the USA and South Africa to Western Europe.
Germany, which in the 1970s and 1980s was a large net exporter of coking coal and the world's largest exporter of coke, has become a net importer of coal with steadily declining capacity and coal production. Coal exports from Great Britain, a country that at the beginning of the 20th century was the largest supplier of coal to the world market, have almost disappeared. The overwhelming majority of proven reserves of brown coal and its production are concentrated in industrialized countries.
The USA, Germany and Australia stand out for the size of their reserves, and the greatest importance for the production and use of brown coal is in the energy sector of Germany and Greece. Most of the brown coal over 45 is consumed at thermal power plants located near the mines. The cheapness of this coal, mined almost exclusively by open-pit mining, ensures, despite its low calorific value, the production of cheap electricity, which attracts high-intensity production to areas of large lignite mining.
The capital invested in the lignite industry includes a large share of funds from electric power companies. 4.4 Non-renewable resources. The resources of the earth's interior are considered non-renewable. Strictly speaking, many of them can be renewed during geological cycles, but the duration of these cycles, determined by hundreds of millions of years, is incommensurate with the stages of development of society and the rate of consumption of mineral resources. The planet's non-renewable resources can be divided into two large groups: non-renewable mineral resources and non-renewable energy resources. 4.4.1 Non-renewable mineral resources.
More than a hundred non-combustible materials are currently extracted from the earth's crust. Minerals are formed and modified by processes that occur during the formation of the Earth's rocks over many millions of years. The use of a mineral resource includes several stages. The first of them is the discovery of a fairly rich deposit. Then extracting the mineral through some form of mining.
The third stage is processing the ore to remove impurities and convert it into the desired chemical form. The latest use of the mineral is for the production of various products. Development of mineral deposits, the deposits of which are located close to earth's surface, is produced by surface mining, arranging open pits, open-pit mining by creating horizontal strips, or mining using dredging equipment.
When minerals are located far underground, they are extracted using underground mining. The extraction, processing and use of any non-combustible mineral resource causes a violation soil cover and erosion, pollutes air and water. Underground mining is a more dangerous and dangerous process than surface mining, but it disturbs the soil to a much lesser extent. In most cases, mining areas can be restored, but this is an expensive process.
Estimating the amount of a useful mineral resource actually available in terms of extraction is a very complex and expensive process. And besides, this cannot be determined with greater accuracy. Mineral reserves are divided into identified resources and undiscovered resources. In turn, each of these categories is divided into reserves, that is, those minerals that can be extracted at a profit at current prices using existing extraction technology, and resources - all discovered and undetected resources, including those that cannot be extracted at a profit at existing prices and existing technology.
Most published estimates of specific non-renewable resources refer to reserves. 4.4.2 Non-renewable energy resources. The main factors determining the extent of use of any energy source are its estimated reserves, net useful energy yield, cost, potential hazardous environmental impacts, and social and national security implications.
Each energy source has advantages and disadvantages. Oil can be easily transported, is a relatively cheap and widely used fuel, and has a high net useful energy yield. However, available oil reserves can be exhausted in 40-80 years; when oil is burned, large amounts of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere, which can lead to global climate change on the planet.
Natural gas produces more heat and burns more completely than other fossil fuels, is a versatile and relatively inexpensive fuel, and has a high net energy yield. But its reserves can be exhausted in 40-100 years, and when it is burned, carbon dioxide is formed. Coal is the world's most common fossil fuel. It has a high net yield of useful energy and is relatively cheap. But coal is extremely dirty, mining it is dangerous and damaging to the environment, as is burning it, unless expensive special air pollution control devices are in place.
Significant soil disturbance during mining. The heat stored in the earth's crust, or geothermal energy, is converted into non-renewable underground deposits of dry steam, steam and hot water in various locations around the planet. If these deposits are located close enough to the earth's surface, the heat obtained during their development can be used for space heating and electricity generation.
They can provide energy for 100-200 years to areas located near the deposits, and at a reasonable price. They have an average net useful energy output and do not emit carbon dioxide. Although this type of energy source also brings a lot of inconvenience during extraction and considerable environmental pollution. The nuclear fission reaction is also a source of energy, and a very promising one. The main advantages of this energy source are that nuclear reactors do not emit carbon dioxide and other substances harmful to the environment, and the degree of contamination of water and soil is within acceptable limits, provided that the entire nuclear fuel cycle proceeds normally.
The disadvantages include the fact that the costs of equipment for servicing this energy source are very high; conventional nuclear power plants can only be used to produce electricity; there is a risk of a major accident; the net yield of useful energy is low; storage facilities for radioactive waste have not been developed.
Due to the above disadvantages, this energy source is currently not widespread. Therefore, an environmentally friendly future lies in alternative energy sources. Both types of these resources are equally important to us, but the separation is introduced because these two large groups of resources are very different from each other. 5.5 Renewable resources. Renewable resources deserve special attention.
The entire mechanism of their renewal is, in essence, a manifestation of the functioning of geosystems due to the absorption of radiant energy from the sun. Renewable resources should be considered as resources of the future, unlike non-renewable ones; if used rationally, they are not doomed to complete extinction, and their reproduction can be regulated to a certain extent, for example, through forest reclamation, their productivity and wood yield can be increased.
It should be noted that anthropogenic interference in the biological cycle greatly undermines the natural process of renewal biological resources. 5.5.1 Free oxygen. It is renewed mainly during the process of photosynthesis of plants under natural conditions, the balance of oxygen is maintained by its consumption for the processes of respiration, decay, and the formation of carbonates. Already, humanity uses about 10 and, according to some estimates, even more, the incoming part of the oxygen balance in the atmosphere.
True, the decrease in atmospheric oxygen is not yet noticeable even with precision instruments. But subject to an annual 5 percent increase in oxygen consumption for industrial energy needs, its content in the atmosphere will decrease by 23, that is, it will become critical for human life in 180 years, and with an annual increase of 10 in 100 years. 5.5.2 Freshwater resources. Fresh water on Earth is renewed annually in the form of precipitation, the volume of which is 520 thousand km3. However, in practice, water management calculations and forecasts should be based only on that part of the precipitation that flows over the earth’s surface, forming watercourses.
This will amount to 37 38 thousand km3. Currently, 3.6 thousand km3 of runoff in the world is diverted for household needs, but in fact more is used, since it is necessary to add here that part of the runoff that is spent on diluting polluted waters, in total this will be 8.2 thousand km3, that is, more than 15 of the world's river flows.
Additional reserves of water resources: desalination of sea water, use of icebergs. 5.5.3 Biological resources. They consist of plant and animal mass, the one-time supply of which on Earth is measured at about 2.4 1012 tons in terms of dry matter. The annual increase in biomass in the world, that is, biological productivity, is approximately 2.3 1011 tons. The main part of the Earth's biomass reserves, about 45, falls on forest vegetation, which dates back more than 13 total annual growth of living matter.
Human activity has led to a significant reduction in the total biomass and biological productivity of the Earth. True, by replacing part of the former forest areas with arable land and pastures, people received a gain in the qualitative composition of biological products and were able to provide food, as well as important technical raw materials for fiber, leather, and other growing population of the Earth. Food resources make up no more than 1 of the total biological productivity of land and ocean and no more than 20 of all agricultural products.
Among other biological resources, wood is the most important. Now in exploited forest areas, which account for 13 of the total forested land area, the annual timber harvest of 2.2 billion m3 is approaching annual growth. Meanwhile, the demand for timber will increase. Further exploitation of forests should be carried out only within their renewable part, without affecting the fixed capital, that is, the forest area should not decrease, cutting down should be accompanied by reforestation.
In addition, it is necessary to increase the productivity of forests through reclamation, use wood raw materials more rationally and, to the extent possible, replace them with other materials. 5.5.4 Territorial resources. Finally, a few words need to be said about land, or, more precisely, territorial resources. The earth's surface area is finite and non-renewable. Almost all lands favorable for development have already been used in one way or another.
Most of the areas that remain undeveloped are areas whose development requires large expenditures and technical means: deserts, swamps, etc., or practically unusable glaciers, highlands, and polar deserts. Meanwhile, with population growth and further scientific and technological progress, more and more areas will be required for the construction of cities, power plants, airfields, reservoirs, the need for agricultural land will grow, many areas must be preserved as nature reserves, etc. More and more land is being consumed by communications and large engineering structures. 6.6
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This topic belongs to the section:
Resource problem
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Abstract on the topic:
“The problem of conservation of biological resources”
1. Introduction
2. Biodiversity
3. Species and genetic diversity. Diversity of communities and ecosystems
4. Water resources of Russia
5. Mineral resources Russia
6. Conclusion
7. References
Introduction
Our life is inextricably linked with the world around us and also greatly influences it. Many live without thinking about future generations, about what we will leave them as a legacy, thereby preparing for them much worse living conditions, a poorer biological heritage. For many years we have been saying that man is the master of nature. Meanwhile, everything that the hand of progress hung over remained empty and lifeless. The same process occurs in our minds and hearts: progress and greed kill everything humane and good in us.
Since the 20th century, the entire biopotential of our planet has been recklessly wasted, and by now the nature of the Earth has changed so much that environmental problems that already threaten human existence are discussed on international level and their solutions are financed.
One of these problems, which I discuss in my essay, is the problem of preserving biological resources. I believe that it is not so much finding out the reasons this issue How much the introduction of awareness of one's actions into the minds of new generations is decisive in overcoming it. Everyone must understand that any action they take will affect what surrounds them, and everyone is responsible for the environmental and moral problems of our society.
Biological diversity.
Biological diversity is subject to global changes no less than mineral or water resources, and the result of these processes is in many ways more tangible for everyone than others. Therefore, to study this issue, we need to know what biological diversity is.
Biological diversity is the entire diversity of life forms on Earth, millions of species of plants, animals, microorganisms with their sets of genes and complex ecosystems that make up living nature. Thus, biological diversity should be considered at three levels.
Biological diversity at the species level covers the entire range of species on Earth from bacteria and protozoa to the kingdom of multicellular plants, animals and fungi. At a finer scale, biological diversity includes the genetic diversity of species generated both by geographically distant populations and by individuals within the same population. Biological diversity also includes the diversity of biological communities, species, ecosystems formed by communities and the interactions between these levels.
For the continued survival of species and natural communities, all levels of biological diversity are necessary, and all of them are important for humans. Species diversity demonstrates the richness of evolutionary and ecological adaptations of species to different environments. Species diversity serves as a source of diverse natural resources for humans. Many natural ecosystems provide raw materials for the food industry, medicine, and cosmetology.
Genetic diversity is necessary for any species to maintain reproductive capacity and the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions. but genetic diversity is also necessary for humans, since only with the presence of genetic material can breeders develop plant varieties and animal breeds, as well as update the existing artificially created genetic stock with the natural one when the bred varieties and breeds lose the desired properties.
Species and genetic diversity. Diversity of communities and ecosystems
At each level of biodiversity, experts study the mechanisms that change or maintain diversity. Species diversity includes the entire range of species living on Earth. There are two main definitions of the concept of species. First: a species is a collection of individuals that differs from other groups in certain morphological, physiological or biochemical characteristics. This is the morphological definition of the species.
Differences in DNA sequence and other molecular markers are now increasingly being used to distinguish between species that are nearly identical in appearance (such as bacteria). The second definition of a species is a set of individuals between which free crossing occurs, but there is no crossing with individuals of other groups (biological definition of a species). The inability to clearly distinguish one species from another due to similar characteristics or resulting confusion in scientific names often reduces the effectiveness of species protection efforts.
Therefore, protecting a particular species requires a conscious approach to studying its structure and place in wildlife. The adoption of laws to protect a species as a biological resource is difficult, as it combines many aspects of legal legislation and is often complicated by poor knowledge of a particular species. Therefore, much work still needs to be done to systematize and classify all the species existing in the world. Taxonomists have described only 10-30% of the world's species, and many may become extinct before they are described.
Genetic intraspecific diversity is often provided by the reproductive behavior of individuals within a population. A population is a group of individuals of the same species that exchange genetic information with each other and produce fertile offspring. A species may contain one or more distinct populations. A population can consist of a few individuals or millions. Individuals within a population are usually genetically different from each other.
Genetic diversity is due to the fact that individuals have slightly different genes - sections of chromosomes that encode certain proteins. Variants of a gene are known as its alleles. Differences arise from mutations - changes in the DNA that is found in the chromosomes of a particular individual. Alleles of a gene can have different effects on the development and physiology of an individual. Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to environmental changes, such as rising temperatures or the outbreak of a new disease. In general, it has been established that rare species have less genetic diversity than widespread ones, and accordingly they are more susceptible to the threat of extinction when environmental conditions change.
A biological community is defined as a collection of individuals various types living in a certain territory and interacting with each other. Examples of communities are coniferous forests, tallgrass prairies, tropical rainforests, coral reefs, deserts. A biological community together with its habitat is called an ecosystem. In terrestrial ecosystems, water is evaporated by biological entities from the Earth's surface and from water surfaces, only to fall again as rain or snow to replenish terrestrial and aquatic environments. Photosynthetic organisms absorb light energy, which is used by plants for their growth. This energy is absorbed by animals that eat photosynthetic organisms or released in the form of heat both during the life of the organisms and after they die and decompose.
During photosynthesis, plant organisms absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen, while animals and fungi absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide during respiration. Mineral nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus circulate between living and nonliving components of the ecosystem.
The physical properties of the environment, especially the annual regime of temperature and precipitation, influence the structure and characteristics of the biological community and determine the formation of either a forest, or a meadow, or a desert or swamp. The biological community, in turn, can also change physical characteristics environment.
In terrestrial ecosystems, for example, wind speed, humidity, temperature and soil characteristics can be influenced by the plants and animals that live there. In aquatic ecosystems, physical characteristics such as turbulence and water transparency, its chemical characteristics and depth determine the qualitative and quantitative composition of aquatic communities; and communities such as coral reefs themselves greatly influence physical properties environment. Within a biological community, each species utilizes a unique set of resources that constitute its niche. Any component of a niche can become a limiting factor when it limits population size.
The composition of communities is largely determined by competition and predators. Predators often significantly reduce the number of species - their prey - and can even displace some of them from their usual habitats. When predators are exterminated, the population of their prey can increase to or even exceed critical levels. Then, after the limiting resource is exhausted, the destruction of the population may begin.
Water resources of Russia
Russia is washed by the waters of 12 seas belonging to three oceans, as well as the inland Caspian Sea. On the territory of Russia there are over 2.5 million large and small rivers, more than 2 million lakes, hundreds of thousands of swamps and other water resources.
In the national economy of the country, in quantitative terms, water consumption exceeds the total use of all other natural resources. This is largely determined by the existing structure of production in many industries.
One of the most important areas for the use of water resources is hydropower, which has undoubted advantages over other methods of generating electricity (thermal power plants, state district power plants, nuclear power plants).
Water areas are widely used as transport arteries.
At the same time, the cost of transportation by water transport on average 3-5 times cheaper than automobile ones.
The river network is distributed unevenly throughout the country: its greatest density is typical for the northern and mountainous regions, and the least for the southern ones. The flood is formed due to snow melting, and the flood regime is caused by rainfall. Fluctuations in water levels in rivers are associated with changes in their water content, which varies across the territory. Ice phenomena are typical for all rivers. Depending on the geographical location of the basin and water availability, many rivers freeze in winter and dry up in summer.
But regardless of individual and general characteristics water resources are very important for Russian society. That is why I decided to consider this problem using the example of Russia, as a state that is not indifferent to me.
Reservoirs play a big role in regulating flood processes, preventing floods, etc. For Russia, this is extremely important because flood-hazardous territories cover more than 400 thousand km2, including in the Siberian District (in Yakutia, Transbaikalia, Buryatia, etc.) Along with the positive role of reservoirs, the problems they create should also be noted:
1. Coastal destruction
2. Landslide phenomena, the zone of which includes many settlements, including such large ones as Volgograd, Saratov, Ulyanovsk, etc.
3. Deterioration of the technical condition of waterworks, most of which are in need of ongoing repairs, and hundreds are in a pre-emergency condition.
4. As an example of the use of water resources, we can consider the Volgograd Reservoir. Regulation of the water level during the flood period is ensured by water discharge. Moreover, its destruction can lead to a huge catastrophe, and its technical condition leaves much to be desired.
But still, the main problem that needs to be solved is the lack of fresh water and its uneconomical use.
With such abundance and provision of fresh water in Russia in many areas, the question of its purification arises. Reservoirs, lakes, rivers are overflowing with garbage. Many species of not only fish, but also other organisms that ensure the natural balance of this ecosystem have disappeared.
And those that remain mutate and become dangerous to humans. All this gives impetus to the development of pathogenic microorganisms in lakes and rivers and turns them into a hotbed of disease. There are many examples in our city: polluted gutters in the city center, littered beaches.
Water resources are essential for life, and we must protect them.
Mineral resources of Russia
For the first time in the last 10 years, there has been some economic growth in Russia, and with it, hopes for an economic revival of Russia. Of course, the economic revival of Russia is a very real thing, moreover, Russia has every chance of becoming one of the world leaders by the third - fourth decade of the 21st century, but the problem is that calculations for future growth in most cases are based on very controversial assumptions.
Setting ourselves the goal of bringing Russia to a new level through the introduction of advanced technologies in production, science, and education, we forget about the impact of this on our ecology. The race for leadership on the world stage sometimes puts concern for the environment into the background. But exactly what we don’t want to pay attention to now will later turn against us and become a serious problem for every citizen.
Most of the funds used to raise the country to a new level are provided by trade between Russia and other states. And, unfortunately, it is on this process that we waste such a huge natural potential.
In this regard, it is necessary:
1. develop and begin to implement the concept of state natural resource policy, which includes problems of regulatory, economic, accounting and statistical support for rational environmental management;
2. complete the preparation of the regulatory framework for the introduction of fees for the use of all types of natural resources involved in economic circulation;
3. continue to improve the system of payments for the right to use subsoil, including the possibility of subsoil users receiving benefits for depleting subsoil or for mining low-quality ores containing scarce minerals.
In the future, increase the efficiency of state management of natural resources, strengthen the economic foundations in the field of relations to our own natural resources.
To implement state policy in the field of use, protection and reproduction of mineral resources, the following basic measures should be provided as a priority:
1. eliminating the acute shortage in the country individual species mineral raw materials (manganese, chromium, uranium, etc.);
2. stopping the lag in the growth of reserves from the volumes of mining;
3. development of the mineral resource base at the regional level through the identification, assessment and industrial development of small deposits of coal, peat and agrochemical raw materials, primarily in remote areas of Russia, where there are no alternative sources of solid fuel and mineral fertilizers;
4. increasing the complexity of the use of mineral raw materials;
5. development of measures to modernize geological exploration, introduce new equipment for drilling and geophysical work, adapted to the geological and natural conditions of specific oil, gas and ore-bearing regions of Russia;
6. expanding the scope of study and use of resources of the shelf and the World Ocean.
Conclusion
To summarize my work, I would like to note not only the economic, scientific, but also the moral aspect of this problem. Neglect of moral principles and propaganda of selfishness lead to the fact that a person does not recognize himself as a part of the state and society. Therefore, in my opinion, it is impossible not to address the problem of preserving biological resources from this side.
But, nevertheless, the formation of personal views largely depends on state policy, which determines the desire for better progress. And progress as a tendency of modern society should improve it, not destroy it.
After analyzing all the chapters of my work, I came to the conclusion that the inappropriate use of any resources can lead to huge consequences and the solution to these problems cannot be postponed. It is always worth remembering that more than one generation of people will live after us. And what will we leave them as a legacy?
Bibliography
Alimov A.F. Options for solving environmental problems // Salvation. - 2003. - No. 6.
Antsev G.V., Elfimov V.G., Sarychev V.A. On the approach of a global environmental catastrophe // Monitoring - 2000. - No. 1.
Alekseev V.P. Nature and society: stages of interaction // Ecology and life. - 2002. - No. 2.
Snurikov A.P. Rational environmental management. - M.: Nauka, 1996.
"Big Schoolchildren's Guide", 2001
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The first measures to protect individual elements of the biosphere (types of organisms) were carried out even before the beginning of our era in the countries of ancient culture - Egypt, India, China, etc. The bulk of living matter surrounds the Earth in a thin layer - from several millimeters to tens of meters.
Due to the fact that living organisms are located in a thin near-surface layer, they are easily accessible to direct and indirect human influence. The living matter of the biosphere has enormous chemical activity due to biological metabolism. During the process of photosynthesis, terrestrial and aquatic vegetation accumulate enormous solar energy over the course of a year, bind 35 billion tons of carbon, fix 44 billion tons of nitrogen, release several tens of billions of tons of oxygen, etc.
Biological (biotic) resources include resources of the plant and animal worlds. Plant resources are represented in territories and water areas by higher plants, fungi, mosses, lichens, algae, which are used or can be used for the needs of society. Forest, steppe, meadow, swamp and aquatic plant resources are of economic importance.
More than 1.5 million species of plants and animals have now been studied, named and identified, but scientists believe that there are another 5-10 million unexplored species, especially in tropical forests, seas and oceans. All types of living things are collectively called biota. Its most important property is the ability to self-heal based on metabolism. Under favorable conditions, organisms in the biosphere are capable of filling the entire planet in a short time.
The natural conditions of Ukraine contribute to the development of a rich and diverse flora. About 5 thousand species of plants of natural flora and about 1 thousand species of cultivated and alien flora grow here, which is distributed very unevenly. The richest flora of the Crimea and the Carpathians (almost 2 thousand species), in Polesie and the forest-steppe zone there are only 1600-1700 species, and in the steppe there are even fewer of them - about 1 thousand. On the territory of Ukraine there are 45 thousand species, of which 17 species are amphibians, 20 - reptiles, about 400 - birds, 200 - fish.
Human use of the biosphere began from the moment of its inception and continuously increased with the increase in the number and needs of humanity. The two most common uses of living organisms and the products they produce are:
Direct use - as food, raw materials, building materials;
Indirect - as a source of oxygen for breathing and technological processes, binding carbon dioxide, regulating runoff, protecting fields from wind, aesthetic needs, etc.
The value of natural biota for humans is considered in the following main areas:
The basis of agriculture and forestry;
Medical Resources;
Direct benefit, which is manifested in the fact that vegetation cover is a factor in preventing erosion, preserving the topsoil, ensuring infiltration and replenishment of groundwater, reducing surface runoff, and supporting the cycle of nutrients in ecosystems. The biota continuously reproduces wood, wild animals and birds, fish, etc.;
Opportunities for recreation, satisfaction of aesthetic and scientific needs;
Commercial stimulator of sports business, tourist services, etc.
Biological resources (BR) are sources of living origin that contribute to the receipt of material benefits by humans, for example, food, material for industry, breeding of plants, animals and microorganisms. These resources are an important component of the human environment and are presented in the form of plants, animals, bacteria, as well as ecosystems (forests, aquatic ecosystems, etc.).
It should be noted that all organisms have the ability to reproduce, therefore, biological resources are renewable; it is only necessary to maintain appropriate conditions for this. To date modern system the use of BR may lead to the elimination of a significant part of them.
The main part of BR comes from forest flora, thanks to which we have ¼ of the annual increase in biomass. Currently, human activity has led to the fact that this number of living matter has decreased, and therefore the biological productivity of the Earth has decreased. However, by replacing part of the former forests with pastures, people thereby provided food and technical raw material to the population of the planet.
Today, forests on the planet form two belts: southern (deciduous trees) and northern (coniferous trees). Those countries that do not have forest areas have insufficient forest natural resources.
Currently, the forest biological resources of Russia, Canada, the USA and Brazil are the largest. At the same time, the area of southern forests begins to disappear due to an increase in the export of wood and its use as fuel, while the forests of the sulfur belt remain practically unchanged. But despite this, these resources are increasing every year.
Biological resources, namely food, account for twenty percent of all agricultural production and one percent of all ocean and land productivity. It should be remembered that due to the rapid rate of population growth, the productivity of crop products needs to be doubled, while that of livestock products needs to be tripled. Thus, it is necessary to develop agriculture, irrigated agriculture, and rational use of ocean resources.
The biological resources of the world's oceans amount to one hundred million tons of products, of which twenty percent is reserved for its restoration. All products are presented in the form of fish and non-fish objects; Many countries engage in so-called marine farming, breeding algae, shellfish, sea cucumbers and fish.
Thus, the first place in production is taken by fish (85%), followed by non-fish objects, including algae (9%), pinnipeds and whales (6%).
Despite the fact that the world's population is growing rapidly, the increase in fisheries is always faster. The need to increase the number of produced water bodies is associated with both economics and medicine, since the latter indicates the need for people to regularly consume seafood.
But still, we should not forget about the need to double the amount of seafood production.
Biological resources of the animal world are a global heritage, since animals ensure the cleanliness of water bodies, soil fertility, pollination of flowers, etc.
Today, many representatives of the fauna are threatened with extinction. However, it should be said that many corners of the planet have not yet been explored, as well as many groups of organisms. In addition, only a small part of natural objects is used by humans, and many ecosystems support themselves.
Thus, BRs represent all living objects of the biosphere that form the environment.
75. Naturally protected landscapes and protected areas
Reserves – highest form protection of natural areas. The reserves are intended exclusively for carrying out scientific and scientific-technical tasks in the country. This is the specificity and fundamental difference between nature reserves and other forms of protected areas. Areas that are most typical for a given natural zone and can serve as an example of landscape-geographical zones are allocated for nature reserves. Preference is given to those areas that are least modified by human economic activity, as well as to those landscapes that are in danger of extinction.
Most often, one reserve occupies 30–70 thousand hectares, but there are reserves of 700–800 thousand hectares (for example, Pechero-Ilchesky, Altai). In the European part of the country, where there are no large areas suitable for a reserve, its size does not exceed 1-5 thousand hectares.
Protected zones are created around most reserves, where the exploitation of natural resources and the development of industry and construction are limited. The objectives of the protective zones are to smooth out the influence of adjacent territories on protected natural complexes.
An important criterion when choosing a site for a reserve, the presence on its territory of rare species of animals and plants, unique formations of inanimate nature is considered. Main stream scientific research in reserves - studying the structure and functions of primary biogeocenoses, identifying their patterns, which is of great importance for understanding the essence of the laws of the biosphere as a whole.
The basis of scientific research in the reserve is the development of methods for recording animals, determining the effectiveness and identifying the consequences of the economic use of natural resources in adjacent territories, the development of biological methods for controlling pests of forestry and agriculture, studying the factors determining changes in the number of wild animals in order to predict them, and also study environmental features individual species of animals and plants, development of measures to ensure the preservation of natural protected areas, restoration of rare and endangered animals, plants, etc.
The reserve regime pursues the goal of preserving all elements of biogeocenoses in such quantitative ratios that are inherent to them and that ensure natural diversity and dynamic balance of the natural complex. Nature reserves cannot allow an excessive increase in the number of any one species, even the most valuable, to the detriment of others.
Landscape protection has many forms, which can be grouped into three groups:
The first two forms of landscape protection are associated with protected areas. In this case, complete protection pursues mainly scientific purposes. Partial protection is aimed at scientific, technical or resource conservation and cultural purposes.
Protected areas are of great importance for the protection of the gene pool of our planet, as natural objects for environmental research.
The forms of protected areas vary throughout the world. These are national and natural parks, reserves for various purposes, nature reserves, protected landscapes, areas wildlife, nature reserves, etc. The main forms of protection of natural areas abroad are national and natural parks, reserves, and in Russia - nature reserves and sanctuaries.
76. Specially protected landscapes and protected areas of the Altai Territory
At present, the original natural landscapes have practically not been preserved in the Altai Territory. The region currently lacks both active reserves and National parks. There are 33 reserves in the region. Their total area is 773.1 thousand hectares or less than 5% of the region’s area, which is significantly lower than the Russian average and is not enough to maintain landscape-ecological balance in the biosphere. In the Altai Territory, 100 natural monuments have been approved, of which 54 are geological, 31 water, 14 botanical and 1 complex. At present, a decision has been made to create the Kulundinsky and Tigireksky state reserves in the region.
Tigireksky reserve
The territory occupies the watershed between the right tributaries of the Charysh River and the upper reaches of the sources of the Alei River. The area of the reserve is 40,693 hectares, with a protected zone of 26,257 hectares. Initially, the territory of the reserve was supposed to be about 300 thousand hectares.
The reserve consists of three sections: Beloretsky - the upper reaches of the Belaya River; Tigireksky - adjacent to the village of Tigirek from the south; Khankharinsky - upper reaches of the Bolshaya Khankhara River
The reserve's terrain is mid-mountain with dome-shaped peaks. Absolute heights reach 2200 meters above sea level. There are many rivers in the territory, the largest of which is the Belaya. The climate of the reserve is sharply continental with hot summers and cold winter. In January, the temperature can drop to -49C -52C, the absolute maximum in July is +33C +38C.
The characteristics of the reserve's vegetation cover are determined by its geographical location, climate heterogeneity and diversity of environmental conditions. The main area is occupied by black taiga, which is an ancient (relict) formation. The reserve is a refuge for the following tertiary relics: osmoris ospinosa, European hoofed grass, common wolfberry, and broadleaf bellflower. Flora includes big number medicinal, fodder, melliferous, ornamental plants. Medicinal plants include Rhodiola rosea (golden root), Raponticum safflower (maral root), peony marin root, and bergenia. Among food plants, the most famous are spinach sorrel, blueberry, common viburnum, prickly rose hip, and common asparagus. The Red Books of the RSFSR and the Altai Territory include: male shieldweed, Altai Stelleropsis, Altai onion, Bludov's iris, broad-leaved bellflower, marin root peony and others.
The fauna of the reserve is represented primarily by such large animals as brown bear, deer, roe deer, and elk. Sable, weasel weasel, ermine, squirrel, chipmunk, and mountain hare are common everywhere. Less common are lynx, weasel, wolverine, solongoi, and a few musk deer.
There are many species of birds found in the reserve. The most characteristic forest birds are hazel grouse, black grouse, great owl, great owl, nutcracker, and occasionally capercaillie is found.
Employees of the Tigirek Nature Reserve in the Altai Territory discovered three species of birds that had not previously been seen here. These are the greenfinch, the great magpie and the little grosbeak. The press center of the reserve emphasized that the lesser grosbeak was recorded for the first time not only in Altai, but also, possibly, in Western Siberia.
Kulundinsky Reserve
The purpose of creating the Kulunda Nature Reserve is to preserve the largest quasi-natural territory in the Kulunda Lowland. It includes the salt lake Kulundinskoye - the largest of the drainless lakes of Kulunda, and the ecosystems adjacent to it from the east - steppes, saline meadows, salt marshes. The lake and the mouths of the rivers flowing into it are important as habitats for nesting and migrating shorebirds. For many years, a zoological (hunting) reserve for the protection of birds existed throughout the reserve.
77. The concept of the “red book”, its significance for the reproduction and rational use of flora and fauna
The Red Book is an annotated list of rare and endangered animals, plants and fungi. Red books come at different levels - international, national and regional.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) united and led in 1948 the work on the conservation of wildlife by government, scientific and public organizations most countries of the world. Among his first decisions in 1949 was the creation of a permanent Species Survival Commission, or, as is commonly called in Russian-language literature, the Commission on Rare Species.
Editions of the IUCN Red List
The first edition of the IUCN Red List was published in 1963. This was a “pilot” publication with a small circulation. Its two volumes included information about 211 species and subspecies of mammals and 312 species and subspecies of birds. The Red Book was sent to a list of prominent statesmen and scientists. As new information accumulated, as planned, additional sheets were sent to the recipients to replace outdated ones.
Three volumes of the second edition of the book were published in 1966-1971. Now it had a “book” format (21.0 × 14.5 cm), but, like the first edition, it had the appearance of a thick flip calendar, any sheet of which could be replaced with a new one. The book was still not intended for wide sale; it was sent out to a list of environmental institutions, organizations and individual scientists. The number of species included in the second edition of the IUCN Red List has increased significantly, since over the past time it has been collected Additional Information. The first volume of the book included information about 236 species (292 subspecies) of mammals, the second - about 287 species (341 subspecies) of birds, and the third - about 119 species and subspecies of reptiles and 34 species and subspecies of amphibians.
Gradually, the IUCN Red Book was improved and expanded. The third edition, volumes of which began to appear in 1972, included information on 528 species and subspecies of mammals, 619 species of birds and 153 species and subspecies of reptiles and amphibians. The headings of individual sheets have also been changed. The first section is devoted to characterizing the status and current state of the species, the subsequent sections are devoted to geographic distribution, population structure and numbers, habitat characteristics, current and proposed conservation measures, characteristics of animals kept in zoos, and sources of information (literature). The book went on sale, and in connection with this its circulation was sharply increased.
The latest, fourth “standard” edition, published in 1978-1980, includes 226 species and 79 subspecies of mammals, 181 species and 77 subspecies of birds, 77 species and 21 subspecies of reptiles, 35 species and 5 subspecies of amphibians, 168 species and 25 subspecies of fish . Among them are 7 restored species and subspecies of mammals, 4 of birds, 2 species of reptiles. The reduction in the number of forms in the latest edition of the Red Book was not only due to successful conservation, but also as a result of more accurate information obtained in recent years.
Work on the IUCN Red List continues. This is a document of permanent validity, since the living conditions of animals are changing and more and more new species may find themselves in a catastrophic situation. At the same time, the efforts made by man yield good results, as evidenced by its green leaves.