Types and forms of environmental management. Abstract: Rational environmental management, its types

25.09.2019

To meet the diverse needs of the population and conduct economic activities in the region, environmental management must be differentiated by types of environmental management, ensuring:

Mastery of natural resources to obtain the necessary energy and primary materials;

Ensuring connection between places of obtaining energy and primary materials with points of processing the latter into products, and places of production of products with all points of their consumption;

Adaptation of all areas of population activity, with life-sustaining consumption, to environmental conditions;

Preservation of environmental properties recognized as necessary for the life of the population.

Currently, in environmental management it is customary to distinguish four main types, which have certain differences in practical use and their inherent features of territorial structure. Based on the properties used and the nature of dependence on nature, two main groups of economic sectors can be distinguished (mainly resource-consuming and resource-saving), determined by the nature of its connection with nature, and there are four types of environmental management in them.

Consideration of environmental management as a single sphere of activity is complicated by the fact that work activity population is narrowly specialized by type of environmental management, and within the framework of production activities - by individual sectors of the economy. Each of these types and industries is connected with nature in its own way and depends on it, influencing, using or changing individual components of the natural environment. The nature of such a connection is determined by the fact that this or that type of activity uses components in nature that are the natural condition and arena of activity in all sectors of the economy. Based on this criterion, the main forms of the territorial structure of the main types of environmental management are identified. It should be noted that there are different approaches to identifying the main types and types of environmental management; there is no single generally accepted method for identifying them.

Analysis of various classifications showed that they all distinguish four main types of environmental management. Thus, according to the classification developed at Moscow State University by K. Zvorykin (1993), the following types of environmental management are distinguished.

I. Industrial use of natural resources: agricultural, energy supply, water supply, mining (onshore and underground), offshore mining, forestry, land-based hunting, marine hunting, storage and warehouse, factory, waste and dumping, auxiliary, including construction, reclamation and environment-improving, reclamation.

P. Spatial-linking nature management: transport-sea, transport-river and lake, transport-aviation, energy transfer, railway, road, horse-drawn and pedestrian.

III. Communal environmental management: urban and other residential, scientific and educational (in nature), cultural and memorial, sports and recreational, medical and spa, recreational.

IV. Environmental management, water protection, environmental protection (in relation to the species gene pool of plants and animals, rare natural phenomena and objects), reserve (in relation to all other types of environmental management).

The types of environmental management listed above are forms of mastery of natural resources of the natural environment and territories for all types of life activities of the population in relatively accessible eco-labor conditions.

A different approach is presented in the classification developed at the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Runova, Volkova, Nefedova et al., 1993). Taking this development as a basis, A.V. Evseev proposed his own version of the classification of regional environmental management. In our opinion, it is very convenient for analyzing the state of the natural environment and mapping environmental management in the regions of Russia. This classification provides a grouping of the main types of environmental management, identifying four main types of territorial structure: background, focal, large-focal and dispersed environmental management (Fig. 1).

I. Background environmental management - based on the territorially widespread use of natural resources, lands, closely related to the zonal features of natural landscapes. This type includes the following sectors of resource use: agriculture, forestry, and fishing, which are closely related to the zonal features of landscapes. These industries are interested in preserving the natural environment they need. The background also includes traditional environmental management, that is, the type of established economic activity based on the use of natural resources (land, pasture, hunting), as a rule, maximally adapted to the local conditions of the natural environment, which forms the basis of the traditional culture and way of life of the population. This type of environmental management is currently typical for territories inhabited, for example, by indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East.

II. Large-focal nature management is characterized by an areal, hub or group type of location of industries that extract, use and process natural resources, and local landscapes for which are only the place of operation of large technical structures and the placement of mass production waste with significant disturbances and pollution of the natural environment. This type of environmental management is characterized by basic sectors of the economy: mining, pulp and paper and chemical industries, metallurgy, energy, mechanical engineering (especially transport and heavy), production and processing of hydrocarbons (oil, gas). These industries are interested only in the volumes of the extracted resource, as well as in certain conditions of its extraction related to relief, climate, water resources, and soils. This type of environmental management is associated with the formation of so-called impact areas (zones), or territories subject to intense anthropogenic impact, which are characterized by severe pollution, mechanical disturbance, and significant degradation of many components of the natural environment. In such territories, there is a crisis, critical, and in some cases catastrophic environmental situation, with deep and irreversible changes in individual components of the natural environment, loss of natural resources and a sharp deterioration in the living conditions of the population, mainly caused by multiple excesses of permissible technogenic loads on local landscapes. Currently, impact zones (districts) have formed in many industrial regions of Russia.

III. Focal use of natural resources is associated with the system of settlement and development of economic sectors that use local natural resources or technologies that do not cause significant changes (including pollution) of the natural environment. The ecological situation in certain territories can be tense or conflicting, in which minor changes in space and time occur in the landscape, including in environmental and resource-reproducing properties, which leads to a relatively small restructuring of the landscape structure and restoration as a result of the implementation of self-regulation processes of natural complex or implementation of simple environmental measures. This type of environmental management is usually associated with the economic activities of individual mechanical engineering enterprises (instrument making, light engineering, etc.) and food industry, with logging and wood processing centers, with transport hubs. These sectors of the economy do not impose strict requirements on landscapes as a location for production, but sometimes they create the problem of waste that is difficult to assimilate by nature.

IV. Dispersed environmental management is based on economic activity, which requires a certain combination of natural properties of landscapes, which is the main condition for its placement in a given place, and also focused on their maximum conservation. Mainly in landscapes - areas of recreational activities, nature reserves, national parks and other protected natural areas. All these activities are closely related to local landscapes. This type of environmental management is characterized by a satisfactory ecological situation, natural evolution, and due to the absence of visible direct or indirect anthropogenic impact, all landscape properties are preserved. Dispersed environmental management currently includes environmental and recreational environmental management.

The integrity of the picture of environmental management in the region is given by network-nodal and linear forms, characteristic of transport and communication, water reclamation, distribution activities, which combine the above types into a single frame and give a special configuration to their spatial combinations.

Russian environmental management combines the territorial forms and levels of its organization discussed above. There are four hierarchical levels of territorial organization of environmental management (Runova, 1993):

Natural-zonal, formed by a combination of background sectors of environmental management;

Regional-zonal, reflecting the territorial differentiation of background industries, primarily in terms of their intensity level;

Background-nodal (network-areal), formed under the influence of the settlement system, level of urbanization, location of azonal (focally dispersed) forms of environmental management, communication network, intensity of background industries;

Local (local), formed by the local features of natural landscapes and resource lands, the relative location of natural resource users and their geographic location, generally reflecting the prevailing type (type) of environmental management.

Thus, the territorial organization of environmental management has features inherent in both natural and socio-economic systems. The identification of four levels in the structure of environmental management makes it possible to identify the specifics of the problems of resource provision, environmental protection and nature conservation that arise at each of these levels. At the same time, it becomes possible to analyze the applicability of approaches developed in geography to solving these problems to each of them and to identify the missing links, the study of which can serve as the basis for organizing geographical work in the field of environmental management.

Of particular note is the presence in a number of regions of a conflict situation between certain types environmental management. It is often observed between large-focal - background and dispersed, less often between background and dispersed environmental management. This is due to active economic activity, which in a market economy leads to fierce competition in the use of natural and especially land resources and causes deterioration in the quality of individual components of the natural environment. An example is the problem of the Yugydva National Park in the Komi Republic, where part of the territory of the national park is claimed by the mining industry (development of hydrocarbon deposits in areas where the traditional economy of the indigenous peoples of the Russian North is maintained).

Background environmental management (represented mainly by agriculture, forestry and fishing) is widespread and is the basis for analyzing the structure of environmental management in the regions, representing the background for other types: large-focal, focal and dispersed.

Regional features of background environmental management are presented in Table. 1. T. G. Runova et al. (1993) on European territory In the former USSR, six microtypes of background environmental management and 17 types were identified, reflecting primarily the nature of the combination of forms and levels of intensity of environmental management. Their geographical location is shown in Fig. 2.

Table 1

Types of background environmental management (Runova et al., 1993)

The picture of the spatial distribution of background environmental management, formed by a combination of factors, is quite complex. For example, the latitudinal-zonal distribution of agricultural-forestry types of environmental management (microtypes I-IV) is combined with the azonal distribution of agricultural-recreational-forest types (microtype V), which is confined to economically developed urban regions and is characterized by increased activity and productivity of environmental management. The identified differences in background environmental management are very stable. IN modern conditions priority development of other types of environmental management can disrupt the existing picture of background environmental management. Areas of highly specialized specialized agriculture are experiencing certain difficulties, having lost transport areas for marketing their products. There are problems of background environmental management associated with environmental pollution, soil erosion in a number of agricultural regions, and degradation of pastures and forest resources.

Each region has its own specific environmental management problems, which will be discussed below.

Related information.

Rental block

Nature management can be rational and irrational. Rational use of natural resources is reasonable and does not allow a decrease in the productivity of the natural environment. Irrational is a consumer attitude towards nature, that is, the desire to get as much as possible from it by any means, which leads to depletion natural resources and environmental pollution. With irrational environmental management, two problems arise: resource-related, associated with the depletion of natural resources, and environmental, associated with the deterioration (pollution) of the living environment. Currently, there is an era of irrational environmental management.

Its three forms: economic (leading), environmental and cultural-health-improving.

Forms of environmental management are carried out in two types: general and special environmental management.

General use of natural resources does not require special permission. It is exercised by citizens on the basis of their natural (humanitarian) rights that exist and arise as a result of birth and existence (use of water, air, etc.).

Special use of natural resources is carried out by individuals and legal entities on the basis of permission from authorized state bodies. It is of a targeted nature and, according to the types of objects used, is divided into land use, subsoil use, forest use, water use, use of wildlife (wild animals and birds, fish stocks), and use of atmospheric air. Special environmental management is associated with the consumption of natural resources. In this part, it is correlated through legal regulation with sectoral natural resource legislation Russian Federation: Land Code, Fundamentals of Forestry Legislation, Law on Subsoil, Water Code, Law on the Use and Protection of Wildlife, Law on Atmospheric Air Protection.

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Legal regulation of environmental rights.

Legal regulation of environmental human rights

Sources of EP

Main legal acts:

Constitution of the Russian Federation (Articles 9,41,42,71,72)

- A:environmental legislation- regulates the environment as a whole, environmental rights of citizens

Federal Law “On Environmental Protection”

- “On the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population”

- “Fundamentals of the legislation of the Russian Federation on protecting the health of citizens”

- “On the protection of consumer rights”

- “On radiation safety of the population”

- “On environmental impact assessment”

- “About the continental shelf”

- “On specially protected natural areas”

- “On the use of atomic energy”

- “About natural healing resources, health-improving areas and resorts”

- “On radiation safety of the population”, etc.

- B: Natural resource legislation(regulates certain natural resources)

- “On the protection of atmospheric air”

Land Code

About payment for land

About the subsoil

About the animal world

Water Code

Forest Code, etc.

Under environmental human rights refers to the rights of an individual enshrined in legislation, ensuring the satisfaction of various human needs when interacting with nature.

International legal documents:

1.Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948.

2. European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of 1950.

3.European Social Charter of 1961.

Constitution of the Russian Federation:

The right of private ownership of land (Article 36);

Everyone's right to a favorable environment. environment, reliable information about its condition, for compensation for damage caused to health or property by environmental violations (42);

The right of everyone to work in conditions that meet safety and hygiene requirements (37);

Everyone’s right to health protection and medical care (41);

The right to use natural resources.

“Land, Water, Forest Codes, Federal Law “Onedrakh”, “On Fauna”, etc.

The set of norms regulating relations on the use of natural resources form the legal institution of environmental rights.

Classification of types (forms) of environmental management

1 according to the criterion of “object of nature”

There are:

1.1 land use rights;

1.2 subsoil use;

1.3 water use;

1.4 use of atmospheric air;

1.5 forest management;

1.6 use flora outside forests;

1.7 use of wildlife.

In turn, each type of environmental right can be subdivided

into subspecies. For example, land use rights have a trace. subspecies:

1.1.1 clause of use of agricultural lands;

1.1.2 lands of populated areas;

1.1.3 lands of industry, transport, communications and other purposes;

1.1.4 lands of environmental, nature reserve, recreational, historical and cultural purposes;

1.1.5 lands of the forest fund, water fund, reserve.

2.Important classification of environmental management into general and special.

The criterion for such classification is the basis for the emergence of environmental rights.

2.1 The right of general land use: does not require permission from the state. authorities, legal and individuals, for which natural objects are assigned for use (streets, squares, parks, forest parks, forests, rivers, seas, etc.). At the same time, the right is general. The legislation limits environmental management to the satisfaction of a person’s own needs.

2.2 The right to special use of natural resources.

It is not connected with satisfying one’s own needs, but with satisfying the economic interests of legal entities and individuals. In this case, the impact on nature is more significant. Therefore, to acquire such rights, state permission is required. authorities (licenses) At the same time, the license holder is subject to obligations for the rational use of natural resources, not violating the rights of other users, and not causing harm to human health and the environment.

Introduction

For many millennia, humanity has used a variety of natural resources to meet its needs without disturbing the natural evolutionary processes in the biosphere. Scientific and technological revolution of the 20th century. caused radical changes in energy and material flows in the “nature-society” system, which manifested themselves in significant anthropogenic changes in natural landscapes and the development of socio-ecological crises. Thus, currently about 15% of Russia’s territory belongs to areas with unfavorable environmental situation. This area exceeds the territory of Western and Central Europe and destabilizes global processes in the biosphere.

Nature management as a special type of activity is carried out for the purposes of:

Using the energies of the natural environment;

Alienation of renewable and non-renewable natural resources

Creation of means of production and human life support from natural materials;

Disposal of production and life waste in the environment;

Arrangement of the natural environment in order to create favorable conditions for human existence and development;

Organization of the natural environment for the purpose of its sustainable development;

Management of all listed actions.

By the middle of the 20th century. The urgent need for a comprehensive analysis of the interaction of economic and natural systems in the process of consumption or exploitation of certain natural resources, i.e. in the process of environmental management, became obvious. The results of such analysis are required for environmental, economic and social optimization of environmental management systems, which ideally should become non-depleting of natural resources. Such environmental management, along with other factors, ensures sustainable development. The synthesis of the results of research in the natural and human sciences aimed at planning and optimizing various types of environmental management is carried out by a new direction of science that arose in the last quarter of the 20th century - rational environmental management. The object of study of this science is the process of interaction between natural and economic systems, which predetermines the need for a synthesis of geographical, economic, environmental, and social knowledge that characterize this process.

The main goal of environmental management as a scientific direction is to search and develop ways to optimize the relationship between society and nature, which should help create favorable conditions for human life and economic activity. This is especially relevant for modern Russia, which faces the task of transition to sustainable development. Over a long period, the extensive development of the country's economy, the departmental (monopoly) nature of the use of natural resources, and their inadequate economic assessment have formed a system of environmental management that does not meet the criteria for ensuring sustainable development. The natural resource potential of Russia, i.e. that part of natural resources that can be involved in economic activity given the existing technical and socio-economic capabilities of society, provided that normal human living conditions are maintained, is used irrationally. The further civilized use of Russia's natural resources is a major socio-economic and environmental task, the solution of which is directly aimed at preserving nature as the basis of life on our planet.

Types of environmental management and its features

Nature management happens irrational, rational And recreational.

Irrational environmental management- a system of activities that does not ensure the preservation of natural resource potential. An example is the activities of some associations of the Russian Federation and departments that predatoryly consume natural resources. For example, deforestation, unauthorized fishing, destruction of flora and fauna.

Rational environmental management- a system of activities designed to ensure the economical exploitation of natural resources and conditions, the most effective mode of their reproduction, taking into account the long-term interests of the developing economy and the preservation of human health. Rational environmental management - highly efficient management, not leading to drastic changes in the natural resource potential for which humanity is not socio-economically prepared, and not leading to profound changes in the natural environment around humans, damaging his health or threatening his very life.

The purpose of studying the subject is a comprehensive consideration of the ecological foundations of rational environmental management, current state natural resources, the environment and their protection. The expediency of such a unified environmental approach is undoubted. It allows us to consistently consider the most important problems that arise in the biosphere due to human violations of environmental laws when using natural resources. The urgent need to consider the current state of the environment and natural resources and the trends that have developed in the field of environmental management in beginning of XXI century, is dictated by the situation in which Russia found itself during a period of dramatic economic and environmental changes. Socio-economic restructuring in Russia coincided with powerful social upheavals in many countries, occurring against the backdrop of increasing human impact on nature.

Volume of economic activity for last century increased hundreds of times, and the anthropogenic load on natural landscapes increased just as powerfully. Naturally, in accordance with social transformations in society, environmental legislation, environmental management bodies, nature conservation and environmental education must be improved.

According to academician I.N. Moiseev, man has learned the laws that make it possible to create modern machines, but until he has learned to understand that there are other laws that he may not yet know, that in his relationship with nature “there is a forbidden feature that a person has no right to cross under any circumstances... there is a system of prohibitions, violating which he destroys his future.”

Man should be charged with failing to pay due attention to the laws underlying the economics of nature.

Recreational nature management- forms and methods of using natural resources and conditions for recreation. It includes both the impact of nature on man and the reverse impact of man on nature.

Economic incentives for rational environmental management

Regulation of environmental protection and natural resource management is expressed in a combination of administrative and legal means of influence and measures of an economic nature. And if the methods of administrative and legal influence are based on relations of power and subordination, then economic measures are based on the material interest of the performer in achieving a real goal. In the world practice of regulating environmental relations, it is used large number various economic incentive measures. Some sources name about 80 options for economic impact in the field of environmental protection. In countries with highly developed industry and a rich environmental and legal heritage, these options conditionally form two theoretical varieties - price (tax) regulation and market mechanisms themselves. All instruments of price regulation can be divided into compulsory (payments for environmental management), incentive (tax benefits) and compensation (environmental funds).

In the conditions of socio-economic development of the countries of the former socialist camp, the prevailing form of stimulation of rational environmental management is the establishment of payments for the use of natural resources. The consequence of this is the insufficient economic interest of subjects of environmental rights in the efficient use of natural resources and environmental protection. Increasing the material interest of natural resource users is possible by creating conditions for the latter in which compliance with environmental requirements when using natural resources becomes profitable, and their violation leads to significant financial costs. In conditions modern development public relations in the field of environmental protection, this is only feasible if there is a balance in the economic mechanism for stimulating rational environmental management, which is understood as a system structural elements, necessary to direct the action of such economic factors, as an opportunity to make a profit, the presence of favorable tax and investment regimes, increasing the competitiveness of products in world markets to achieve a reasonable balance in the environmental and economic interests of society. The economic mechanism is an integral part of the general mechanism for regulating social environmental relations and is one of its most powerful regulators.

Achieving an acceptable balance in the economic mechanism of environmental management is impossible with the absolute dominance of coercive economic instruments. Therefore further legal development incentive systems for reducing the anthropogenic load on the environment by expanding the list of actions in natural resource legislation that will be the basis for providing tax benefits for rational environmental management. The criteria and conditions for the correlation of certain actions with environmental goals should be modeled by legislative requirements. The latter must take into account that payments, while performing a dualistic function: fiscal (redistribution of income from the exploitation of environmental resources) and stimulating, should nevertheless have the main motive of stimulating the rational, careful use of natural goods. Fiscal motivation may be present, but should be of a purely targeted nature - the received cash are subject to accumulation in environmental funds with subsequent allocation for the purposes of environmental protection, reproduction and restoration of used natural resources. To do this, it is necessary to move away from the fiscal practice of collecting payments for environmental management, securing the priority of environmental goals when establishing these payments.

When calculating the tax base of payments for environmental use, there is an economic indicator of damage caused to the environment in the process of using natural resources. This is a payment for excess and irrational use of natural resources. This type of fee is a regulatory component, the main task of which is to stimulate natural resource users through collection increased rates payments towards more economical and rational use of natural resources. The procedure established in the national legal systems of some countries for the withdrawal of taxes for the use of natural resources may be criticized due to the inclusion of the tax amount in the cost and price of products, which can be regarded as shifting the payment for the use of natural resources from the direct user of the resources to the shoulders of the consumer of the final product. Thus, the basic principle of paid environmental management is violated - “the polluter pays”, which is implemented only in the case of excess environmental pollution, when the environmental tax is withdrawn from the profit of the enterprise. We are inclined to disagree with the existing opinion that legislators have taken a realistic approach to the economic capabilities of natural resource users, for whom an additional tax that is not compensated in product prices would be an unbearable burden. Our understanding of the situation under consideration is based on the belief that it is impossible to justify a compromise in relations with nature. Subsequent material costs to restore a favorable environment are not comparable to the potential benefits in the short term.

Peculiarities of collecting payments for environmental management in the Russian Federation

On October 4, the State Duma considered in the 2nd reading two bills aimed at increasing administrative fines for violations of environmental regulations.

In accordance with the bills, there is an increase in fines for offenses related to illegal fishing of aquatic biological resources internal sea waters, territorial sea, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf of the Russian Federation:

Destruction of rare and endangered species of animals or plants by 5–12 times: for citizens - from 20 minimum wages to 25, for officials - from 30–40 minimum wages to 150–200 minimum wages, for legal entities– from 300–400 minimum wage to 3000–5000 minimum wage;

Violation of fishing rules, as well as violation of the rules for the extraction of aquatic biological resources other than fish, by 2-10 times: for citizens - from 5-10 minimum wages to 10-20, for officials - from 20-30 minimum wages to 100-150 minimum wages , for legal entities - from 100–200 minimum wage to 1000–2000 minimum wage;

Violation of the procedure for passing established control points (points): for officials - from 40-50 minimum wages to 150-200 minimum wages, for legal entities - from 400-500 minimum wages to 2000-4000 minimum wages;

Failure to comply with the legal requirements of an official of the continental shelf protection body of the Russian Federation or the protection body of the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation to stop the vessel, as well as preventing this official from exercising the powers assigned to him, including inspecting the vessel from 100–150 minimum wages to 150–200.

The second bill increases the amount of administrative fines for violating the rules for the protection and use of natural resources in specially protected natural areas. So for citizens and officials they double and, accordingly, will be from 10 to 20 minimum wages and from 20 to 40 minimum wages. For legal entities – from 300 to 600 minimum wages.

Conclusion

For many millennia, humanity has used a variety of natural resources to meet its needs, without disturbing the natural evolutionary processes in the biosphere. There are several types of environmental management: rational - designed to ensure the economical exploitation of natural resources and conditions, the most effective mode of their reproduction, taking into account the long-term interests of a developing economy and the preservation of people's health, non-rational - which does not ensure the preservation of natural resource potential, and recreational, which contributes to the independent restoration of nature ( nature reserves, sanatoriums).

List of used literature

1. Golub A.A., Strukova E.B., Economics of environmental management. M.:, 1999; 200 pages.

2. Golub A.A., Strukova E.B., Economic methods of environmental management. M., 2000;312 pages.

3. Goffman K.G. Economic assessment of natural resources in a market economy. M., 2004;245 pages.

4. Aristamov E.A., Voloshchina G.V. Environmental management: textbook 8th edition: M., 2007; 296 pages.

5. Voloshchenko S.M., Shestopalov G.G. Economic activity and the environment: K., 1991; 44 pages.

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The concept of "environmental management". Types and forms of environmental management

Naturemuse-- use of the natural environment to meet the environmental, economic, cultural and health needs of society.

Environmental management is divided into rational and irrational.

With rational use of natural resources, the needs for material goods are fully satisfied while maintaining the ecological balance and the possibility of restoring natural resource potential. Finding such an optimum of economic activity for a specific territory or object is an important applied task of environmental science. Achieving this optimum is called “sustainable development”.

With irrational environmental management, environmental degradation of the territory and irreversible depletion of natural resource potential occurs

Definition of environmental management

The process of exploiting natural resources in order to satisfy the material and cultural needs of society is called environmental management. It can be rational (reasonable) and irrational. The very concept of rationality presupposes reliance on reason and knowledge. Therefore, environmental management also includes science that develops general principles carrying out any activity related to the use of natural resources and the impact on them, which will help avoid environmental disaster.

Nature management includes:

a) protection, renewal and reproduction of natural resources, their extraction and processing;

b) use and protection natural conditions human living environment;

c) preservation, restoration and rational change of the ecological balance of natural systems;

d) regulation of human reproduction and the number of people.

Natural resources and their classification.

Natural resources are those means of subsistence of people that are not created by their labor, but are found in nature. These include water, soil, plants, animals, minerals, which are used directly or in processed form. Natural resources provide people with food, clothing, shelter, fuel, energy, and raw materials for industry.

The most common is natural classification on the main components of the environment. In accordance with it, all natural resources are divided into:

a) Mineral;

b) Land;

c) Water;

d) Forest;

d) Fauna.

Mineral resources. These include metal and non-metal ores, oil, gas, coal, and groundwater. Minerals can only be used once, after which they run out.

Currently, almost all elements of D.I. Mendeleev’s periodic table are used. The main raw materials are metals, water, mineral and organic raw materials.

Some minerals are as important to human life as air and water. For example, table salt. This is the most important industrial raw material, the reserves of which are abundant. There are also large reserves of non-metallic minerals: clay, lime, sand and gravel, phosphorites, potassium salt, mica.

The situation is different with mineral fuels and metals. The reserves of many of them are quite limited, so they must be protected as exhaustible resources.

Land resources. Soil is the basis of all material wealth, the main wealth on which human existence depends. It is a natural-historical bioinert body that arose as a result of the influence of living and dead organisms, the atmosphere and natural waters on the surface of rocks in conditions of different climates and topography and in conditions of earth's gravity.

The planet's land fund consists of various categories of land: glaciers, polar and high-mountain deserts, tundras and forest-tundras, swamps, agricultural areas, arid deserts, rocky soils and coastal sands, industrial and urban lands, pastures and meadows.

Water resources- The hydrosphere is the thinnest shell of the Earth, because water in all its states and in all spheres accounts for less than 0.001 of the planet’s mass. The main consumers of water are agriculture and industries (ferrous metallurgy, chemistry, petrochemicals and thermal power engineering).

Forest resources. Forests play a huge role in conserving water and land resources and improving the environment. Forests perform the most important environment-forming functions:

1- field protective;

2.-soil protection (anti-erosion);

3.-climate-forming, etc.

In addition, forests also play a cosmic role, participating in the process of photosynthesis, i.e. transformation of inert matter into organic matter, and largely determining biogeochemical cycles.

Every year, large quantities of wood are consumed throughout the world and used as fuel. building materials and raw materials in the pulp and paper industry.

Animal world.

The relationship between man and the animal world is complex and diverse. Animals serve as a source of food, fur, and some raw materials, and at the same time can be carriers of pathogens or dangerous agricultural pests.

In order to preserve animals, they create nature reserves and sanctuaries, limit production and develop measures for the reproduction of useful and valuable species.

Ecological classification of natural resources based on the principles of exhaustibility and renewability. In accordance with it, natural resources are divided into:

1. - inexhaustible - the use of which does not lead to visible depletion of their reserves (solar energy, water and wind energy, earthly heat);

2.-exhaustible - non-renewable, the continuous use of which can lead to a decrease to a level at which further exploitation becomes impossible or economically unfeasible. At the same time, they are not capable of self-healing within a time frame commensurate with the period of consumption (mineral raw materials);

3.-exhaustible, renewable, which are characterized by the possibility of restoration (flora, fauna, water). This group allocates resources with extremely slow renewal. These are forests and fertile lands.

Rational and irrational use of natural resources.

Irrational environmental management does not ensure the preservation of natural resource potential, leads to impoverishment and deterioration of the quality of the natural environment, is accompanied by pollution and depletion of natural systems, disruption of ecological balance and destruction of ecosystems.

Rational environmental management means the integrated science-based use of natural resources, which achieves the maximum possible preservation of natural resource potential, with minimal disruption of the ability of ecosystems to self-regulation and self-healing.

Classification of pollution.

Pollution is the entry into the environment natural environment any solid, liquid and gaseous substances, microorganisms or energies (in the form of sounds, noise, radiation) in quantities harmful to human health, animals, the state of plants and ecosystems. By objects of pollution there are distinguished surface contamination And groundwater, air pollution, soil pollution etc.

Types of pollution.

The following types of pollution are distinguished: chemical, physical and biological

Physical pollution includes thermal, light, noise, ultrasonic and other pollution.

Chemical pollution due to migration chemical elements, most of which return to the natural cycle in unusual forms, unusual for the biosphere. Artificially created organic compounds (xenobiotics) pose a particular danger. environmental management environmental pollution ozone

Biological pollution is understood as a change in the species structure through the introduction of species unusual for a given biocenosis (Colorado beetle, rapana clam, etc.).

Sources of pollution

Sources of pollution can be natural (dust storms, volcanic activity, mudflows, etc.) and anthropogenic.

Sources anthropogenic pollution, The most dangerous for populations of any organisms are industrial enterprises (chemical, metallurgical, pulp and paper, construction materials, etc.), thermal power engineering, transport, agricultural production and other technologies.

Sources of biosphere pollution can be natural and man-made. TO natural sources include volcanism, water and wind soil erosion, natural fires, etc.

^ Technogenic sources- these are objects of economic activity (industrial enterprises, transport, agriculture, energy facilities).

Technogenic pollution is comparable in scale to natural pollution, and exceeds it in toxicity.

Self-cleaning of the biosphere

Neutralization of disturbing influences (pollution) in the biosphere and its components through self-regulation mechanisms of natural ecosystems is usually called self-purification of the biosphere.

An important place in the mechanism of self-purification of the biosphere is occupied by processes occurring in the atmosphere and hydrosphere. This is due to the fact that these two geoshells are continuous moving media that provide

Oxygen for breathing, carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, water for life.

Stability and favorable climate conditions of the earth for life.

Geochemical migration chemicals in a cycle.

Rapid spread of pollutants over long distances.

Active chemical and biological transformation of pollutants.

Technogenic impact on the atmosphere

The atmosphere is the gaseous shell of the Earth. Most dense layer air adjacent to earth's surface, is called the troposphere. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. Between them is the tropopause. The stratosphere has a length of about 40 km. In the stratosphere, under the influence of cosmic radiation, air molecules are ionized, resulting in the formation of ozone. The ozone layer is located at an altitude of 25-40 km. The stratopause separates the stratosphere from the overlying mesosphere. Noctilucent clouds are observed in the mesosphere layer. Above the mesosphere is the ionosphere, between which there is a mesopause. The atmosphere performs the following functions.

Contains oxygen necessary for the respiration of living organisms;

It is a source of carbon dioxide for plant photosynthesis:

Protects living organisms from cosmic radiation;

Preserves the Earth's heat and regulates the climate;

Transforms gaseous metabolic products;

Transports water vapor around the planet;

It is a habitat for flying forms of organisms;

Serves as a source of chemical raw materials and energy;

Accepts and transforms gaseous and dust waste.

Air pollution-Man-made sources of air pollution disrupt the existing natural balances and cause environmental stress. In regions saturated with industrial enterprises, ecosystems can no longer withstand stress loads (“assimilation potential of the territory”).

Air pollutant- an impurity in the atmosphere that has an adverse effect on the environment and public health.

Primary impurity- an impurity that has preserved its physical and chemical properties over the time interval under consideration.

Secondary impurity is an impurity in the atmosphere formed as a result of the transformation of primary impurities.

Currently, the main contribution to atmospheric air pollution is made by the following industries: thermal power engineering (thermal and nuclear power plants, industrial and municipal boiler houses, etc.), motor transport, enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, oil production and petrochemicals, mechanical engineering, production of building materials, etc.

Under air pollution any change in its composition and properties that has a negative impact on human and animal health, the condition of plants and ecosystems should be understood. It can be natural (natural) and anthropogenic (technogenic).

Natural pollution air caused by natural processes. These include: volcanic activity, wind erosion, massive flowering of plants, smoke from forest and steppe fires, etc.

Anthropogenic pollution associated with the release of pollutants from human activities. In scale, it significantly exceeds natural air pollution and can be local , which is characterized by an increased content of pollutants in small areas (city, industrial area and etc..), regional -- when large areas of the planet are affected, and global -- these are changes in the entire atmosphere.

Vertical and horizontal movement of contaminants

The movement of pollutants in the atmosphere “does not respect state borders,” that is, transboundary. Transboundary pollution refers to pollution transferred from the territory of one country to the area of another.

Pollutants coming from various sources are transported in the atmosphere in an orderly manner. air currents, fall to the surface with precipitation and enter into various chemical interactions.

The horizontal distribution of a pollutant depends on its residence time and on the direction and speed of the wind. At average speed Western flows observed in the upper and lower stratosphere of temperate latitudes allow pollutants to circle the globe in 10-12 days. The speed of air movement in the meridional direction is significantly less than the zonal speed.

Consequences of air pollution

Air pollution affects human health and the environment in various ways- from a direct and immediate threat (smog, etc.) to the slow and gradual destruction of various life support systems of the body. In many cases, air pollution disrupts structural components ecosystems to such an extent that regulatory processes are unable to return them to their original state, and as a result, homeostatic mechanisms do not work.

The physiological impact of the main pollutants (pollutants) on the human body is fraught with the most serious consequences. Thus, sulfur dioxide, combining with moisture, forms sulfuric acid, which destroys the lung tissue of humans and animals.

Among suspended solid particles, the most dangerous are particles smaller than 5 microns, which can penetrate the lymph nodes, linger in the alveoli of the lungs, and clog the mucous membranes.

Technogenic impact on the hydrosphere

Hydrosphere is the watery shell of the Earth. The existence of the biosphere and humans has always been based on the use of water.

Human demand for water is constantly increasing. The use of water for industrial needs has especially increased, where it is used in almost all technological processes.

A significant portion of the water used in human household and industrial activities evaporates, and approximately a third is discharged as untreated or insufficiently treated water into surface reservoirs and watercourses.

Pollution of rivers, lakes, seas and even oceans occurs at an increasing speed, because... enters water bodies huge amount pollutants. The main sources of natural water pollution are: precipitation, municipal wastewater, industrial wastewater.

From rivers, waste flows into the oceans, the pollution of which has global consequences. Heavy metals and pesticides accumulate in food chains, the final link of which is humans. A huge amount of pollutants enter wastewater bodies. Pollution reaches such proportions that in many areas it exceeds their ability to cleanse themselves.

The ozone layer, the reasons for its destruction.

Ozone layer- a thin screen above the surface of the earth in the stratosphere that contains ozone. It is formed from oxygen molecules due to exposure to solar radiation.

This screen regulates the harshness of cosmic radiation and protects our planet from the harmful effects of ultraviolet rays, which can cause skin cancer and reduce the body's resistance various types oncology.

According to scientists, the concentration of ozone in the Earth’s protective shield is constantly decreasing, which is one of the reasons global warming.

Why is the ozone layer being destroyed??

The reason for this is air pollution, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, and the entry of substances into the stratosphere, reacting with which chemically unstable ozone molecules disintegrate. There are two sources of these substances entering the stratosphere:

Human activity. Here, too, two reasons can be distinguished: Various refrigeration units actively use freons- chlorine compounds, which are also included in thermal insulation materials (for example, polystyrene foam).

1. Aviation and spaceflight also negatively affect the ozone shield. During space launches of rockets, as well as reusable Shuttle systems, holes are formed in the stratosphere, which persist for a long time after the flight. A similar impact occurs from aviation. In addition, supersonic aircraft release nitrogen oxides into the stratosphere, which destroy ozone molecules.

2. According to Russian scientists, the ozone layer can be reduced as a result of hydrogen molecules entering the stratosphere for natural reasons. The planet's core contains quite extensive resources of hydrogen, which enters the atmosphere through a system of deep faults in earth's crust. Hydrogen, like chlorine and nitrogen, reacts with ozone molecules, resulting in the destruction of the ozone layer.

Environmental monitoring.

Environmental monitoring(environmental monitoring) is a comprehensive system of monitoring the state of the environment, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.

Typically, a territory already has a number of observation networks belonging to various services, which are departmentally separated and not coordinated in chronological, parametric and other aspects.

Types and subsystems of environmental monitoring

When organizing monitoring, it becomes necessary to solve several problems different levels, therefore I.P. Gerasimov (1975) proposed to distinguish three stages (types, directions) of monitoring:

Bioecological (sanitary and hygienic)

Geosystemic (natural and economic)

Biosphere (global).

However, this approach in the aspect of environmental monitoring does not provide a clear division of the functions of its subsystems, neither zoning, nor parametric organization and is mainly of historical interest.

There are different subsystems of environmental monitoring, such as: geophysical monitoring (analysis of data on pollution, atmospheric turbidity, studies meteorological and hydrological data of the environment, and also studies elements of the inanimate component of the biosphere, including objects created by man)

Climate monitoring (a service for monitoring and forecasting fluctuations in the climate system. Covers that part of the biosphere that influences the formation of climate: the atmosphere, ocean, ice cover, etc. Climate monitoring is closely linked with hydrometeorological observations.)

Biological monitoring (based on monitoring the reaction of living organisms to environmental pollution)

Monitoring the health of the population (a system of measures for observation, analysis, assessment and forecasting of the state of physical health of the population), etc.

IN general view The process of environmental monitoring can be represented by the diagram:

environment (or a specific environmental object) > measurement of parameters by various monitoring subsystems > collection and transmission of information > processing and presentation of data (formation of generalized estimates), forecasting.

The environmental monitoring system is designed to serve environmental quality management systems (hereinafter referred to as the “management system”). Information on the state of the environment obtained in the environmental monitoring system is used by the management system to prevent or eliminate a negative environmental situation, to assess the adverse consequences of changes in the state of the environment, as well as to develop forecasts for socio-economic development, develop programs in the field environmental development and environmental protection.

The control system can also be divided into three subsystems:

Decision making (specially authorized state body)

Managing the implementation of a decision (for example, enterprise administration), implementing a decision using various technical or other means.

Environmental monitoring subsystems differ in the objects of observation. Since the components of the environment are air, water, mineral and energy resources, biological resources, soils, etc., monitoring subsystems corresponding to them are identified. However, the monitoring subsystems do not have a unified system of indicators, a unified zoning of territories, unity in frequency of monitoring, etc., which makes it impossible to take adequate measures when managing the development and environmental condition of territories. Therefore, when making decisions, it is important to focus not only on the data of “private monitoring systems” (hydrometeorological service, resource monitoring, social and hygienic, biota, etc.), but to create comprehensive environmental monitoring systems based on them.

Monitoring levels

Monitoring is a multi-level system.

- Local monitoring is intended to provide an assessment of system changes over a larger area: the territory of a city, district.

Local systems can be combined into larger systems regional monitoring, covering the territories of regions within a region or region.

Regional monitoring systems can be combined within one state into a single national (or state) monitoring network, thus forming national level monitoring systems.

The global environmental and resource monitoring system is designed to solve universal environmental problems throughout the Earth, such as global warming, the problem of preserving the ozone layer, earthquake forecasting, forest conservation, global desertification, soil erosion, floods, food and energy resources, etc.

Economic mechanisms for environmental protection.

In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Protection”, the economic mechanism of environmental protection should be understood as ensuring the planning and financing of environmental measures, legal regulation of payments for the use of natural resources, emissions, discharges of pollutants into the environment, disposal of waste and other harmful effects on the environment. it, providing tax, credit and other benefits to environmental management entities in order to more effectively protect the environment.

Economic regulation of environmental management is carried out with the aim of creating economic interest in compliance with the environmental requirements of the legislation of the Russian Federation.

Methods of economic regulation in this area are:

Development of state forecasts of socio-economic development based on environmental forecasts;

Development of federal programs in the field of environmental development of the Russian Federation and target programs in the field of environmental protection of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation;

Conducting an economic assessment of the impact of economic and other activities on the environment;

Development and implementation of measures to prevent harm to the environment;

Carrying out an economic assessment of natural objects and natural-anthropogenic objects;

Establishment of payment for negative impact on the environment;

Establishing limits on emissions and discharges of pollutants and microorganisms, on the disposal of production and consumption waste and other types of negative impacts on the environment;

Providing tax and other benefits for the introduction of modern environmentally friendly technologies, non-traditional types of energy, the use of secondary resources and waste recycling, and the implementation of other effective measures to protect the environment;

Providing part of the funds from environmental funds on contractual terms with interest-bearing loans to economic and other entities for the implementation of environmental projects and activities;

Establishment of increased depreciation standards for fixed production assets;

Application of incentive prices and premiums for environmentally friendly products (goods, works, services);

Application of preferential lending to environmental users, regardless of their form of ownership, who effectively carry out environmental protection measures;

Support for innovative, entrepreneurial and other activities aimed at environmental protection.

The legislation of the Russian Federation, laws and legal regulations of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation may establish other mechanisms for economic regulation of environmental protection.

Financing the implementation of environmental protection measures, as well as numerous environmental programs produced at the expense of: the federal budget; state budgets of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, as well as funds of enterprises, institutions and organizations; federal, territorial and local extra-budgetary environmental funds; bank loans, voluntary contributions from citizens, foreign investments, etc.

Control over the use of budget funds for the implementation of these activities is carried out by the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation together with financial and tax authorities, banking institutions.

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