He studies the process of development of fiction. Nikolaev A.I. Fundamentals of literary criticism. Literary studies and other scientific disciplines

05.03.2020

· literary theory

· history of literature

literary criticism

Artistic (literary) image.

An artistic image is a universal category of artistic creativity, a form of interpretation and exploration of the world from the position of a certain aesthetic ideal by creating aesthetically affecting objects. Any phenomenon creatively recreated in a work of art is also called an artistic image. An artistic image is an image from art that is created by the author work of art in order to most fully reveal the described phenomenon of reality. The artistic image is created by the author for the fullest possible development of the artistic world of the work. First of all, through the artistic image, the reader reveals the picture of the world, plot moves and features of psychologism in the work.

The artistic image is dialectical: it unites living contemplation, its subjective interpretation and assessment by the author (as well as the performer, listener, reader, viewer).

An artistic image is created on the basis of one of the media: image, sound, linguistic environment, or a combination of several. It is integral to the material substrate of art. For example, the meaning internal structure, the clarity of the musical image is largely determined by the natural matter of music - acoustic qualities musical sound. In literature and poetry, an artistic image is created on the basis of a specific linguistic environment; V theater arts all three means are used.

At the same time, the meaning of an artistic image is revealed only in a certain communicative situation, and the final result of such communication depends on the personality, goals and even the momentary mood of the person encountering it, as well as on specific culture to which he belongs. Therefore, often after one or two centuries have passed since the creation of a work of art, it is perceived completely differently from how its contemporaries and even the author himself perceived it.

In Aristotle's Poetics, the image-trope appears as an inaccurate exaggerated, diminished or altered, refracted reflection of the original nature. In the aesthetics of romanticism, likeness and resemblance give way to the creative, subjective, transformative principle. In this sense, incomparable, unlike anyone else, which means beautiful. This is the same understanding of the image in avant-garde aesthetics, which prefers hyperbole, shift (the term of B. Livshits). In the aesthetics of surrealism, “reality multiplied by seven is truth.” In modern poetry, the concept of “meta-metaphor” (term by K. Kedrov) has appeared. This is an image of the transcendental reality beyond the threshold of light speeds, where science falls silent and art begins to speak. The metametaphor is closely related to the “reverse perspective” of Pavel Florensky and the “universal module” of the artist Pavel Chelishchev. It's about expanding the limits of human hearing and vision far beyond physical and physiological barriers.

The problem of the relationship between plot and plot. Elements of a classic plot (fable).

There are many definitions of these two concepts, and even more debate on this matter. Wolkenstein believes that the plot of a drama is the most important circumstances and the most significant events - stages of a dramatic struggle. Tomashevsky calls the plot a set of interconnected events that are reported in the work. Sometimes the plot is understood as a sequence of events in their natural, chronological and causal order. The plot in this case is the same events, in the order in which they occur in a work of fiction. The plot and plot may not coincide. In our opinion, it is better to use the terms composition and disposition, it will be more accurate. Disposition is the natural structure of events. Composition is their sequence in a work of art.

A rather interesting definition of plot is given by Bentley E: “if drama is the art of depicting emergency situations, then plot is the means by which the playwright draws us into these situations and (if he wants) takes us back out of them” 1 . Barboy, on the contrary, believes that the plot does not have so much of great importance. In his opinion, modern theater has gotten rid of the pressure of the plot, but nevertheless, retained its inherent principles - the principles of combining all elements, different in nature, into one, artistic whole work. He calls this principle structure and based on it he derives “structural analysis.” We will not dwell on it, because... it is more characteristic of directing than of dramaturgy itself, and without delving into the thorns of terminological disputes, we will try to briefly consider these concepts.

Literary portrait.

A literary portrait is understood as the depiction in a work of art of a person’s entire appearance, including the face, physique, clothing, demeanor, gestures, and facial expressions. The reader’s acquaintance with the character usually begins with a portrait.

13. Artistic method and artistic style. Individual and “big” styles.
One of the most important concepts associated with the evolution of costume over time in human society is the concept style: style of the era, style of historical costume, fashionable style, fashion designer style. Style- the most general category of artistic thinking, characteristic of a certain stage of its development; ideological and artistic commonality of visual techniques in the art of a certain period or in a separate work, artistic and plastic homogeneity of the subject environment, which develops in the course of the development of material and artistic culture as a single whole uniting different areas of life. Style characterizes the formal and aesthetic features of objects that carry a certain content. The style expresses a system of ideas and views that reflects the worldview of the era. Therefore, style can be considered the general artistic expression of an era, a reflection of the artistic experience of a person of his time. The style reveals, in particular, the ideal of beauty that prevails in a given historical era. Style is a concrete embodiment of emotional characteristics and ways of thinking that are common to the entire culture and determine the basic principles of formation and types of structural connections, which are the basis for the homogeneity of the subject environment at a certain historical stage. Such styles are called “great artistic styles of the era,” and they are manifested in all types of art: architecture, sculpture, painting, literature, music. Traditionally, art history is viewed as a succession of great styles. Each style in the process of its development goes through certain stages: origin, apogee, decline. Moreover, in each era, as a rule, several styles coexisted simultaneously: the previous one, the dominant one at the moment and elements of the emerging future style. Each country had its own dynamics of the evolution of artistic styles, associated with the level of cultural development, political and socio-economic development, and the degree of interaction with the culture of other countries. So in the 15th century. in Italy - the flowering of Renaissance culture, in France - "late Gothic", and in Germany, especially in architecture, "Gothic" prevailed until the second half of the 16th century. In addition, microstyles can develop within a large style. So, within the Rococo style in the 1730-1750s. There were micro-styles of “chinoiserie” (Chinese) and “Turkeri” (Turkish style), in the “Art Nouveau” style (“Art Nouveau”, “Liberty”) in the 1890-1900s. One can distinguish “neo-Gothic”, “neo-Russian” style and others, in the “Art Deco” style (1920s) - “Russian”, “African”, “geometric” styles, etc. However, with the change of historical eras, the times of great artistic styles have become a thing of the past. The acceleration of the pace of human and social life, the development of information processes, the influence of new technologies and the mass market have led to the fact that a person’s experience of his time is manifested not in one style, but in a variety of stylistic forms and plastic images. Already in the 19th century. styles appeared based on the use of styles of the past and their mixing (“historicism”, “eclecticism”). Eclecticism became one of the most important characteristics of the culture of the 20th century, especially its last third - the culture of “postmodernism” (eclecticism is a mixture of different styles, the coexistence of several styles at the same time), which influenced both fashion and costume. The last “great artistic style” can probably be considered the “modern” style. In the 20th century “Great styles” were replaced by new concepts and methods associated primarily with the innovative essence of avant-garde art: “abstractionism”, “functionalism”, “surrealism”, “pop art”, etc., reflecting the worldview of a person of the 20th century. And we may not be talking about a big style, but rather about a fashionable style (when a style becomes fashionable, while losing the stability for quite a long time that the “big styles of the era” had). In fashion of the 20th century. Each decade had its own micro-styles in costume, successively replacing each other: in the 1910s. - “oriental style” and “neo-Greek”; in the 1920s - "Art Deco" ("Russian", "Egyptian", "Latin American", "African", "geometric"; in the 1930s - "neoclassicism", "historicism", "Latin American", "Alpine", " surrealism"; in the 1940s - in the USA, the styles of "country" and "western", "Latin American" appeared in fashionable clothing; in the 1950s. - “new look”, “Chanel” style; in the 1960s - "cosmic"; in the 1970s - “romantic”, “retro”, “folklore”, “ethnic”, “sports”, “denim”, “diffuse”, “militarized” (“military”), “linen”, “disco”, “safari”, "punk style"; in the 1980s - “ecological”, “new pirates” style, “neoclassical”, “neo-baroque”, “sexy”, “corset”, “ethnic”, “sports”; in the 1990s - “grunge”, “ethnic”, “ecological”, “glamour”, “historicism”, “neo-punk”, “cyber-punk”, “neo-hippie”, “minimalism”, “military”, etc. Every season, fashion publications promote new styles, each clothing designer strives to create his own style. But the impressive variety of styles in modern fashion does not mean that they appear randomly. The style in which political events resonate becomes relevant, social problems that concern people, their hobbies and values. Fashionable styles reflect changes in the lifestyle and image of a person of each time, ideas about his first place and role in modern world. The emergence of new styles is influenced by the invention of new materials and methods of processing them. Among the many styles, we can highlight those called " classic" - these are styles that do not go out of fashion, remaining relevant for a long time. Styles that have certain qualities become classic, which allow them to “linger” for a long time, having survived many different “fashions” and fashionable styles: versatility, multifunctionality, integrity and simplicity of form, compliance with human needs and long-term lifestyle trends. Styles such as “English” and “denim” can be considered classic. In addition to large artistic styles and microstyles, there are concepts such as “. author's style"-a set of main ideological and artistic features of the master’s work, manifested in his typical themes, ideas, originality of expressive means and artistic techniques. The work of the largest couturiers and clothing designers was distinguished by its style - we can rightfully talk about the “Chanel” style, the style "Dior", "Balenciaga" style, "Courreges" style, "Versace" style, "Lacroix" style, etc. The concept of "style" is associated with the concept. "stylization" - artistic technique when creating new works of art. Stylization is the deliberate use of formal features and figurative system of a particular style (characteristic of a certain era, direction, author) in a new, unusual artistic context. Stylization involves free handling of prototypes, in particular, transformation of forms, but while maintaining connection with the original style, the creative source is always recognizable. In certain eras, imitation of the styles of classical art (the art of antiquity) was the dominant principle; the technique of stylization was used in the eras of classicism, neoclassicism, and empire style. Stylization as an artistic technique served as a source for the emergence of new forms and images in modern art. In modern design, stylization retains its importance, especially when it comes to the so-called commercial design (corporate design), focused on creating products for the mass consumer. Stylization: 1) conscious use of features of a particular style when designing products (the term “styling” is more often used in this meaning); 2) direct transfer of the most obvious visual signs of a cultural sample onto the designed item, most often into its decor; 3) creation of a conventional decorative form by imitating the external forms of nature or characteristic objects. Stylization is widely used in clothing modeling in order to create new forms and expressive images. Brilliant examples of stylization are the collections of Yves Saint Laurent of the 1960-1980s: “African Women”, “Russian Ballets/Operas”, “Chinese Women”, “Spanish Women”, “In Memory of Picasso”, etc. The artistic and plastic homogeneity of the modern subject environment has been defined as “design style”. The design style reflects the results of the aesthetic development of technical progress and the achievement of industrial mastery of the material. Design style is associated with the latest materials and technologies that can change not only the appearance of things, but also add new qualities to human life, influencing the interaction between things and people.

Classicism.

Classicism is one of the really existing in the history of art artistic methods. Sometimes it is referred to by the terms “direction” and “style”. Classicism (French) classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.

Sentimentalism.

Sentimentalism (fr. sentimentalisme, from fr. sentiment- feeling) - a direction in Western European and Russian culture and a corresponding literary direction. Works written within this artistic movement place special emphasis on the sensuality that arises when reading them. In Europe it existed from the 20s to the 80s of the 18th century, in Russia - from the end of the 18th to the beginning of the 19th century.

SENTIMENTALISM. By sentimentalism we understand that direction of literature that developed at the end of the 18th century and colored the beginning of the 19th century, which was distinguished by the cult of the human heart, feelings, simplicity, naturalness, special attention to the inner world, and a living love for nature. In contrast to classicism, which worshiped reason, and only reason, and which, as a result, built everything in its aesthetics on strictly logical principles, on a carefully thought-out system (Boileau’s theory of poetry), sentimentalism provides the artist with freedom of feeling, imagination and expression and does not require his impeccable correctness in the architectonics of literary creations. Sentimentalism is a protest against the dry rationality that characterized the Age of Enlightenment; he values in a person not what culture has given him, but what he has brought with him in the depths of his nature. And if classicism (or, as it is more often called here in Russia, false classicism) was interested exclusively in representatives of the highest social circles, royal leaders, the sphere of the court and all kinds of aristocracy, then sentimentalism is much more democratic and, recognizing the fundamental equivalence of all people, is omitted into the valleys of everyday life - into that environment of the bourgeoisie, the bourgeoisie, the middle class, which at that time had just advanced in purely economic terms and began - especially in England - to play an outstanding role on the historical stage. For a sentimentalist, everyone is interesting, because in everyone intimate life glows, shines and warms; and you don’t need special events, stormy and bright activity, in order to be honored with getting into literature: no, it turns out to be hospitable in relation to the most ordinary people, to the most ineffective biography, it depicts the slow passing of ordinary days, the peaceful backwaters of nepotism, the quiet a trickle of everyday worries.

Romanticism.

Romanticism- a literary movement of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, which opposed itself to classicism as a search for forms of reflection that were more in line with modern reality.

Romanticism(fr. romanticism) - an ideological and artistic direction in the culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century, characterized by the affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. Spread to various areas human activity. In the 18th century, everything strange, picturesque and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment.

Born in Germany. The harbinger of romanticism is Sturm and Drang and sentimentalism in literature.

Lyric epic. Poem.

Lyro-epic- one of the four types of literature in the traditional classification, located at the intersection of lyric and epic. In lyric-epic works, the reader observes and evaluates the artistic world from the outside as a plot narrative presented in poetic form, but at the same time the events and characters receive a certain emotional (lyrical) assessment by the narrator. That is, lyric epic is equally characterized by both lyrical and epic principles of reflecting reality.

Poem(ancient Greek

ποίημα) - literary genre.

Large or medium-sized multi-part poetic work lyric-epic character, belonging to a specific author, a large poetic narrative form. Can be heroic, romantic, critical, satirical, etc.

Throughout the history of literature, the genre of the poem has undergone various changes and therefore lacks stability. So, " Iliad» Homer- epic work, A. Akhmatova “ Poem without a hero" - exclusively lyrical . There is also no minimum volume (for example, a poem Pushkin « Robber brothers» volume of 5 pages).

Masculine rhyme

Masculine - rhyme with stress on the last syllable in the line.

Feminine rhyme

Feminine - with emphasis on the penultimate syllable in the line.

Dactylic rhyme

Dactylic - with stress on the third syllable from the end of the line, which repeats the pattern of dactyl - -_ _ (stressed, unstressed, unstressed), which, in fact, is the name of this rhyme.

Hyperdactylic rhyme

Hyperdactylic - with stress on the fourth and subsequent syllables from the end of the line. This rhyme is very rare in practice. She appeared in the works oral folklore, where size as such is not always visible. The fourth syllable from the end of the verse is not a joke! Well, an example of such a rhyme goes like this:

Rhyme accurate and inaccurate

Rhyme - repetition of more or less similar combinations of sounds at the ends of poetic lines or symmetrically located parts of poetic lines; In Russian classical versification, the main feature of rhyme is the coincidence of stressed vowels.

Literary criticism as a science. Composition of literary criticism.

Literary criticism as a science arose at the beginning of the 19th century. Of course, literary works have existed since antiquity. Aristotle was the first to try to systematize them in his book; he was the first to give a theory of genres and a theory of types of literature (epic, drama, lyric poetry). He also belongs to the theory of catharsis and mimesis. Plato created a story about ideas (idea → material world → art).

In the 17th century, N. Boileau created his treatise “ Poetic art", building on an earlier work by Horace. It isolates knowledge about literature, but it was not yet a science.

In the 18th century, German scientists tried to create educational treatises (Lessing “Laocoon. On the Boundaries of Painting and Poetry”, Gerber “Critical Forests”).

At the beginning of the 19th century, the era of the dominance of romanticism began in ideology, philosophy, and art. At this time, the Brothers Grimm created their theory.

Literature is an art form; it creates aesthetic values, and therefore is studied from the point of view of various sciences.

Literary studies studies the fiction of various peoples of the world in order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and the forms that express them. The subject of literary criticism is not only fiction, but also all the artistic literature of the world - written and oral.

Modern literary criticism consists of:

· literary theory

· history of literature

literary criticism

Literary theory studies the general laws of the literary process, literature as a form of social consciousness, literary works as a whole, the specifics of the relationship between the author, work and reader. Develops general concepts and terms.

Literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines, as well as history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, and linguistics.

Poetics - studies the composition and structure of a literary work.

The theory of the literary process - studies the patterns of development of genders and genres.

Literary aesthetics – studies literature as an art form.

Literary history studies the development of literature. Divided by time, by direction, by place.

Literary criticism deals with the evaluation and analysis of literary works. Critics evaluate a work in terms of aesthetic value.

From a sociological perspective, the structure of society is always reflected in works, especially ancient ones, so she also studies literature.

Auxiliary literary disciplines:

1. textual criticism – studies the text as such: manuscripts, editions, editions, time of writing, author, place, translation and comments

2. paleography - the study of ancient text carriers, manuscripts only

3. bibliography - an auxiliary discipline of any science, scientific literature on a particular subject

4. library science - the science of collections, repositories of not only fiction, but also scientific literature, union catalogues.

Literary criticism is the science of fiction, its origin, essence and development. Literary studies studies the fiction of various peoples of the world in order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and the forms that express them.

Literary studies dates back to ancient times. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his book “Poetics,” was the first to give a theory of genres and types of literature (epic, drama, lyric poetry).

In the 17th century, N. Boileau created his treatise “The Art of Poetry”, based on the earlier work of Horace (“The Science of Poetry”). It isolates knowledge about literature, but it was not yet a science.

In the 18th century, German scientists tried to create educational treatises (Lessing “Laocoon. On the Boundaries of Painting and Poetry”, Gerber “Critical Forests”).

At the beginning of the 19th century in Germany, the Grimm brothers created their theory.

In Russia, the science of literature as an independent discipline, as a specific system of knowledge and a tool for analyzing literary phenomena with its own concepts, theory and methodology was established by the middle of the 19th century.

Modern literary criticism consists of three independent, but closely related main disciplines:

literary theory
history of literature
literary criticism.

Literary theory explores nature verbal creativity, develops and systematizes laws, general concepts fiction, patterns of development of genders and genres. Literary theory studies the general laws of the literary process, literature as a form of social consciousness, literary works as a whole, the specifics of the relationship between the author, work and reader.

The theory of literature develops in the process of philosophical and aesthetic comprehension of the entire set of facts of the historical and literary process.

^ The history of literature explores the originality of various national literatures, studies the history of origin, change, development literary trends and movements, literary periods, artistic methods and styles in different eras and among different peoples, as well as the creativity of individual writers as a naturally determined process.

The history of literature examines any literary phenomenon in historical development. Neither a literary work nor a writer’s creativity can be understood without connection with time, with the unified process of literary movement.

The history and theory of literature are closely interconnected. However, their means and techniques are different: literary theory seeks to determine the essence of the developing aesthetic system and gives a general perspective artistic process, and the history of literature characterizes specific forms and their specific manifestations.

^ Literary criticism (from the Greek kritike - the art of disassembling, judging) is engaged in the analysis and interpretation of works of art, evaluating them from the point of view of aesthetic value, identifying and approving creative principles one or another literary movement.

Literary criticism is based on the general methodology of the science of literature and is based on the history of literature. Unlike literary history, it illuminates the processes occurring primarily in the literary movement of our time, or interprets the literature of the past from the point of view of modern social and artistic problems. Literary criticism is closely connected both with life, social struggle, and with the philosophical and aesthetic ideas of the era.

Criticism shows the writer the merits and shortcomings of his work. Addressing the reader, the critic not only explains the work to him, but involves him in a living process of joint comprehension of what he has read at a new level of understanding. An important advantage of criticism is the ability to consider a work as an artistic whole and recognize it in the overall process literary development.

In modern literary criticism, various genres are cultivated - article, review, review, essay, literary portrait, polemical remark, bibliographic note.

The source study base for the theory and history of literature, literary criticism are auxiliary literary disciplines:

textual criticism
historiography
bibliography

Textual criticism studies the text as such: manuscripts, editions, editions, time of writing. Studying the history of a text at all stages of its existence gives an idea of the sequence of the history of its creation (the “material” embodiment of the creative process - sketches, drafts, notes, variants, etc.). Textual criticism also deals with establishing authorship (attribution).

Historiography is devoted to the study of the specific historical conditions for the appearance of a particular work.

Bibliography is a branch of scientific description and systematization of information about published works. This is an auxiliary discipline of any science (scientific literature on a particular subject), based on two principles: thematic and chronological. There is a bibliography on individual periods and stages, on personalities (authors), as well as a bibliography of artistic and literary criticism. Bibliographies can be scientific auxiliary (with explanatory annotations and brief comments) and recommendatory (containing lists of main publications on certain sections and topics).

Modern literary criticism is a very complex and moving system of disciplines, which is characterized by the close interdependence of all its branches. Thus, literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines; criticism is based on data from the history and theory of literature, and the latter takes into account and comprehends the experience of criticism, while criticism itself over time becomes the material of the history of literature, etc.

Modern literary criticism is developing in close connection with history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, linguistics, and psychology.

Test questions for the topic “Literary criticism as a science”

What is the subject of research in literary criticism as a science?
What is the structure of literary criticism (main and auxiliary disciplines of the science of literature)?
What does literary theory study?
What does literary history explore?
What are the functions of literary criticism?
What is the subject of study of auxiliary disciplines of literary criticism?
The relationship between all the main and auxiliary branches of the science of literature.

Lecture 2.

SPECIFICITY OF FICTION

The term “literature” refers to any works of human thought that are enshrined in the written word and have social significance. There are technical, scientific, journalistic, reference literature, etc. However, in a more strict sense, literature is usually called works of fiction, which in turn is a type of artistic creativity, i.e. art.

Art is a type of spiritual exploration of reality by a social person, with the goal of forming and developing his ability to creatively transform the world around him and himself. A work of art is the result (product) of artistic creativity. It embodies the artist’s spiritual and meaningful plan in a sensory and material form and is the main keeper and source of information in the field of artistic culture.

Works of art are a necessary accessory to the life of both an individual and human society as a whole.

Ancient forms of world exploration were based on syncretism. Over the course of centuries of human life and activity, various types of art arose. the boundaries of which were not clearly defined for a long time. Gradually, an understanding of the need to distinguish between artistic means and images characteristic of different arts came.

All types of art spiritually enrich and ennoble a person, imparting to him a lot of different knowledge and emotions. Outside of man and his emotions, art does not and cannot exist. The subject of art, and therefore literature, is a person, his internal and external life and everything that is somehow connected with him.

The general properties of art find specific manifestation in its different types, which in different times divided into visual (epic and dramatic literature, painting, sculpture and pantomime) and expressive (lyrical literature, music, choreography, architecture); then into spatial and temporal, etc. Their modern classification involves the division of classical types of art into spatial (architecture), temporal (literature), visual (painting, graphics, sculpture); expressive (music), presentational (theater, cinema); Recently, many arts have appeared that have a synthetic character.

Artistic image

Art is thinking in artistic images, therefore imagery is a common essential feature of all types of art. An artistic image is a method specific to art of reflecting, reproducing life, its generalization from the position of the artist’s aesthetic ideal in a living, concrete, sensory form.

The artistic image is a special way of mastering and transforming reality, inherent only in art. In the artistic image, the objective-cognitive and subjective-creative principles are inextricably fused.

One of the most important specific features of art is artistic convention as the principle of artistic representation, which generally denotes the non-identity of the artistic image with the object of reproduction. The artistic specificity of the image is determined by the fact that it reflects and comprehends existing reality and creates a new, fictional world.

There cannot be a work of art without images. In the visual arts, the image is always perceived visually. But in music, an artistic image is addressed not to vision, but to hearing, and does not necessarily have to evoke any visual associations and does not necessarily have to “depict”. In fiction, the visual representability of an image is also not a general rule (although it occurs very often); usually called an image character or literary hero, however, this is a narrowing of the concept of “artistic image”.

In fact, any phenomenon creatively recreated in a work of art is an artistic image.

The place of fiction among the arts

In different periods of the cultural development of mankind, literature was given different places among other types of art - from the leading to one of the last. For example, ancient thinkers considered sculpture the most important of the arts. In the 18th century, a tendency arose in European aesthetics to put literature first. Renaissance artists and classicists, like ancient thinkers, were convinced of the advantages of sculpture and painting over literature. The Romantics put poetry and music in first place among all arts. The symbolists considered music the highest form of culture, and they tried in every possible way to bring poetry closer to music.

The originality of literature, its difference from other types of art, is due to the fact that it is a verbal art, since its “primary element” is the word. Using the word as the main “building” material when creating images, literature has great potential in the artistic exploration of the world. Being, in essence, a temporary art, literature, like no other art, is capable of reproducing reality in time and space, and in expression, and in “sound” and “picture” images, limitlessly expanding for the reader the scope of his life impressions (though verbal images, unlike paintings and sculptures, are not visual; they appear in the reader’s imagination only as a result of the associative connection of words and ideas, therefore the intensity of the aesthetic impression depends largely on the reader’s perception).

By reproducing speech activity (using forms such as dialogues and monologues), literature recreates the thinking processes of people and their mental world. Literature provides an image of thoughts, sensations, experiences, beliefs - all aspects of a person’s inner world.

Capturing human consciousness through speech is accessible to only one form of art - literature. Literature as the art of words is the sphere where they were born, formed and achieved great perfection and sophistication of observation of the human psyche.

Literature allows us to understand the laws of personality development, human relationships, and people’s characters. It is capable of reproducing various aspects of reality, recreating events of any scale - from the everyday actions of an individual to historical conflicts important for the fate of entire nations, social movements. This is a universal art form, distinguished, in addition, by its acute problematic nature and a more distinct expression of the author’s position than in other types of art.

Nowadays, the brightest literary artistic images, plots and motifs are often used as the basis for many works of other types of art - painting, sculpture, theater, ballet, opera, pop, music, cinema, acquiring a new artistic embodiment and continuing their life.

Functions of fiction

Fiction has a variety of functions:

Cognitive function: literature helps to understand nature, man, and society.

Communicative function: the language of fiction becomes the most effective means of communication between people, generations and nations (but it should be borne in mind that literary works are always created in the national language, and therefore there is a need to translate them into other languages).

The aesthetic function of literature lies in its ability to influence people’s views and shape aesthetic taste. Literature offers the reader an aesthetic ideal, a standard of beauty and an image of the base.

Emotional function: literature affects the reader’s feelings and evokes experiences.

Educational function: the book carries invaluable spiritual knowledge, forms the individual and social consciousness of a person, and contributes to the knowledge of good and evil.

Literature and science

There is a close connection between literature and science, since they are designed to understand nature and society. Fiction, like science, has enormous educational power. But science and literature each have their own subject of knowledge, and special means of presentation, and their own goals.

The distinctive character of poetic thought is that it appears before us in a living, concrete image. A scientist operates with a system of evidence and concepts, and an artist recreates a living picture of the world. Science, observing a mass of homogeneous phenomena, establishes their patterns and formulates them in logical concepts. At the same time, the scientist is distracted from individual characteristics an object, from its concrete sensory form. When abstracting, individual facts seem to lose their objectivity and are absorbed into a general concept.

In art, the process of understanding the world is different. An artist, like a scientist, when observing life, goes from individual facts to generalizations, but expresses his generalizations in concrete sensory images.

The main difference between a scientific definition and an artistic image is that we can only understand a scientific logical definition, while we seem to see, imagine, hear, feel an artistic image refracted through our feelings.

Test questions for the topic “Specifics of fiction”:

Art is a type of spiritual exploration of reality.
Artistic convention as a principle of artistic representation.
What is an artistic image?
Fiction as a form of art. Its place among other forms of art.
The specificity of the verbal image in relation to the images of other arts.
How is it different? literary image from musical, pictorial, sculptural?
What are the distinctive features of literature as a work of art?
What are the subject, purposes and functions of fiction?
Literature and science.

Lectures 3-4-5.

LANGUAGE OF FICTION

Each type of art uses only its own means of expression. These means are usually called the language of this art. There is a distinction between the language of fiction, the language of sculpture, the language of music, the language of architecture, etc.

The language of fiction, in other words, poetic language, is the form in which a form of verbal art is materialized, objectified, in contrast to other types of art, for example, music or painting, where the means of materialization are sound, paint, and color; choreographic language – specific expressive movements of the human body, etc.

An artistic image in literature is created both through words and composition, and in poetry also through the rhythmic and melodic organization of speech, which together form the language of the work. Therefore, the language of fiction can be considered the totality of all these means, and not just one of them. Without the totality of these means, a work of fiction cannot exist. However, the word is the primary element, the main building material of literature, plays the main decisive role in the language of fiction.

The language of fiction (poetic language) differs from literary (canonized, normative) language, which does not allow deviations, in that the work of art contains the use of elements of colloquial language, vernacular, dialect expressions, etc.

Considering language as the main means of artistic depiction of life in literature, one should focus on the features of poetic language, which differs from other forms of speech activity in that it is subordinate creation of artistic images. A word in the language of a work of art acquires artistic meaning. The imagery of artistic speech is expressed in its emotional richness, extreme accuracy, economy and simultaneous capacity.

The search for the most necessary, the only possible word in a given case is associated with great creative efforts of the writer. Literary speech is not a set of any special poetic words and phrases. Fine and expressive means (epithets, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) are not in themselves, without context, a sign of artistry.

Every word, in addition to the direct, exact meaning denoting the main feature of any object, phenomenon, action, also has a number of other meanings, i.e. it is polysemous (the phenomenon of polysemy of words). Polysemy allows the word to be used in a figurative sense, for example, an iron hammer - an iron character; storm - storm of anger, storm of passion; fast driving – quick mind, quick glance, etc.

^ The use of a word, expression, or phrase in a figurative sense is called a trope. Paths are based on internal rapprochement, correlation of two phenomena, one of which explains and clarifies the other. Paths are often found in colloquial speech, some of them become so familiar that they seem to lose their figurative meaning (I ate a plate, lost my head, a river runs, it's raining, table legs). In artistic speech, tropes reveal most clearly and accurately the most significant feature of the depicted object or phenomenon, thereby enhancing the expressiveness of speech.

There are different types of tropes, since the principles of bringing together diverse objects and phenomena are different. ^ The simplest types of trope are simile and epithet.

Comparison is a comparison of two objects or phenomena that have a common feature in order to explain one to the other. The comparison consists of two parts, which are most often connected through conjunctions (as, exactly, as if, like, as if, etc.):

You look like a pink sunset, and like snow you are radiant and light;

like fiery snakes; like black lightning.

Quite often the comparison is expressed using the instrumental case: “Inaudibly, the night comes from the east like a gray wolf” (M. Sholokhov); “His beaver collar is silvered with frosty dust” (A.S. Pushkin).

In addition to direct comparisons, there are negative comparisons: “It’s not the wind that’s humming through the feather grass, it’s not the wedding train that’s humming, the relatives howled for Procles, the family is howling for Procles” (Nekrasov). There are often examples when writers resort to so-called comparisons, which reveal a number of features of a phenomenon or group of phenomena: “I remember wonderful moment/ You appeared before me, / Like a fleeting vision, like a genius of pure beauty” (Pushkin).

An epithet is a more complex type of trope - an artistic definition that emphasizes the most significant feature of an object or phenomenon (golden head, gray sea, fiery speech). The epithet cannot be confused with a logical definition (oak table) separating one object from another. Depending on the context, the same definition can perform both a logical and an artistic function: gray sea - gray head; oak table - oak head, and therefore the epithet is always used only with the word being defined, enhancing its imagery. In addition to adjectives, the epithet can be expressed by a noun (“gold, gold is the people’s heart” - Nekrasov).

Metaphor is one of the main types of trope. The metaphor is based on a hidden comparison of one object or phenomenon with another based on the principle of their similarity: “the east is burning with a new dawn,” “the star of captivating happiness.” Unlike comparison, which contains two members (the subject of comparison and the object with which it is compared), in metaphor there is only a second member. The subject of comparison in the metaphor is not named, but is implied. Therefore, any metaphor can be expanded into comparison:

“In parade, unfolding my troops,

I walk along the line front...”

A type of metaphor is personification. Personification is a metaphor in which objects, natural phenomena and concepts are endowed with the characteristics of a living being:

“A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant rock”, “The mountain peaks sleep in the darkness of the night”,

“My darling’s hands are a pair of swans, diving in the gold of my hair.”

Personification is most often found in oral folk art, which was due to the fact that man at an early stage of his development, not understanding the laws of nature, spiritualized it. Later, such personification developed into a stable poetic turn of phrase, helping to reveal the most characteristic feature of the depicted object or phenomenon.

Allegory is a figurative allegory, the expression of abstract ideas (concepts) through specific artistic images. In the visual arts, allegory is expressed by certain attributes (for example, the allegory of “justice” - a woman with scales). In literature, allegory is most often used in fables, where the entire image has a figurative meaning. Such works are called allegorical. Allegorical images are conventional, since they always mean something else.

The allegorical nature of fables, fairy tales, and proverbs is characterized by stability; certain and constant qualities are assigned to their characters (for the wolf - greed, anger; for the fox - cunning, dexterity; for the lion - power, strength, etc.). Allegorical fable and fairy tale images are unambiguous, simple, and applicable to one concept.

Metonymy is the replacement of the direct name of an object or phenomenon with a figurative one. It is based on the convergence of objects that are not similar, unlike a metaphor, but are in a causal (temporal, spatial, material) or other objective connection. For example: “Soon you will find out at school / How the Arkhangelsk man / By his own and God’s will / Became intelligent and great.”

The varieties of metonymy are as diverse as the connections between objects and phenomena of reality. The most common ones include the following:

2) the name of the weapon instead of the action (“His pen breathes with love”);

3) the name of the place, the country instead of the people and people located and living there (“No. / My Moscow did not go to him with a guilty head”);

4) the name of the containing instead of the content (“The hissing of foamy glasses”);

5) the name of the material from which the thing is made, instead of the thing itself (“porcelain and bronze on the table”);

6) the name of one sign, attribute instead of a person, object or phenomenon (“All flags will visit us”).

A special type of metonymy is synecdoche, in which the meaning from one object or phenomenon is transferred to another according to the principle of quantitative ratio. Synecdoche is characterized by the use of the singular instead of the plural:

“And you could hear how the Frenchman rejoiced until dawn” (Lermontov),

and, conversely, plural instead of singular:

“...what can Platonov’s own

and the quick-witted Newtons

Russian land gives birth" (Lomonosov).

Sometimes a definite number is used instead of an indefinite one (“a million Cossack hats poured into the square” Gogol). In some cases, the specific concept replaces the generic (“proud grandson of the Slavs” Pushkin) or specific (“Well, sit down, luminary!” Mayakovsky).

Periphrasis is an indirect mention of an object by not naming it, but describing it (for example, “night luminary” - the moon). Replacement is also called a paraphrase own name, the name of an object in a descriptive phrase that indicates the essential characteristics of the implied person or object. Lermontov in his poem on “The Death of a Poet” calls Pushkin a “slave of honor,” thereby revealing the reasons for his tragic death and expressing your attitude towards him.

In periphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “who writes these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into sleep” instead of “fall asleep,” “king of beasts” instead of “lion.” There are logical periphrases (“the author of “Dead Souls”” instead of Gogol) and figurative periphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry” instead of Pushkin).

A special case of periphrasis is euphemism - a descriptive expression of “low” or “forbidden” concepts (“unclean” instead of “devil”, “get by with a handkerchief” instead of “blow your nose”).

Hyperbole and litotes also serve as means of creating an artistic image. The figurative meaning of hyperbole (artistic exaggeration) and litotes (artistic understatement) is based on the fact that what is said should not be taken literally:

“a yawn tears wider than the Gulf of Mexico” (Mayakovsky)

“You must bow your head below a thin piece of grass” (Nekrasov)

Hyperbole of a trope based on a clearly implausible exaggeration of a quality or attribute (for example, in folklore, images of the heroes Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and others personify the mighty power of the people).

Litotes is a trope that is the opposite of hyperbole and consists of excessively understating a characteristic or quality.

“Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, is no bigger than a thimble” (Griboyedov)

Gogol and Mayakovsky very often resorted to hyperbole.

Irony (mockery) is the use of words in a figurative meaning that is directly opposite to their usual meaning. Irony is based on the contrast of its internal meaning and external form: “... You will fall asleep, surrounded by the care of your dear and beloved family,” Nekrasov about the “owner of luxurious chambers,” revealing in the next line the true meaning of the attitude of his loved ones towards him: “impatiently awaiting your death "

The highest degree of irony, evil, bitter or angry ridicule is called sarcasm.

Paths contribute to a significant extent to the artistic expressiveness of poetic language, but do not determine it entirely. The greater or lesser use of tropes depends on the nature of the writer’s talent, the genre of the work and its specific features. In lyric poetry, for example, tropes are used much more widely than in epic and drama. Thus, tropes are only one of the means of artistic expressiveness of language, and only in interaction with all other means helps the writer create vivid life pictures and images.

Poetic figures are deviations from a neutral method of presentation for the purpose of emotional and aesthetic impact. The artistic expressiveness of a language is achieved not only by the appropriate selection of words, but also by their intonational and syntactic organization. Syntax, like vocabulary, is used by the writer to individualize and typify speech,” being a means of creating character. To be convinced of this, it is enough to compare the speeches of the heroes from the novel “Fathers and Sons” by Turgenev. Special ways of constructing a sentence that enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech are called poetic figures. The most important poetic figures include inversion, antithesis, repetition, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal and exclamation.

Inversion - (rearrangement) means an unusual order of words in a sentence:

Not the wind blowing from above,

The sheets were touched by the moonlit night. (A.K. Tolstoy)

Antithesis - (opposition) is a combination of sharply opposing concepts and ideas:

They came together: a wave and a stone,

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other. (Pushkin)

This combination of concepts that are contrasting in meaning further emphasizes their meaning and makes poetic speech more vivid and figurative. Whole works can sometimes be built on the principle of antithesis, for example, “Reflections at the Front Entrance” (Nekrasov), “War and Peace” by L. Tolstoy, “Crime and Punishment” by Dostoevsky.

The combination of two or more adjacent lines of poetry with the same syntactic structure is called parallelism:

The stars shine in the blue sky,

The waves are lashing in the blue sea. (Pushkin).

Parallelism gives rhythm to artistic speech, enhancing its emotional and figurative expressiveness. In its poetic function, parallelism is close to comparison:

And, devoted to new passions,

I couldn't stop loving him:

So an abandoned temple is all a temple,

The defeated idol is all God! (Lermontov)

Parallelism is a form of repetition, as it is often supplemented by the repetition of individual words in a line or verse:

He laughs at the clouds, He weeps with joy! (Bitter).

The repetition of the initial words in a line or verse that carries the main semantic load is called anaphora, and the repetition of the final words is called epiphora:

He moans across the fields, along the roads,

He groans in prisons, in prisons... (Nekrasov).

There the bride and groom are waiting, -

No priest

And here I am.

There they take care of the baby, -

No priest

And here I am. (Tvardovsky).

Parallel elements can be sentences, their parts, phrases, words. For example:

Will I see your bright gaze?

Will I hear a gentle conversation? (Pushkin)

Your mind is as deep as the sea

Your spirit is as high as the mountains. (V.Bryusov)

There are also more complex types of parallelism, combining various figures of speech. An example of parallelism with anaphora and antithesis:

“I am a king, I am a slave, I am a worm, I am a god” (Derzhavin)

Anaphora (or unity of beginning) – repetition of sounds, words or groups of words at the beginning of each parallel series, i.e. in the repetition of the initial parts of two or more relatively independent segments of speech (hemistyses, verses, stanzas or prose passages)

Sound anaphora - repetition of the same combinations of sounds:

Bridges destroyed by thunderstorms,

Coffin from a washed-out cemetery (Pushkin)

Morphemic anaphora – Repetition of the same morphemes or parts of words:

The black-eyed girl

Black-maned horse!.. (Lermontov)

Lexical anaphora – repetition of the same words:

It was not in vain that the winds blew,

It was not in vain that the storm came. (Yesenin)

Syntactic anaphora – repetition of the same syntactic constructions:

Do I wander along the noisy streets,

I enter a crowded temple,

Am I sitting among crazy youths,

I indulge in my dreams. (Pushkin)

Strophic anaphora - repetition of each stanza from the same word:

From snow moisture

She's still fresh.

She wanders by herself

And breathes like deja.

She's running, running

Thousands of miles ahead,

Above her the lark trembles

And he sings about her.

Everything is more beautiful and visible

She's lying around.

And there is no better happiness - on her

To live until death... (Tvardovsky)

Epiphora – repetition of the last words:

Dear friend, and in this quiet house

the fever is drinking me away,

I can't find a place in this quiet house

Near the peaceful fire (Block)

^ A rhetorical question is a question that does not require an answer, addressed to the reader or listener in order to draw their attention to what is being depicted:

What is he looking for in a distant land?

What did he throw in his native land?.. (Lermontov).

^ Rhetorical appeal, statement and rhetorical exclamation also serve to enhance the emotional and aesthetic perception of the depicted:

Moscow, Moscow!.. I love you like a son... (Lermontov).

It's him, I recognize him!

No, I'm not Byron, I'm different

Another unknown chosen one... (Lermontov).

Gradation is a figure of speech consisting of such an arrangement of parts of a statement relating to one subject that each subsequent part turns out to be richer, more expressive or impressive than the previous one. In many cases, the feeling of increasing emotional content and richness is associated not so much with a semantic increase, but with the syntactic features of the phrase structure:

And where is Mazepa? where is the villain?

Where did Judas run in fear? (Pushkin)

In sweetly misty care

Not an hour, not a day, not a year will pass... (Baratynsky).

^ Poetic stylistics

Polyconjunction (or polysyndeton) is a stylistic figure consisting of a deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members. By slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes the role of each word, creating unity of enumeration and enhancing the expressiveness of speech.

“The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and glowed, and went somewhere into infinity” (V.G. Korolenko)

“I will either burst into tears, or scream, or faint” (Chekhov)

“And the waves crowd and rush

And they come again and hit the shore..." (Lermontov)

“But the grandson, and the great-grandson, and the great-great-grandson

They grow in me while I grow..." (Antokolsky)

Non-union (or asyndeton) is a construction of speech in which the conjunctions connecting words are omitted. Gives the statement speed and dynamism, helps convey the rapid change of pictures, impressions, and actions.

The booths and women flash past,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,

Pharmacies, fashion stores,

Balconies, lions on the gates

And flocks of jackdaws on crosses. (Pushkin)

Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,

Meaningless and dim light... (Block)

Ellipsis is the deliberate omission of unimportant words in a sentence without distorting its meaning, and often to enhance the meaning and effect:

"Champagne!" (meaning “Bring a bottle of champagne!”).

Day in the dark night in love,

Spring is in love with winter,

Life into death...

And you?... You're into me! (Heine)

LITERARY STUDIES- the science of the principles and methods of researching fiction and the creative process;

The science that comprehensively studies art. literature, its essence, origin and societies. communications; body of knowledge about the specifics of literary and literary arts. thinking, genesis, structure and functions of literature. creativity, about local and general patterns of historical literature. process.

Main disciplines:

Literary theory– the doctrine of a literary work, its content, structure and functions, types and genres of literature, artistic styles and movements.

History of literature– the doctrine of the main milestones of evolution, artistic literature, the path of specific writers, the fate of works.

Literary criticism– evaluation of works of art from the point of view of modernity.

* Projective activity

Auxiliary disciplines:

Bibliography- a scientific discipline that studies the history, theory and methodology of bibliography, as well as bibliographic. source study. Basic tasks of B. l.: assistance to literary historians and literary scholars in research. work

Source study(including archival science): a scientific discipline that develops the theory and history of historical sources, as well as methods for studying them. The subject of source studies is a historical source and methods of searching and studying it.

Textual criticism: studies works of writing, literature and folklore in order to restore history, critical. checking and establishing them texts for their further research, interpretation and publication.

2. Literary criticism and linguistics. Literary criticism and other sciences.

LITERARY STUDIES AND LINGUISTICS are two components of one science: philology.

Literary criticism is the science of literature. Linguistics (linguistics) is the science of language. These sciences have much in common: both of them - each in their own way - study the phenomena of literature. Therefore, over the past centuries they have developed in close connection with each other under the general name “philology”.

Essentially, literary criticism and linguistics are different sciences, since they set themselves different cognitive tasks. Linguistics studies the phenomena of literature, or more precisely, the phenomena of verbal activity of people, in order to establish in them the features of the natural development of those languages spoken and written by various peoples around the world. Literary studies studies fiction (more precisely, all literary literature - written and oral) of various peoples of the world in order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and the forms that express them.

Nevertheless, literary studies and linguistics constantly interact with each other and help each other. Along with other phenomena of literature, fiction serves as very important material for linguistic observations and conclusions about the general characteristics of the languages of certain peoples. But the peculiarities of the languages of artistic works, like any other, arise in connection with the peculiarities of their content. And literary criticism can give linguistics a lot for understanding these substantive features of fiction, which explain the inherent features of language. But for its part, literary criticism in the study of the form of works of art cannot do without knowledge of the characteristics and history of the languages in which these works are written. Here linguistics comes to his aid. This assistance varies when studying literature at different stages of its development.

Modern literary criticism is also inseparable from aesthetics; it is closely related to philosophy, sociology, history and psychology.

LITERARY STUDIES AND HISTORY. Works of artistic literature always belong to one or another people in whose language they were created, and to a certain era in the history of this people. Literary studies cannot fail to take into account the close connection between the development of artistic literature and the historical life of individual peoples. Moreover, it makes the understanding of these connections the basis of its study. As a result, literary criticism itself acts as a socio-historical science, standing among the historical sciences that study from different sides the development of the social life of the peoples of the world. Works of artistic literature always reflect the originality of the historical era of national life in which they were created.

Without understanding this, without knowledge of many facts, events, relationships characteristic of the time when certain works arose, without the ability to delve into the very “spirit” of that era or its period, it is impossible to scientifically study fiction. Therefore, a literary critic should always turn to other historical sciences so that they arm him with the appropriate knowledge and information.

PHILOSOPHY and AESTHETICS serve as a methodological basis for literary criticism.

FOLKLORISTICS, ART SCIENCE close to literary studies in terms of tasks and subject of research.

HISTORY, PSYCHOLOGY and SOCIOLOGY similar to Lit-Ved. general humanitarian orientation.

Bibliography:

Functions of fiction. The concept of artistic image.

Art has its own unique way of reflecting reality - the artistic image. An artistic image is the result of the artist’s comprehension of any life process. An image becomes artistic when it is personified in the author’s imagination in accordance with his internal artistic concept. Every image is emotional and unique. The term “artistic image” was first used by Goethe.

Fiction is a spiritual process that performs many functions:

1) cognitive (helps to understand the world, society, nature, oneself);

2) communicative (the language of works of art is based on a system of symbols, which allows it to be a means of communication between generations);

3) evaluative (every literary work directly or indirectly provides an assessment of modernity);

4) aesthetic (the ability of literature to influence people’s views, shape their artistic tastes, spiritual needs);

5) emotional (impacts on the reader’s feelings, ennobling him);

6) educational (the book carries spiritual knowledge and educates a person).

The originality of literature as part of art. The difference between literature and other forms of art.

Fiction is related to other types of art. The most important of them are painting and music.

In ancient times, word and image were marked by complete unity: the word was an image, and the image was a word (ancient Egyptian funerary frescoes with pictograms) - a narrative text (narrative). But as human thinking evolved, the word became more abstract.

Modern science claims that there is a close connection between words and images. But everyone perceives a verbal image subjectively, while a pictorial image – specifically.

On the one hand, music is close to literature. In ancient times, music and lyrics were perceived as a single whole. On the other side, poetic word When entering the sphere of music, it loses its specificity and its perception proceeds outside of visual associations. One of the tasks of poetry is to express experiences using words, and music is to influence emotions.

The concept of content and form in literary criticism, their connection.

Form - how this content is presented to the reader.

The main feature of a literary work is the relationship between form and content.

Any writer subconsciously tries to achieve unity of content and form: he tries to match a smart thought with a good, beautiful image. It is almost impossible for a literary scholar to construct even approximate diagram creating text. The writer is a unique personality and it is impossible to create a typology of his works.

Theme (Greek - what is the basis) is the subject of artistic depiction and artistic knowledge.

Theme is a circle of events that form the vital basis of literary works.

Artistic themes:

Main theme

Private topic.

The main and special themes form the theme of the work.

The so-called eternal themes also become the subject of knowledge in literature. An eternal theme is a complex of phenomena significant for humanity throughout the era (the theme of the meaning of life, the theme of death, love, freedom, moral duty).

The text of topics related to universal human phenomena, eternal categories - philosophical topics.

Idea (Greek – that which is visible). This term came to literary studies from philosophy, where idea is a synonym for the word “thought”. In literature, an idea is not just a dry scientific one, but a generalizing emotional-figurative thought. This is a kind of fusion of the writer’s generalized thoughts and feelings - pathos. Pathos includes the author's assessment.

Literary content is what is being narrated in a given literary text.

The problem (Greek - task) is the main question of the work.

Problem:

Main,

Private.

The main and particular problems create the problematic of a work of art.

Issues:

Social,

Ideological and political,

Philosophical,

Moral.

Drama as a kind of literature.

drama is a type of literature in which, like in an epic, there is a system of characters, drama is characterized by conflicts between heroes, a plot. a person reveals himself through events, actions, struggles. feature: there is no long descriptiveness. the author is manifested in a direct form, the character is revealed in speeches .the basis of drama is action in the present time. action is shown through conflict and lies at the center of the work. dialogue is the main means of developing action, conflict. there is a monologue - the speech of a person addressed to himself, to others. unlike dialogue, a monologue does not depend on response remarks. The dramatic genre of literature has three genres: tragedy, comedy, drama (in the narrow sense) tragedy is a goat song, based on the tragedy of heroic characters. tragedy portrays reality as a bunch of internal contradictions of a person. comedy is a funny song. situations are characterized in funny forms .origins in ancient Greece, founder Aristophanes.can be high and everyday.drama-play with an acute conflict, which is not so sublime, more down-to-earth, more common than tragedy, the conflict is resolvable, the resolution depends on the personal will of a person.in Russia and in Europe the drama genre spread in the 18th century, popular was bourgeois drama, lyric, document, epic drama.

Literary criticism as a science. Goals and objectives of the science of literature, structure of literary criticism (sections of the science of literature).

Literary criticism is the science of fiction, its origin, essence.

The main object is the human word in an artistic, figuratively expressive function.

This science requires great reading from the researcher.

Modern literary criticism:

1) theory of literature (studies the nature of verbal creativity, develops and systematizes the laws and concepts of fiction);

2) history of literature (the history of the emergence and change of literary movements, trends, schools, periods, explores the originality of various national literatures);

3) literary criticism (engaged in the analysis and evaluation of new, modern works of art; a literary critic is a living intermediary on the path of a literary work from author to reader: it is always important for a writer to know how his work is perceived, and criticism helps the reader to see the advantages and disadvantages of a modern work.

Thus, in literary criticism, a close relationship is established between all three disciplines: criticism is based on data from the theory and history of literature, and the latter takes into account and comprehends the experience of criticism.

2. The relationship of literary criticism with related scientific disciplines. Auxiliary sciences in literary criticism.

Literary criticism as a science is closely related to such related sciences as linguistics (linguistics), philosophy and psychology:

1) the connection with linguistics in literary criticism is due to the common object of study: both literary criticism and linguistics study human language, but linguistics reveals the laws of construction of any text, and literary criticism studies a literary text in all the diversity of the genre, attention is drawn to the content of the text, and linguistics examines its means.

2) philosophy (Greek - I love wisdom) - a science that studies the nature of human thinking, society, the world in which a person lives; in literary criticism, artistic thinking is a special form of mastering reality.

3) psychology (Greek - the study of the soul) - in conjunction with it, literary criticism more fully studies the character of a person.

Literary criticism includes auxiliary scientific disciplines: textual criticism and bibliography.

1) textual criticism is the science of the text of literary works, its task is to critically check and establish the authenticity of the author’s text;

2) bibliography (Greek - writing a book) - a science related to the description and accurate systematization of information about works, in print - factual information (author, title, year and place of publication, author, volume in pages and a brief abstract).

Bibliography:

Scientific support (comments),

Literary criticism as a science arose at the beginning of the 19th century. Of course, literary works have existed since antiquity. Aristotle was the first who tried to systematize them in his book; he was the first to give a theory of genres and a theory of types of literature (epic, drama, lyric poetry). He also belongs to the theory of catharsis and mimesis. Plato created a story about ideas (idea → material world → art).

In the 17th century, N. Boileau created his treatise “Poetic Art”, based on the earlier work of Horace. It isolates knowledge about literature, but it was not yet a science.

In the 18th century, German scientists tried to create educational treatises (Lessing “Laocoon. On the Boundaries of Painting and Poetry”, Gerber “Critical Forests”).

At the beginning of the 19th century, the era of the dominance of romanticism began in ideology, philosophy, and art. At this time, the Brothers Grimm created their theory.

Literature is an art form; it creates aesthetic values, and therefore is studied from the point of view of various sciences.

Modern literary criticism consists of:

literary theory

literary history

literary criticism

Literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines, as well as history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, and linguistics.

Poetics - studies the composition and structure of a literary work.

The theory of the literary process - studies the patterns of development of genders and genres.

Literary aesthetics – studies literature as an art form.

Literary history studies the development of literature. Divided by time, by direction, by place.

Literary criticism deals with the evaluation and analysis of literary works. Critics evaluate a work in terms of aesthetic value.

From a sociological perspective, the structure of society is always reflected in works, especially ancient ones, so she also studies literature.

Auxiliary literary disciplines:

textual criticism – studies the text as such: manuscripts, editions, editions, time of writing, author, place, translation and comments

paleography - the study of ancient text carriers, manuscripts only

bibliography is an auxiliary discipline of any science, scientific literature on a particular subject

library science is the science of collections, repositories of not only fiction, but also scientific literature, union catalogues.

2. Poetics - a system of artistic means and techniques used to create an artistic world in a separate work or in the work of a writer. The doctrine of the laws and principles of creating a literary work. P. - “the science of the system of means of expression in literature. works In the expanded sense of the word, P. coincides with literary theory, in a narrowed one - with one of the areas of theoretical. P. As a field of literary theory, P. studies the specifics of literature. genres and genres, trends and directions, styles and methods, explores the laws of internal communication and the relationship between different levels of art. whole.P. - the science of art. use of language means. Verbal (i.e. linguistic) text of the production. is the only one. the material form of existence of its content. P.'s goal is to highlight and systematize the elements of the text involved in the formation of aesthetics. impressions of a work. P. usually differ in general (theoretical or systematic - “macropoetics”), particular (or actually descriptive - “micropoetics”) and historical.

General pedagogy is divided into three areas that study, respectively, the sound, verbal, and figurative structure of a text; the goal of general P. is to compile a complete systematization. a repertoire of techniques (aesthetically effective elements) covering all three of these areas. Private P. deals with the description of lit. prod. in all the lists. above aspects, which allows you to create a “model” - an individual aesthetic system. effective properties of the work.

HISTORICAL POETICS

If general descriptive poetics covers a large number of works,

to reveal the fact of historical changeability of individual properties of literary texts,

the fact of their uneven activity (significance) in certain eras and the fact

the death of some properties and the appearance of others and develop in connection with this additional

additional research methods and additional categories of description. By-

ethics focused on the historicity of the properties of literature and the history of these

properties, history, understood not only as appearance and disappearance, but also

as a transformation of properties - such poetics took shape in European literature -

Raturology as a relatively independent variety - as poetics

historical. “Historical poetics studies the development of both individual

artistic techniques (epithets, metaphors, rhymes, etc.) and categories (hu-

pre-real time, space, basic contrasts of characteristics),

and entire systems of such techniques and categories characteristic of a particular era-

NORMATIVE poetics

The earliest type of European poetics, which emerged in ancient times, is normative in nature. In the history of literary criticism, it is usually defined as “classical poetics” (Aristotle, Horace), and its later variety as the poetics of classicism (Boileau). Poetics of Aristotle. Let us note two interesting aspects in them. On the one hand, we will talk about the properties and patterns

artistic creativity (understood both as a process and as its results - works) in general. This aspect is well known to us as the subject of modern theories of literature and poetics. On the other hand, it’s about how to compose a literary text and how to achieve the desired result. IN modern theories Literature and poetics lack this aspect. Today's poetics address

Vanities are mainly for the reader of literature, not for writers. They are taught to understand and interpret a literary text, but are not interested in how to compose it. For this very reason, poetics, in which the second of the noted aspects is present - addressed to the writer, have received the definition of normative. Normative poetics became especially widespread in the era of classicism, but they did not always take the form of textbooks (treatises). Normative poetics also have one more, less noticeable, property. They were often used for evaluations of emerging works, and any deviations from their instructions were especially condemned.

№3 Literature as an art form, its specificity and functions:

The ancients identified five types of art; the classification is based on a material medium. Music is the art of sounds, painting is the art of colors, sculpture is stone, architecture is plastic forms, literature is the word.

However, already Lesin in the article “Laocoon or on the boundaries of painting” issued the first scientific classification: the division into spatial and temporal arts.

From Lesin's point of view, literature is a temporary art.

Expressive and fine arts are also distinguished (sign principle). Expressive expresses emotions, conveys mood, figurative - embodies an idea.

Expressive art is music, architecture, abstract painting, lyrics.

Fine - painting, sculpture, drama and epic.

According to this classification, literature is an expressive art.

After the emergence of complex arts (theater, cinema), which are a symbiosis, syncretic arts begin to distinguish simple and complex arts.

Thus literature is simple.

Classifying arts according to the number of functions (into monofunctional - performing an aesthetic function and bifunctional - performing aesthetic and pragmatic functions), literature is classified as monofunctional.

As a result, literature is a temporary, expressive-visual, simple and monofunctional art.

Functions of a literary writer:

Transformative

Educational

Social-aesthetic (impact on society)

Cognitive

Language-creative.

Classification B.O. Cormana:

-3rd person

-1 person (plural). “We” is a generalized carrier of consciousness. In such texts the form is observation or reflection.

In the modern classification, these 2 forms are combined and speak of a lyrical narrator.

3. Lyrical hero- the subject of speech through which the biographical and emotional-psychological traits of the author are expressed.

The lyrical hero is a monologue form of the author's expression in the text.

4. Role hero - the indirect expression of the author in the text through the sociocultural type of the past or present. Role-playing hero is a dialogical form.

6. Interpersonal subject - the form implements different points view of the world..

5. Artistic time and space. The concept of chronotope The concept of space-time organization. Types of artistic time and space. The concept of chronotope (M.M. Bakhtin). Functions. Types of chronotopes:

The spatiotemporal organization of a literary work is the chronotope.

Under the chronotope of M.M. Bakhtin understands the “essential interconnection of temporal and spatial relations.”

In literary works, images of time and space are distinguished separately:

Daily allowance

Calendar

Biographical

Historical

Space

Space:

Closed

Open

Remote

Detailed (subject-rich)

Really visible

Presented

Space

In addition, both time and space distinguish between the concrete and the abstract. If time is abstract, then space is abstract, and vice versa.

According to Bakhtin, the chronotope is primarily an attribute of the novel. It has plot significance. The chronotope is the structural support of the genre.

Types of private chronotopes according to Bakhtin:

The chronotope of the road is based on the motif of a chance meeting. The appearance of this motif in the text can cause a plot. Open space.

The chronotope of a private salon is a non-random meeting. Closed space.

Chronotope of the castle (it is not found in Russian literature). The dominance of the historical, tribal past. Limited space.

The chronotope of the estate (not Bakhtin) is a concentric, unprincipled closed space.

The chronotope of a provincial town is eventless time, a closed, self-sufficient space, living its own life. Time is cyclical, but not sacred.

Chronotype of threshold (crisis consciousness, turning point). There is no biography as such, only moments.

Large chronotope:

Folklore (idyllic). Based on the law of inversion.

Trends in modern chronotope:

Mythologization and symbolization

Doubling

Recalling a character's memory

Increasing the meaning of editing

Time itself becomes the hero of the story

Time and space are integral coordinates of the world.

The chronotope determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality

Organizes the space of the work and leads readers into it

Can relate different space and time

Can build a chain of associations in the reader’s mind and, on this basis, connect works with ideas about the world and expand these ideas.

No. 6. Form and content. The problem of F. and S. is one of the leading issues in the history of aesthetic teachings, the struggle between materialism and idealism, and the struggle between realistic and idealistic movements in art. The problem of F. and S. is organically connected with the main question of aesthetics - the question of the relationship of artistic creativity or, more broadly speaking, artistic consciousness to objective reality.

Aesthetics Hegel, built on the basis of his idealistic dialectics, places the problem of F. and S. in the focus of its attention. In contrast to Kant's formalism, Hegel teaches about art as a meaningful form, namely, as one of the forms of manifestation of the absolute spirit (along with religion and philosophy). The content of art, according to Hegel, is unthinkable in isolation from its form, and vice versa: form (appearance, expression, revelation) is inseparable from the entire richness of the content of the absolute spirit, which in art receives its sensual and contemplative design. The opposites of F. and S., external and internal in art interpenetrate each other, therefore Hegel calls the relationship between them essential. The absolute idea is realized as beauty precisely thanks to the dialectical interpenetration of the categories F. and S. In the dialectic of beauty, Hegel establishes three stages: beauty in general, beauty in nature and beauty in art; harmonious perfection as the unity of F. and S., according to Hegel, is possible only at the stage of beauty in art, while beauty in nature plays the role of only preparation for the highest level. In the history of art, Hegel distinguishes three successive stages, at each of which the relationship between symbolism and symbolism is revealed in different ways. Symbolic art has not yet achieved the unity of symbolism and symbolism: here the form still remains external to the content. Classical art is distinguished by the unity of form and content, their harmonious interpenetration. Romantic art reveals a predominance of content over form. Hegel examines in detail the relationship between F. and S. in various types of art. At the same time, the types of art in Hegel correspond to the phases of development: architecture - symbolic, sculpture - classical, painting, music and poetry - romantic. The subjectivity of music is overcome, according to Hegel, in poetry, which stands at the pinnacle of art precisely because it most perfectly expresses the spiritual essence as its content in (verbal) form.

Question No. 7. Imagery- the main fundamental property. An image is a living picture that we must perceive through the senses (sensual, not intellectual

perception). An image is created in literature thanks to the word, therefore the word is the figurative material of literature.

Through its means (words) literature conveys other arts. Therefore, literature occupies a central position among other arts.

The image is always specific, detailed, individualized, but still it is some kind of generalization. An image always reflects some part of reality.

Artistic image – one of the main categories of aesthetics, which characterizes the way of displaying and transforming reality inherent only in art. An image is also called any phenomenon creatively recreated by the author in a work of art. Literary type - (type of hero) - a set of characters similar in their social status or occupation, worldview and spiritual appearance. Such characters can be represented in various works the same or several writers. Literary types are a reflection of spiritual trends development of society, worldview, philosophical, moral and aesthetic views of the writers themselves. Character is the recurring, stable internal properties of a person: worldview, moral principles, life values, habits - everything that allows us to characterize him as a person. People's characters are manifested in their actions and behavior, in relationships with other people. Character and type. This is what life has to do with

of a person. Type primarily expresses the generic mass principle. In character, the emphasis is, on the contrary, on individuality. The type expresses one quality or property; it is psychologically single-stranded. Character is dialectical, contradictory, psychologically complex, multifaceted. The type is always static, devoid of mobility and does not change. Character is dynamic, it changes. Character is capable of self-development. For example, Tatyana Larina and Anna Karenina, which do not behave at all as intended by the author. Type exists outside of time. The character is considered against the background of the historical era, they interact together. But the character always contains a typical representative. Typical and typical are different things. Character has a core that characterizes an era, a generation. Example: “Fathers and Sons” - Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich. Therefore, very often books quickly become irrelevant.

Fairy tales and folklore commonly use types. Sometimes, however, there is a rebirth of a hero. But this is not yet character. Often heroes are carriers of one particular quality. Therefore, speaking surnames are often found in plays. Classicism is built on carriers of the same quality, for example, Fonvizin. For realism it is always important to understand the reasons - there are almost always characters there. The exception is Dead Souls, where one basically good trait in the characters is brought to the point of absurdity. Conventional images include: hyperbolic idealization, grotesque, allegory and symbol. Hyperbolic idealization is found in epics, where the real and the fantastic are combined, there are no realistic motivations for actions. The form of the grotesque: a shift in proportions - Nevsky Prospekt, a violation of scale, the inanimate displaces the living. The grotesque is often used for satire or to indicate tragic principles. Grotesque is a symbol of disharmony. The grotesque style is characterized by an abundance of alogisms and a combination of different voices. Allegory and symbol - two levels: depicted and implied. The allegory is unambiguous - there are instructions and decoding. The symbol is polysemantic, inexhaustible. In a symbol, both what is depicted and what is implied are equally important. There is no indication in the symbol

Types of imagery: Allegory – a type of imagery, the basis of which is allegory: the imprinting of a speculative idea in an objective image. The role of allegory can be played by both abstract concepts (virtue, conscience, truth, etc.), and typical phenomena, characters, mythological characters, even individuals. Symbol – a universal aesthetic category. A symbol is an image endowed with organicity and inexhaustible ambiguity, an image that goes beyond its own limits, indicates the presence of a certain meaning, inseparably fused with it, but not identical to it. The symbol is characterized by semantic depth and semantic perspective. Grotesque – a type of artistic imagery based on fantasy, laughter, hyperbole, a bizarre combination and contrast of the fantastic and the real, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic, verisimilitude and caricature. Grotesque creates a special grotesque world - an anomalous, unnatural, strange, illogical world.

№ 8. The picture of the depicted world, the image of the hero of a work of literature in a unique individuality, consists of individual artistic details . Artistic detail - is figurative or expressive artistic detail: element of landscape, portrait, speech, psychologism, plot.

Being an element of an artistic whole, a detail in itself is the smallest image, a micro-image. At the same time, the detail is almost always part of a larger image. An individual detail, when assigned to a character, can become his permanent attribute, a sign by which this character is identified; such, for example, are Helen’s shining shoulders, the radiant eyes of Princess Marya in “War and Peace”, Oblomov’s robe “made of real Persian fabric”, Pechorin’s eyes, which “did not laugh when he laughed”...

№ 9 Lifelikeness - “direct”, immediate reflection of reality: creating the illusion of complete similarity (identity) of life and its artistic reflection. Artistic convention is an integral feature of any work, associated with the nature of art itself and consisting in the fact that the images created by the artist are perceived as non-identical to reality, as something created by the creative will of the author. Any art conditionally reproduces life, but the measure of this U. x. may be different. Depending on the likelihood ratio and fiction a distinction is made between primary and secondary U. x.. For primary U. x. a greater degree of verisimilitude is characteristic when the fictionality of the depicted is not declared or emphasized by the author. Secondary U. x. - this is a demonstrative violation by the artist of verisimilitude in the depiction of objects or phenomena, a conscious appeal to fantasy, the use of the grotesque, symbols, etc., in order to give certain life phenomena a special sharpness and prominence.

Convention - the non-identity of the world is thin. works to the real world.

There is a primary convention and a secondary convention (accented). Secondary convention is complete isolation from reality. Its extreme forms are grotesque and fantasy. There is also an intermediate convention (transition to the grotesque, etc.): Raskolnikov’s dream about how an old woman appears laughing at him.

The more the author introduces his own invention, the higher the degree of convention. Literature as a phenomenon arises when the author is aware of convention, when, for example, he stops believing in mythological creatures and understands that this is fiction, a convention. In the meantime, he believes in what he came up with, this is a myth (understanding of the world, the laws by which man lives). As soon as the need arises to connect this with sensory knowledge, aesthetics, literature arises.

№ 10. Theme, problem and idea of the work. Theme is the main circle of those life issues on which the writer focused his attention in his work. Sometimes the theme is even identified with the idea of the work. Themes refer to the most essential components of artistic structure, aspects of form, and supporting techniques. In literature, these are the meanings of keywords, what is recorded by them. Another meaning of the term “theme” is essential for understanding the cognitive aspect of art: it goes back to the theoretical experiments of the last century and is associated not with structural elements, but directly with the essence of the work as a whole. The theme as the foundation of an artistic creation is everything that has become the subject of the author’s interest, comprehension and evaluation.

The problematic is the area of comprehension and understanding by the writer of the reflected reality. The problematic can be called the central part of artistic content, because it, as a rule, contains what we turn to the work for - the author’s unique view of the world. In contrast to the theme, the problematic is the subjective side of artistic content, therefore, the author’s individuality, the original author’s view of the world is maximally manifested in it. Another component of the ideological world of a work is the artistic idea - the main generalizing thought or system of such thoughts. Sometimes an idea or one of the ideas is directly formulated by the author himself in the text of the work. The most common case is when the idea is not formulated in the text of the work, but seems to permeate its entire structure. In this case, the idea requires analytical work for its identification, sometimes very painstaking and complex and not always ending in an unambiguous result. For a correct understanding of the artistic idea and its meaning in the ideological world of the work, the analysis of this aspect of the artistic content must be carried out in close connection with the analysis of other components of the ideological world of the work. One of the most common practical difficulties that arise when analyzing the content is the failure to distinguish or identify themes, problems and ideas. The topic is not yet problematic and evaluative; the topic is a kind of statement: “the author reflected such and such characters in such and such situations.” The problematic level is the level of discussion of a particular value system, the establishment of significant connections between the phenomena of reality, this is the side of the artistic content where the reader is invited by the author to an active conversation. Finally, the area of ideas is the area of decisions and conclusions; an idea always denies or affirms something.

№ 11. Definition of pathos in artistic production and its varieties. The last element included in the ideological world of the work is pathos, which can be defined as the leading emotional tone of the work, its emotional mood. A synonym for the term “pathos” is the expression “emotional-value orientation.” To analyze pathos in a work of art means to establish its typological variety, the type of emotional-value orientation, attitude towards the world and man in the world. Epic-dramatic pathos represents a deep and undoubted acceptance of the world as a whole and oneself in it, which is the essence of the epic worldview. Epico-dramatic pathos is the maximum trust in the objective world in all its real versatility and inconsistency. Note that this type of pathos is rarely presented in literature, and even less often it appears in its pure form. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey can be cited as works based generally on epic-dramatic pathos. The objective basis of the pathos of heroism is the struggle of individuals or groups for the implementation and defense of ideals, which are necessarily perceived as sublime. Another condition for the manifestation of the heroic in reality is the free will and initiative of man: forced actions, as Hegel pointed out, cannot be heroic. With heroism as pathos based on the sublime, other types of pathos that have a sublime character come into contact - first of all, tragedy and romance. Romance is related to heroism by the desire for a sublime ideal.

But if heroism is a sphere of active action, then romance is a region of emotional experience and aspiration that does not turn into action. The pathos of tragedy is the awareness of a loss, and an irreparable loss, of some important life values - human life, social, national or personal freedom, the possibility of personal happiness, cultural values, etc. Literary scholars and aestheticians have long considered the insoluble nature of a particular life conflict to be the objective basis of tragedy. In sentimentality - another type of pathos - we, as in romance, observe the predominance of the subjective over the objective. The pathos of sentimentality often played a dominant role in the works of Richardson, Rousseau, and Karamzin. Moving on to consider the following typological varieties of pathos - humor and satire - we note that they are based on the general basis of the comic. In addition to the subjective, irony as pathos also has objective specificity. Unlike all other types of pathos, it is not aimed at objects and phenomena of reality as such, but at their ideological or emotional understanding in one or another philosophical, ethical, or artistic system.

№ 12. The concept of plot and plot. Plot Components . The word “plot” denotes a chain of events recreated in a literary work, i.e. the life of the characters in its spatio-temporal changes, in changing positions and circumstances. The events depicted by writers form the basis of the objective world of the work. The plot is the organizing principle of the dramatic, epic and lyric-epic genres. The events that make up the plot are related in different ways to the facts of reality that precede the appearance of the work. Components of a plot: motive (connected motives, free motives, repeating or leitmotifs), exposition, plot, development of action, climax, denouement. In epic and lyrical these components can be arranged in any order, but in dramatic they follow strictly in order. With all the variety of plots, their varieties can be classified into 2 main types: chronicle, i.e. events follow one after another; and concentric, i.e. events are connected not by a chronotopic connection, but by a cause-and-effect associative one, i.e. every previous event is the cause of the subsequent one. Plot is a set of events in their mutual internal connection. The plots in different works can be very similar to each other, but the plot is always uniquely individual. The plot is always richer than the plot, because the plot represents only factual information, and the plot implements subtextual information. The plot focuses only on the external events of the hero’s life. Plot besides external events includes the psychological state of the hero, his thoughts, subconscious impulses, i.e. any smallest changes in the hero himself and the surrounding environment. Plot components can be considered events or motive.

№ 13 The concept of conflict as the engine of the plot. Types of conflicts . Ways to implement conflict in various kinds of literary works:

The plot is based on conflict. The most important function of the plot is to reveal the contradictions in life, i.e. conflicts.

Conflict - contradiction, clash, struggle, inconsistency.

Stages of conflict development - main plot elements:

Exposition-commencement-action development-climax-denouement

Conflict classification:

Solvable (limited by the scope of the work)

Unsolvable (eternal, universal contradictions)

Types of conflicts:

Man and nature

Man and society

Man and culture

Ways to implement conflict in various kinds of literary works:

In drama, the conflict is more often fully embodied and exhausted in the course of the events depicted. It arises against the background of a conflict-free situation, escalates and resolves before the reader’s eyes (Ostrovsky’s “The Thunderstorm”).

In epic and dramatic works events unfold against a constant background of conflict. Contradictions exist before events begin, during their course and after their completion. These can be both solvable and unresolvable conflicts (Dostoevsky's "The Idiot", Chekhov's "The Cherry Orchard").

№ 14. Composition Composition is the composition, a certain correlation and arrangement of parts, that is, units of the depicted and artistic and expressive means in a certain significant time sequence. The compositional unity and completeness of a work of art, the consistency of all its parts with each other and with the general intention of the writer is very important condition achievements of artistry. Working on a composition involves: constructing images of characters, as well as other images of the work and their grouping; plotting (if it is an epic or drama production), choosing the form of narration (in the form of a diary, from the author, from the hero, oral narration), the overall composition, that is, bringing all the components into a single whole.

Composition techniques:

The degree of repetition of any elements in the text determines the nature of the text.

Repetition is an integral property of the motive. With the help of repetition, a “ring” composition is organized.

Repeat in time types:

There is linear time, there is cyclic time. In cyclic repetition it has a positive, sacred meaning; it forms religious consciousness. In linear time, repetition has a negative meaning. Our civilization maintains linear time.

Gain:

Reinforcement is a technique that accompanies repetition. Descriptions are often built on a number of homogeneous elements.

Opposition:

When repetition and opposition are combined, a mirror composition arises (the beginning mirrors the end or situations within the text reflect each other)

Literature is impossible without montage; it has always existed, but the concept itself is only applicable in cinematography. In literature there are 2 concepts of “montage”: the concatenation of 2 images, due to which a third meaning appears; comparison and contrast, not subject to the logic of cause and effect, reflecting the author’s associative train of thought.

In all cases of joining plot and non-plot elements (description, author's digressions), editing is used. If editing seems to be the leading technique, then such a composition is editing. If a technique functions throughout the entire text, then such a technique is called a compositional principle.

Types of compositions:

Composition of images

Speech organization

Main components

Optional - ZFK (title + epigraphs).

№ 15. MOTIVE, V in a broad sense this word is the main psychological or figurative grain that underlies every work of art (this is what they say, for example, about the “love motives” of Tyutchev’s lyrics, the “star motives” of Fet’s poetry, etc.).

at more advanced stages of literary development, a poetic work is formed by the fusion of a very large number of individual motives. In this case, the main motive coincides with the theme. So. for example, the theme of Leo Tolstoy’s “War and Peace” is the motif of historical fate, which does not interfere with the parallel development in the novel of a number of other side motifs, often only remotely associated with the theme (for example, the motif of the truth of collective consciousness - Pierre and Karataev; the everyday motif - the ruin of the rich noble family of the Counts of Rostov: numerous love motives: Nikolai Rostov and Sophie, he and Princess Maria, Pierre Bezukhov and Ellen, Prince Andrei and Natasha, etc., etc., mystical and so characteristic in the future in Tolstoy’s work the motif of regenerating death is the dying insights of Prince Andrei Bolkonsky, etc., etc.). The entire set of motifs that make up a given work of art forms what is called plot

a term transferred to literary studies from music, where it denotes a group of several notes, rhythmically shaped. By analogy with this, in literary criticism the term “M.” begins to be used to denote the minimum component of a work of art - indecomposable next content element(Scherer). In this sense, the concept of M. plays a particularly large, perhaps central role in the comparative study of plots of predominantly oral literature