India is a country of extremes like no other country in the world. The country has different religions, languages, beliefs and traditions. The historical sites in India reflect a variety of ancient architectural styles and cultures. This photo strip contains 10 amazing historical monuments of India that are worth visiting at least once in your life.
Hawa Mahal
Hawa Mahal, also known as the Palace of the Winds, is one of the most beautiful attractions of the city of Jaipur. This beautiful palace was built by Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh in 1799. The pink sandstone palace is believed to have been built in the shape of Lord Krishna's crown. Hawa Mahal is a perfect realization of Rajputana architecture. The pyramidal shape and 953 beautiful windows make this place so unique that the palace is unconditionally recognized as the main attraction of the city. The interior of Hawa Mahal is dominated by long passages and many windows. There are no stairs in this palace, and the different floors are connected by special slopes. The palace's 953 windows were reserved for royal women, who never appeared in public. These windows allowed them to observe people's lives, offering an excellent view of the city.
Cellular prison
Cellular Jail, also known as kala pani, is located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This complex has been preserved as a mute testimony to the torture faced by Indian independence supporters. Today the Cellular Prison is one of the main historical monuments of the country. Every piece of land here tells the story of resistance, sacrifice and suffering of Indian activists. Famous freedom fighters like Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Upendranath Banerjee, Ullaskar Dutta and many others were imprisoned in Cellular Jail. The prison has a total of 696 solitary cells, which is why it is called a cell cell.
Arch
India Gate is Mumbai's most famous landmark. Construction of the India Gate ended in 1924, 13 years after it began. The arch was built in the style of Indo-Saracenic architecture. The main purpose of building this colossal structure was to commemorate the arrival of King George V and Queen Mary in Mumbai, which took place in 1911. India Gate is a symbol of British India and the British Emperor. Visitors will also find here a statue of Maharaja Kathrapati Sivaiya, a 17th-century Indian warrior king. The country's most popular palace, the Taj Mahal, is located very close to the India Gate, as are many hotels where you can stay overnight. You can learn about this, as well as other attractions in India, in a separate article on LifeGlobe.
Charminar
Charminar is to the city of Hyderabad what the Taj Mahal is to Agra. This structure was built in 1591 by Sultan Muhammad Quli Qatb Shah to celebrate the retreat of the plague from his region. The Charminar is built in the Indo-Islamic architectural style using granite and covered with marble. Four 56-meter minarets of graceful shape are lined up at the corners of the building with a double balcony. A staircase of 149 winding steps leads to the top floor of the complex, created specifically for prayer. There is also a wonderful underground tunnel that connects Charminar to Golconda.
Ajanta Caves
Ajanta Caves is the most popular Buddhist monument in India, located in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. 30 mountain caves have been carved into the rock since the 2nd century BC. Among them there are both halls with monuments and monastic cells. Ajanta is a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its historical significance and ancient paintings and sculptures. The Ajanta Caves are one of the most popular attractions in India. The rock art, unique in its essence, depicts various events from the life of Buddha and is the rarest example of its kind.
Sanchi Stupa
Sanchi Stupa is the oldest stone structure in India and also one of the popular Buddhist monuments in the country. Built in the 3rd century BC. Emperor Ashoka Stupa is located in Raisan, Madhya Pradesh. The original structure was built of brick in the shape of a hemisphere, but in subsequent years it was repeatedly completed and eventually acquired the appearance that has survived to this day. Many sculptures and images of the stupa are dedicated to the life of the Buddha, symbolizing certain moments in his life. The stonework of the Sanchi Stupa contains the remains of Buddha, which is why the place is considered one of the most sacred in India. Initially, the fence around the stupa was made of wood, but was later replaced by stone. Gates were built in the direction of the 4 cardinal directions.
Mysore Palace
The Mysore Palace is located in the city of Mysore in the state of Karnataka. This structure was built by various emperors in different periods of time - it is main reason the mixture of architectural styles of Mysore Palace, combining the Indo-Saracenic style along with a combination of Hindu, Muslim, Rajput and Gothic styles. During construction, beautiful gray granite and pink marble were used, harmoniously combined into a single whole. The darbar and royal wedding hall in the palace is a major attraction for visitors. The armory with 14th-century weapons is used by the royal family, and the palace itself remains the residence of the Wodeyars to this day.
Qutub Minar
Qutub Minar is the second tallest minaret in the country, located in Delhi. This UNESCO World Heritage Site was founded by Singh Bahadur in 1192, and the process of building the graceful tower took over 75 years, spanning several generations. Qutub Minar is also surrounded by many other ancient sites. The 70-meter-tall ancient Islamic monument is made of red brick and marble. The minaret consists of 5 tiers, each of which is separated by beautifully decorated balconies. On the lower levels, the interior is decorated with beautiful Islamic carvings depicting important periods in the history of the Qutub Minar.
Red Fort
The Red Fort is one of the most iconic symbols of India, located in Delhi and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The fort was home to the Mughal emperors for more than 200 years. The Red Fort was built by Emperor Shah Jahan from 1648, taking its name from the large red sandstones. The majestic building unites architectural styles Mughal, Hindu, Islamic, Persian and Timurid cultures. The complex covers an area of 254 acres and has an octagonal shape. Persian, European and Indian artists were employed to decorate its interiors. The beauty of the artwork is emphasized by the inlay of precious stones. On every Indian Independence Day since 1947, the country's Prime Minister has hoisted the national flag at the main gate of the fort. The Prime Minister also delivers all important speeches from the Red Fort. The outstanding fortress attracts visitors from various parts of the world traveling along
Culture of Ancient India
II. Literary monuments
A significant part of the primary sources on the history of ancient India has perished irretrievably. Many works of ancient Indian literature were written on birch bark or palm leaves and did not withstand the unfavorable conditions of a climate more humid than in Egypt (where such fragile material as papyrus could be preserved). On the other hand, fires, which could not destroy collections of clay books in Western Asia, turned out to be destructive for the archives of ancient India. Only those texts that were carved on stone survived in the original, and relatively few of them were discovered. Fortunately, Sanskrit, unlike most ancient Eastern languages, was never forgotten, literary tradition has not been interrupted for thousands of years. Those works that were considered valuable were systematically rewritten and came to us in later copies with additions and distortions.
The situation is worse with the ancient chronicles. Almost nothing remains of them, except for fragments included in later medieval chronicles.
The largest in volume and richest in content are the poetic works: the Vedas (extensive collections of hymns, chants, magical spells and ritual formulas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda), Mahabharata (epic poem about the great war of the descendants of Bharata) and Ramayana (the tale of the deeds of Prince Rama).
Besides the mythical and epic works, the collection “Laws of Manu” has also been preserved, the chronological fixation of which also presents great difficulties (c. 3rd century BC - c. 3rd century AD). This is a typical monument of sacred law, in which civil and criminal regulations are closely intertwined with ritual regulations and prohibitions.
A unique written monument is the Arthashastra, the composition of which is attributed to the outstanding dignitary, contemporary of Alexander the Great, Kautilya. This remarkable treatise on government contains whole line advice and instructions reflecting the conditions of the era when centralization and bureaucratization were established in the country.
For the study of early Buddhism, the main source is the collection of legends and sayings of the Tipitaka.
The edicts of King Ashoka (III century BC), carved on rocks, are most accurately dated. They report on the warriors and religious policies of this king.
Among the ancient authors, along with Herodotus, who gave a description of western India of his time (5th century BC), Arrian, who lived in the 2nd century, should be especially noted. AD In his “Anabasis of Alexander” he described the campaign of this king to India, in a special work - “India” - he gave a detailed geographical outline of the country 11 Bongard-Levin T.M. “Ancient Indian Civilization”, - M., 1993
The history of ancient Indian literature is usually divided into several stages: Vedic, epic, and the period of classical Sanskrit literature. The first two stages are characterized by the predominance of the oral tradition of text transmission. The two great epic poems of Ancient India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are true encyclopedias of Indian life. They depict all aspects of the life of ancient Indians. The epic absorbed material that, emerging from the oral poetic tradition, acquired a didactic character and included religious and philosophical works and ideas. In subsequent eras, many prominent Indian artists, including the famous Kalidas, drew their inspiration from these treasures of wisdom of their people.
In the era of classical Sanskrit literature, the collection of stories and parables “Panchatantra”, based on folklore, gained particular popularity. It was translated into many languages, and they became acquainted with it quite early in Russia.
Among the literature attributed to the Buddhist tradition, the work of the poet and playwright Pshvaghosh (1-2 century AD) stands out clearly. The poem “Buddhacharita” written by him was the first artificial epic to appear in Indian literature. The Gupta era was the time of development of ancient Indian theater. Even special treatises on dramaturgy appeared. The tasks of the theater and the acting technique were determined. The Indian theatrical tradition preceded the Greek one.
The theory reached a high level in Ancient India literary creativity, including poetry. The rules of versification and treatises on the theory of metrics and poetics were developed in detail. Several schools of “poetic science” are emerging, and there are debates about genres, the purpose of literature, and artistic language.
The concept of the divine character of speech influenced the development of the science of language. It was believed that speech lies at the basis of the sciences and arts. In Panini’s grammar “The Eight Books” the analysis of linguistic material is carried out so deeply and thoroughly that modern scientists find similarities between the theory of the ancient Indians and modern linguistics.
The first monument of the thought of the ancient Indians was the “VEDAS”, literally meaning “knowledge, knowledge” when translated from Sanskrit. The VEDAS, having emerged between the second and first millennium BC, played a huge, decisive role in the development of the spiritual culture of ancient Indian society, including the development philosophical thought.
The VEDAS consist of hymns, prayers, spells, chants, sacrificial formulas, and so on. They are the first to attempt a philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around man, nevertheless, they are considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources. Actually, the first literary works in which attempts are made to philosophize, i.e. interpretations of the world around a person could not be different in content. The figurative language of the Vedas expresses a very ancient religious worldview, the first philosophical idea of the world, man, and moral life. The VEDAS are divided into four groups (or parts). The oldest of them is Samhitas (hymns). The Samhitas, in turn, consist of four collections. The earliest of them is the Rig Veda, a collection of religious hymns (about one and a half thousand years BC). The second part of the Vedas - Brahmanas (collection of ritual texts). The religion of Brahmanism, which dominated before the emergence of Buddhism, relied on them. The third part of the VED is the Aranyakas ("forest books", rules of conduct for hermits). The fourth part of the VEDAS is the Upanishads, the actual philosophical part, which arose about a thousand years BC.
Already at this time, the first elements of philosophical consciousness arose, the formation of the first philosophical teachings (both religious-idealistic and materialistic) began.
Upanishads (“to sit near”, i.e. at the feet of the teacher, receiving instructions; or - “secret, intimate knowledge”) - philosophical texts that appeared about one thousand years BC and in form, as a rule, represented the dialogue of a sage - a teacher with his student or with a person seeking the truth and subsequently becoming his student. In total, about a hundred Upanishads are known. They are dominated by the problem of the root cause, the first principle of being, with the help of which the origin of all natural and human phenomena is explained. The dominant place in the Upanishads is occupied by teachings that believe that the spiritual principle - Brahman, or Atman - is the primary cause and fundamental principle of existence. Brahman and Atman are usually used as synonyms, although Brahman is more often used to designate God, the omnipresent spirit, and Atman - the soul. Starting from the Upanishads, Brahman and Atman become the central concepts of all Indian philosophy (and above all Vedanta). In some Upanishads, Brahman and Atman are identified with the material root cause of the world - food, breath, material elements (water, air, earth, fire), or with the whole world as a whole. In most Upanishad texts, Brahman and Atman are interpreted as the spiritual absolute, the incorporeal root cause of nature and man.
A common thread running through all the Upanishads is the idea of the identity of the spiritual essence of the subject (man) and the object (nature), which is reflected in the famous saying: “Tat tvam asi” (“You are that”, or “You are one with that”) .
The Upanishads and the ideas expressed in them do not contain a logically consistent and holistic concept. With a general predominance of the explanation of the world as spiritual and incorporeal, they also present other judgments and ideas and, in particular, attempts are made to provide a natural philosophical explanation of the root cause and fundamental basis of the phenomena of the world and the essence of man. Thus, in some texts there is a desire to explain the external and internal world as consisting of four or even five material elements. Sometimes the world is presented as an undifferentiated being, and its development as the sequential passage of certain states by this being: fire, water, earth, or gaseous, liquid, solid. This is precisely what explains all the diversity that is inherent in the world, including human society.
Cognition and acquired knowledge are divided into two levels in the Upanishads: lower and higher. At the lowest level, you can only cognize the surrounding reality. This knowledge cannot be true, since its content is fragmentary and incomplete. The highest is the knowledge of truth, i.e. spiritual absolute, this perception of being in its integrity, can be acquired only with the help of mystical intuition, the latter in turn being formed to a large extent thanks to yogic exercises. It is the highest knowledge that gives power over the world.
One of the most important problems in the Upanishads is the study of the essence of man, his psyche, emotional disturbances and forms of behavior. The thinkers of Ancient India noted the complexity of the structure of the human psyche and identified in it such elements as consciousness, will, memory, breathing, irritation, calm, etc. their interrelation and mutual influence are emphasized. An undoubted achievement should be considered the characteristics of various states of the human psyche and, in particular, the waking state, light sleep, deep sleep, the dependence of these states on the external elements and primary elements of the external world.
In the field of ethics, the Upanishads predominantly preach a passive-contemplative attitude towards the world: the deliverance of the soul from all worldly attachments and worries is proclaimed to be the highest happiness. The Upanishads make a distinction between material and spiritual values, between goodness, as a calm state of the soul, and the base pursuit of sensual pleasures. By the way, it was in the Upanishads that the concept of transmigration of souls (samsara) and retribution for past actions (karma) was first expressed. This expresses the desire to determine the cause-and-effect relationship in the chain human actions. An attempt is also made using moral principles(dharma) to correct a person’s behavior at every stage of his existence. The Upanishads are essentially the foundation for all or almost all subsequent philosophical movements that appeared in India, since they presented or developed ideas that “nourished” philosophical thought in India for a long time.
Speaking about the philosophy of Ancient India, one cannot fail to mention the extensive epic poem Mahabharata, consisting of eighteen books. The main source of philosophical thought of the later - epic period is the extensive epic poem "Mahabharata", which consists of 18 books telling about the struggle for power between two clans - the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Along with the narration of this struggle, in various books of the Mahabharata there are texts of philosophical content. Of greatest interest from this point of view are “Bhagavad-Gita”, “Mokshadharma”, “Anugita” and some others (VII century BC - II century AD).
In terms of their content and orientation, most of the philosophical ideas of the Mahabharata represent a continuation and development of the views dominant in the Upanishads about Brahman-Atman or Purusha as a spiritual absolute and about its comprehension as a means of salvation and deliverance from the shackles of karma and samsara. However, unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented primarily in the form of individual statements and positions with unsettled, sometimes amorphous terminology, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear in the Mahabharata, giving a more or less unified interpretation of the main ideological problems, ranging from ontological to ethical and sociological, and having a more strictly fixed and more unambiguous conceptual apparatus.
Among these concepts, the teaching of Samkhya and closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned already in the Upanishads, acquires the main importance among these concepts in the epic. True, these teachings various parts The Mahabharatas are presented in different ways, but everywhere they are based on the position of prakriti, or pradhana (matter, nature), as the source of all existing existence (including the psyche and consciousness) and the pure spirit independent of it and unaffected by its modifications - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman).
One of the books that is of greatest interest from a philosophical point of view is the Bhagavad Gita (divine song). Unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented in the form of individual statements and provisions, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear here, giving an interpretation of worldview problems. Of primary importance among these concepts is the teaching of Samkhya and the closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned in the Upanishads. The basis of the concept is the position of prakrit (matter, nature), as the source of all existence (including the psyche, consciousness) and the pure spirit independent of it - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman). Thus, the worldview is dualistic, based on the recognition of two principles.
The main content of the Bhagavad Gita consists of the teachings of the god Krishna. God Krishna, according to Indian mythology, is the eighth avatar (incarnation) of the god Vishnu. God Krishna speaks of the need for every person to fulfill his social (varna) functions and duties, to be indifferent to the fruits of worldly activity, and to devote all his thoughts to God. Bhagavad Gita contains important ideas of ancient Indian philosophy: about the mystery of birth and death; about the relationship between prakriti and human nature; about genes (three material principles born of nature: tamas - an inert inert principle, rajas - a passionate, active, exciting principle, sattva - an uplifting, enlightened, conscious principle). Their symbols are black, red and white colors that determine people's lives; about the moral law (dharma) of fulfilling one’s duty; about the path of a yogi (a person who has devoted himself to yoga - the improvement of consciousness); about genuine and non-genuine knowledge. The main virtues of a person are called balance, detachment from passions and desires, and detachment from earthly things.
III. Religious cult in ancient India
Millennial cultural tradition India has developed in close connection with the development of religious ideas of its people. The main religious movement was Hinduism. The roots of this religion go back to ancient times.
The religious and mythological ideas of the tribes of the Vedic era can be judged from the monuments of that period - the Vedas, which contain rich material on mythology, religion, and ritual. Vedic hymns were and are considered sacred texts in India; they were passed down orally from generation to generation and carefully preserved. The set of these beliefs is called Vedism. Vedism was not a pan-Indian religion, but flourished only in Eastern Punjab and Uttar Prodesh, which were inhabited by a group of Indo-Aryan tribes. It was she who was the creator of the Rigveda and other Vedic collections (samhita).
Vedism was characterized by the deification of nature as a whole (by the community of celestial gods) and individual natural and social phenomena: So Indra is the god of thunderstorms and powerful will; Varuna is the god of world order and justice; Agni - god of fire and hearth; Soma is the god of the sacred drink. In total, 33 gods are considered to be the highest Vedic deities. The Indians of the Vedic era divided the whole world into 3 spheres - sky, earth, antarizhna (the space between them), and certain deities were associated with each of these spheres. The gods of the sky included Varuna; to the gods of the earth - Agni and Soma. There was no strict hierarchy of gods; turning to a specific god, the Vedic people endowed him with the characteristics of many gods. The creator of everything: gods, people, earth, sky, sun - was a certain abstract deity Purusha. Everything around - plants, mountains, rivers - was considered divine, and a little later the doctrine of the transmigration of souls appeared. The Vedic people believed that after death the soul of a saint goes to heaven, and the soul of a sinner goes to the land of Yama. Gods, like people, were capable of dying.
Many features of Vedism entered into Hinduism, it was new stage in the development of spiritual life, i.e. emergence of the first religion.
In Hinduism, the creator god comes to the fore, and a strict hierarchy of gods is established. The Trimurti (trinity) of the gods Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu appears. Brahma is the ruler and creator of the world, he was responsible for the establishment of social laws (tharmas) on earth, the division into varnas; he is the punisher of infidels and sinners. Vishnu is the guardian god; Shivu is the destroyer god. The increasing special role of the last two gods led to the emergence of two directions in Hinduism - Vaishnavism and Shaivism. A similar design was enshrined in the texts of the Puranas - the main monuments of Hindu thought that developed in the first century AD.
Early Hindu texts speak of ten avatars (descensions) of Vishnu. In the eighth of them he appears in the guise of Krishna, the hero of the Yadava tribe. This ovatara became a favorite plot, and its hero became a character in numerous works. The cult of Krishna gained such popularity that a movement of the same name emerged from Vishnaism. The ninth avatara, where Vishnu appears in the form of Buddha, is the result of the inclusion of Buddhist ideas in Hinduism.
The cult of Shiva, who in the triad of the main gods personified destruction, gained great popularity very early on. In mythology, Shiva is associated with different qualities - he is an ascetic fertility deity, a patron of livestock, and a shaman dancer. This suggests that local beliefs were mixed into the orthodox cult of Shiva.
Indians believed that you cannot become a Hindu - you can only be born one; that Varna, social role, is predetermined forever and changing it is a sin. Hinduism gained particular strength in the Middle Ages, becoming the main religion of the population. The “book of books” of Hinduism was and remains the “Bhagavad Gita”, part of the ethical poem “Mahabharata”, in the center of which is love for God and through this the path to religious liberation.
Much later than Vedism, Buddhism developed in India. The creator of this teaching, Sidgartha Shanyamuni, was born in 563 in Lumbina into a Kshatriya family. By the age of 40, he achieved enlightenment and began to be called Buddha. It is impossible to tell more precisely about the time of the appearance of his teachings, but the fact that Buddha is a real historical person is a fact.
Buddhism in its origins is associated not only with Brahmanism, but also with other religious and religious-philosophical systems of Ancient India. Analysis of these connections shows that the emergence of Buddhism was also conditioned by objective social processes and prepared ideologically. Buddhism was not generated by the “revelation” of a being who had achieved divine wisdom, as Buddhists claim, or by the personal creativity of a preacher, as Western Buddhists usually believe. But Buddhism was not a mechanical collection of existing ideas. He introduced into them a lot of new things, generated precisely by the social conditions of the era of his emergence.
Initially, elements of the new religious teaching, as the Buddhist tradition claims, were transmitted orally by monks to their students. They began to receive literary form relatively late - in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC. The Pali corpus of Buddhist canonical literature, created around 80 BC, has survived. to Sri Lanka and later called “tipitaka” (Sanskrit - “tripitaka”) - “three baskets of the law”.
In the 3rd-1st centuries. BC. and in the first centuries AD. Further development of Buddhism occurs, in particular, a coherent biography of the Buddha is created, and canonical literature is formed. Monastic theologians develop logical “justifications” for the main religious dogmas, often called the “philosophy of Buddhism.” Theological subtleties remained the property of a relatively small circle of monks who had the opportunity to devote all their time to scholastic disputes. At the same time, another, moral and cult side of Buddhism developed, i.e. a "path" that can lead everyone to the end of suffering. This “path” was actually the ideological weapon that helped keep the working masses in obedience for many centuries.
Buddhism enriched religious practice with a technique related to the field of individual cult. This refers to such a form of religious behavior as bhavana - deepening into oneself, into one’s inner world for the purpose of concentrated reflection on the truths of faith, which became further widespread in such directions of Buddhism as “Chan” and “Zen”. Many researchers believe that ethics occupies a central place in Buddhism and this makes it to a greater extent ethical, philosophical teaching, and not religion. Most concepts in Buddhism are vague and ambiguous, which makes it more flexible and adaptable to local cults and beliefs, capable of transformation. Thus, the followers of the Buddha formed numerous monastic communities, which became the main centers for the spread of religion.
By the Mauryan period, two directions took shape in Buddhism: the Sthaviravadins and the Mahasangikas. The latter teaching formed the basis of the Mahayana. The oldest Mahayana texts appear as early as the first century BC. One of the most important in the Mahayana doctrine is the doctrine of the Bodhisattva, a being capable of becoming a Buddha, approaching the achievement of nirvana, but out of compassion for people does not enter into it. Buddha was considered not real person, but the highest absolute being. Both Buddha and Bodhisattva are objects of veneration. According to the Mahayana, the achievement of nirvana occurs through the Bodhisattva and because of this, in the first century AD, monasteries received generous offerings from the powers that be. The division of Buddhism into two branches: Hinayana (“small vehicle”) and Mahayana (“big vehicle”) was caused primarily by differences in the socio-political conditions of life in certain parts of India. The Hinayana, more closely associated with early Buddhism, recognizes the Buddha as a man who found the path to salvation, which is considered achievable only through withdrawal from the world - monasticism. Mahayana is based on the possibility of salvation not only for hermit monks, but also for lay people, and the emphasis is on active preaching activities and intervention in public and state life. Mahayana, unlike Hinayana, more easily adapted to spread beyond India, giving rise to many beliefs and movements; Buddha gradually became the highest deity, temples were built in his honor, and religious actions were performed.
An important difference between Hinayana and Mahayana is that Hinayana completely rejects the path to salvation for non-monks who have voluntarily renounced worldly life. In Mahayana, an important role is played by the cult of bodhisattvas - individuals who are already capable of entering nirvana, but conceal the achievement of the final goal in order to help others, not necessarily monks, in achieving it, thereby replacing the requirement to leave the world with a call to influence it.
Early Buddhism is distinguished by its simplicity of ritual. Its main element is: the cult of Buddha, preaching, veneration of holy places associated with the birth, enlightenment and death of Guatama, worship of stupas - religious buildings where the relics of Buddhism are kept. Mahayana added the veneration of bodhisattvas to the cult of Buddha, thereby complicating the ritual: prayers and various kinds of spells were introduced, sacrifices began to be practiced, and a magnificent ritual arose.
Like any religion, Buddhism contained the idea of salvation - in Buddhism it is called “nirvana”. It is possible to achieve it only by following certain commandments. Life is suffering that arises in connection with desire, the desire for earthly existence and its joys. Therefore, one should give up desires and follow the “Eightfold Path”—righteous views, righteous conduct, righteous effort, righteous speech, righteous thought, righteous memory, righteous living, and self-improvement. The ethical side played a huge role in Buddhism. Following the Eightfold Path, a person must rely on himself, and not seek outside help. Buddhism did not recognize the existence of a creator god, on whom everything in the world depends, including human life. The cause of all man's earthly suffering lies in his personal blindness; inability to give up worldly desires. Only by extinguishing all reactions to the world, by destroying one’s own “I,” can one achieve nirvana.
IV. Exact sciences
The discoveries of ancient Indians in the field of exact sciences influenced the development of Arabic and Iranian-Persian sciences. The scientist Aryaphata, who lived in the 5th and early 6th centuries AD, occupies an honorable place in the history of mathematics. The scientist knew the meaning of “pi” and proposed an original solution linear equation. In addition, it was in Ancient India that the number system became decimal for the first time. This system formed the basis of modern numbering and arithmetic. Algebra was more developed; and the concepts of “digit”, “sine”, “root” first appeared in Ancient India. The achievements of ancient Indian mathematicians surpassed what was done in these fields of knowledge in Ancient Greece.
Ancient Indian treatises on astronomy indicate a very high development of this science. Regardless of ancient science, the Indian scientist Aryaphata expressed the idea of the Earth rotating around its axis, for which he was angrily condemned by the priests. The introduction of the decimal system facilitated accurate astronomical calculations, although the ancient Indians did not have observatories or telescopes.
Ayurveda, the science of longevity, is still held in high esteem in India. It originated in ancient times. Ancient Indian doctors studied the properties of herbs and the influence of climate on human health. Much attention was paid to personal hygiene and diet. Surgery was also at a high level; it is known about three hundred operations that ancient Indian doctors were able to perform; in addition, 120 surgical instruments are mentioned. Tibetan medicine, popular today, is based on the ancient Indian science of Ayurveda.
Ancient Indian physicians believed that the human body was based on three main vital juices: wind, bile and phlegm - they were identified with the principles of movement, fire and softening. Indian medicine Special attention focused on the impact on the human body natural conditions, as well as heredity. There were also treatises on medical ethics.
Summarizing all these facts, it should be noted that reverence for knowledge is a distinctive feature of Indo-Buddhist culture. Specialists from many countries came to India to study. In a number of Indian cities there were universities where religious and philosophical texts, astronomy, astrology, mathematics, medicine and Sanskrit were studied. But it is characteristic that Euclidean geometry did not appear in Indian science. And this is no coincidence. The Indo-Buddhist cultural tradition was not particularly rational. Indian scientists were not interested in logic scientific knowledge, they were more concerned with the secrets of the universe and practical issues of calculation, drawing up a calendar and measuring spatial forms.
V. Architecture and painting
The first monuments of architecture and fine art of Ancient India date back to the era of the Harappan civilization, but the most striking examples were created in the Kushano-Gupta era. Monuments of both religious and secular nature were distinguished by high artistic merit.
In ancient times, most structures were built from wood, and therefore were not preserved. The palace of King Chendragupta was built of wood, and only the remains of stone columns have survived to this day. In the first centuries AD, stone began to be widely used in construction. Religious architecture of this period is represented by cave complexes, temples and stupas (stone structures that housed relics of Buddha). Of the cave complexes, the most interesting are those in the city of Karl and Ellora. The cave temple in Karla is almost 14 m high, 14 m wide and about 38 m long. There are a large number of sculptures and stupas here. During the Gupta era, construction of the cave complex at Ellora began, which continued for several centuries. Masterpieces of Indian architecture also include the Hindu temple in Sanchi and the Buddhist stupa located there.
In ancient India there were several schools of sculpture, of which the largest were the Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati schools. Most of the surviving sculptures were also of a religious nature. The art of sculpture reached such a height that there were a number of special guidelines and rules for their creation. Iconography techniques were developed that differed among different religious traditions. There were Buddhist, Janiya and Hindu iconography.
The Gandhara school combined three traditions: Buddhist, Greco-Roman and Central Asian. It was here that the first images of Buddha were created, and as a god; these sculptures also depicted statues of bodhisattvas. In the Mathura school, the dawn of which will coincide with the Kushan era, the secular environment along with purely religious architectural compositions receives special importance. Images of Buddha appeared here just as early. The Mathura school was influenced by earlier Mauryan art, and some sculptures indicate Harappan influence (figures of mother goddesses, local deities, etc.). Compared to other sculptural schools, the Amaravati school absorbed the traditions of the south of the country and Buddhist canons. They survived into later sculptures, influencing the art of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.
Ancient Indian art was closely connected with religion and philosophy. In addition, it was always addressed to the lower caste - the peasants, in order to convey to them the laws of karma, the requirements of dharma, etc. In poetry, prose, drama, and music, the Indian artist identified himself with nature in all its moods and responded to the connection between man and the universe. And finally, the religious prejudice directed against the statues of gods had a significant influence on the development of Indian art. The Vedas were against the image of a deity, and the image of Buddha appeared in sculpture and painting only in the late period of the development of Buddhism.
The artistic culture of ancient Indian society was deeply influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.
Artistic and imaginative perception through the prism of the named religious and philosophical systems is marked by the sophistication of the image of man and the surrounding world, the perfection of architectural forms.
The most famous monument of ancient Indian painting is the wall paintings in the Ajanta caves. Over the course of 150 years, ancient craftsmen carved this temple into the rock. In this Buddhist complex of 29 caves, paintings cover the walls and ceilings of the interior. There are various scenes from the life of Buddha, mythological themes, scenes from everyday life, and palace themes. All drawings are perfectly preserved, because... Indians knew well the secrets of durable paints and the art of strengthening the soil. The choice of color depended on the plot and characters. Gods and kings, for example, were always depicted as white. The Ajanta tradition has influenced the art of Sri Lanka and various parts of India.
Another characteristic feature of Old Indian culture is the expression in artistic images of the idea of worshiping the god of love - Kama. This meaning was based on the fact that the Indians considered the marriage of a god and goddess as a process of cosmic creation. Therefore, images of God's punishment in a tight embrace are common in temples.
Conclusion
Back to top new era wonderful works of ancient Indian poetry (Veda) and epics (Mahabharata and Ramayana) were finally formalized and recorded, which were initially passed on from mouth to mouth.
Collections of folk fables also appear (Panchatantra, i.e. Five Books).
In the 5th century AD the greatest playwright of ancient India, Kalidasa, is put forward. Of his dramas, “Shakuntala”, named after the main character, a beautiful hermit whom the king loved, gained particular fame.
In rural India, various philosophical schools have developed, including materialist ones. Thus, according to the teachings of Charvaka, the only source of knowledge is experience. The doctrine of the transmigration of souls, so widespread in India, is completely rejected, and the soul itself is recognized as inseparable from the body.
As in other countries with irrigation agriculture, astronomy and mathematics have achieved great development in India. A kind of solar calendar was created here. The year consisted of 360 days, and for the equation with the astronomical year, a leap month was added every five.
In the V-VI centuries. AD Indian scientists knew the sphericity of the Earth and the law of gravity, as well as the rotation of the Earth around its axis. In the Middle Ages these scientific discoveries borrowed from the Indians by the Arabs.
Even in the proto-Indian period (III-II millennium BC), a decimal number system had already developed in the Indus Valley. Subsequently, mathematics reaches a level superior in some respects to other ancient peoples. Thus, only in India was the sign denoting zero used. The numbers that we call Arabic, as opposed to Roman ones, were actually invented by the ancient Indians and passed from them to the Arabs. Also, Arabic algebra was influenced by Indian algebra.
Ancient Indian chemists extracted sulfuric, hydrochloric and nitric acids. Doctors sought to develop a certain systematization of diseases and created a theory of the main juices of the body. The presence of many languages and dialects in India made philological research necessary. The learned Brahman Panini, who lived in the 5th-4th centuries. BC, created a grammar of “purified”, i.e. literary language (Sanskrit).
The most remarkable monuments of ancient Indian architecture are buildings with domes (stupas) and original cave temples. In the cave temples of Ajanta, multicolored frescoes (1st-3rd centuries AD) that are remarkable in their realism have been preserved.
Indian culture had a significant influence on the countries of Central and East Asia (mainly due to the spread of Buddhism). India influenced the Western world through the Arabs.
References
“History of India”, K.A. Antonova, M 1993
Ancient civilizations - M., 1989
Introduction to cultural studies - M., 1995
Culturology - M, 1995
Bongard-Levin T.M. “Ancient Indian civilization”, - M., 1993
Writing and Scribes in Ancient India
A.A. Vigasin
The article discusses the question of the time of the appearance of writing in India and the status of scribes. The Vedic tradition was focused on memorizing and preserving texts orally. The first written monuments of India are the inscriptions of Ashoka in the 3rd century. BC BC, they use four types of script: Aramaic, Greek, Kharosthi and Brahmi. Aramaic appeared in Gandhara from the end of the 6th century. BC e., Greek - after Alexander’s campaign. Kharosthi arose, most likely, on the basis of Aramaic in the V-IV centuries. BC e., brahmi - later. The inventors of kharostha and brahmi were, obviously, learned brahmanas who were in the royal service. The scribe's status remained high in subsequent centuries. Writing spread widely after the Mauryans, as evidenced by epigraphy. At the turn of the century e. The Buddhist canon and epic poems were written down. In the shastras of the beginning of the century. e. (from the Arthashastra to the Narada Smriti) written documentation is often spoken of and there is reason to believe that the foundations of diplomacy had already been formed. Sanskrit texts of late antiquity and the Middle Ages show an extremely negative attitude towards kayastha scribes, which can be explained by their active participation in collecting taxes.
Keywords: India, antiquity, writing, scribes, Brahmi, Kharosthi.
the central word (Vac). Vach in the Rigveda (X.125) appears as a sovereign goddess, a giver of benefits and the embodiment of creativity. But this word is oral, not implying written recording.
In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. the so-called vedangi appeared - auxiliary “parts of the Veda”, or Vedic sciences. This
The Vedic religion attached great importance to sa-
phonetics, etymology, grammar, metrics, that is, disciplines of the philological cycle1, focused mainly on the careful preservation and reproduction of the sacred word. Even works such as Panini's famous Sanskrit grammar were designed for oral instruction - their very form is associated with school tradition. The text of this grammar is a collection of rules (sutras), set out with extreme laconicism and replete with special terminology. Vedic sutras are often difficult to interpret, since they offer only a certain outline, almost a table of contents, and the interpretation of the content could be given by a guru mentor.
Vedic textbooks, also called sutra (lit. "thread"), apparently assumed rote memorization - syllable by syllable, word by word. A characteristic feature of at least some of them is the double division of the text: on the one hand, into meaningful sections, on the other, into “lessons” or “readings” (a^uaua)2. The latter could tear apart not only a thought, but even a phrase. For example, in one of the most archaic dharmasutras (“Apastamba” 1.3.45-1.4.1), the last sutra of the “lesson” reads: “By feeding him” (meaning the teacher). And the end of the phrase makes up the first sutra of the next lesson: “He (that is, the student - A.V.) can eat the rest himself.”
If we turn to non-Vedic religious traditions, we will see that here, too, the original form of existence of texts was oral. The canonical monuments of Buddhism were recorded by joint recitation (samglti) of learned monks, and they were written down only in the 1st century. BC e. The rules of behavior (vinaya) and stories associated with the daily life of the monastery do not imply either the presence of writing instruments or reading and writing as the activities of a monk3. The very form of canonical texts, with their monotonous repetitions and stringing of synonyms in a sequence dictated by rhythm, indicates their oral origin and existence4.
The stylistic features of monuments are also imitated in the era when literature becomes written. As an analogy, we can recall how, during the construction of cave temples, details were reproduced that had a constructive meaning only in wooden architecture. "Arthashastra Kau-
tily", compiled at the beginning of the century. e., preserves the double division of the text5. The author of “Vishnu-smriti” in the middle of the 1st millennium tries to present his work in the form of an ancient sutra. The sacred books of Hinduism, no longer associated with the Vedic schools (shastras, puranas), are presented in verses that make it easier to memorize. And the prologue to the story is often the story of how the ancient sage dictated this shastra to his students.
Indologists have no inscriptions earlier than the 3rd century. BC e.6 And even such a supporter of the deep antiquity of writing in India as Georg Bühler admitted that not a single literary monument mentioning written documents can be confidently dated to the pre-Aurian era7. The word lipi itself, which in the ancient Indo-Aryan languages meant writing or inscription, is undoubtedly borrowed from Iran. It comes from Persian dipi (in Achaemenid inscriptions), and then, in turn, from Elamite tippi/tuppi (Akkadian tuppu, from Sumerian dub - “tablet”)8. This borrowing could have occurred no earlier than the end of the 6th century. BC e., when two Persian satrapies appeared in northwestern India - Gandara (Gandhara) and Hindu (Sindhu, Sind).
The situation changed in the 4th century. BC e. Nearchus, the naval commander of Alexander the Great, first reports about the writing of the Indians (Strab. XV. 1.67): according to him, they write on pieces of thin fabric. Since we are talking about the territory of Punjab, it is quite possible that the Greek saw documents in the Aramaic language, which spread here from the end of the 6th century. BC e., during the time of the Achaemenids. But it is possible that they were referring to documents written in the so-called “Arameo-Indian” script. This is how J. Filliosa9 called the Kharoshthi script, which arose on the basis of Aramaic and adapted to the phonetics of the Indo-Aryan languages.
There is similar information in Quintus Curtius Rufus (VIII.9.15) - that the Indians write on bast wood, like on papyrus. Obviously, this refers to documents on birch bark (such birch bark documents are known in Kashmir of a later time). But since Curtius does not give any reference to the source of his information, perhaps this information does not go back to the era of Alexander, but to the 1st century, when his History of Alexander was compiled. The same fragment by Curtius refers to precious
stones that are found on the sea coast of India - an undoubted echo of the literature of the beginning of the century. e., when the Greeks sailed to Western and Southern India.
Ancient Indian writing, of course, was invented for practical needs - after all, the Brahmins did not need writing to record sacred texts in Sanskrit10. And for several centuries, starting from Ashoka, inscriptions were compiled only in spoken languages - Prakrits. Only at the beginning of the century e. Sanskrit epigraphy also appeared.
The principles of Kharoshtha and the Brahmi script that appeared later11 reveal familiarity with the discipline developed in the Vedic schools - phonetics112. Therefore, one should think that writing was invented not only by people familiar with Aramaic, but also by those who received a Brahman education. We are obviously talking about those who served at court. Nearchus (81hab. XV. 1.66) distinguishes two categories of brahmanas: some, according to him, indulged in what belongs to nature, while others were engaged in state affairs, accompanying the kings as advisers. Sanskrit texts use the word asShua to designate the king's servants and advisors. According to Pali texts, social status These hereditary atasses are so different from ordinary Brahmins that they constitute a kind of caste13. This made Megasthenes see in the “advisers and companions of the king” a very special category of the Indian population - along with the “philosophers”-brahmans ^gab. XV. 1.49). The royal servants (including, apparently, scribes) acted not as representatives of the priestly varna, but as educated administrators. And they needed writing not for reading the Vedas (learned by heart in childhood), but for government activities14.
The earliest inscriptions in Indian languages were carved by order of the Magadha king Ashoka in the middle of the 3rd century. BC e. In the northwestern territories of his state these were inscriptions in Kharosthi, and in all other areas - in Brahmi. The text of the royal edicts, naturally, was prepared in the capital, Patali Putra. Then the royal people (taIatShta) delivered it to the provinces. Local authorities were asked to carve the words of the Sovereign (devanampiya) on rocks, on stone slabs or columns in order to preserve them forever (VII Column Edict). From provincial
centers, the king’s “decrees on righteousness” were distributed to small towns and fortresses (Small Rock Edict). They were periodically, on calendar holidays, to be read at a gathering of people (Special Rock Edicts). The minted formulations of what exactly the dharma consists of are often distinguished by a special rhythm - they were undoubtedly designed for recitation.
We cannot recreate with certainty the process of disseminating the “edicts of dharma” (LashtapshaY). A careful study of the inscriptions showed that groups of words are separated by intervals that reflect pauses made when dictating to a scribe. Sometimes the vowel sounds that complete such fragments acquire longitudes that have no linguistic justification - the scribe probably carefully reproduced the chanting style15. We cannot exclude the hypothesis that sometimes the royal envoy did not have the written text of the decree with him at all, but read it to the scribe by heart. However, in most cases there was still a written original. The fact is that in a number of inscriptions the decree itself is preceded by some kind of introduction indicating the addressee of the message and good wishes to him. Sometimes this appeal is not on behalf of the king, but from an intermediate authority - the provincial governor (a number of versions of the Small Rock Edict). We are dealing with an accompanying “envelope” that was not at all intended to be reproduced in stone and passed on to future generations. But the administration of one or another town, without understanding it, ordered everything that was received from the authorities to be carved into the rock. In such cases, it becomes obvious that if there was an “envelope” or accompanying message, then the royal decree existed in written form.
Local authorities were sometimes quite clueless. For example, three versions of the Small Rock Edict (MNE) contain words of greeting to the leaders of the town of Isila. Of course, only one of these three points could bear the name Isila, but those who received a copy of the message in the other two places mechanically reproduced the entire text, including those words that were not related to them16.
A number of circumstances make us think that translations into colloquial dialects were usually prepared not locally, but directly in the royal office. Apparently, at the court in Pata-
Liputra worked with scribes who knew the spoken languages of those regions of the state where it was planned to send messengers with edicts. We can also see in later Sanskrit literature the requirement for the scribe to know the languages of different regions and peoples (desabhäsäprabhedavid - “Shukra-nitisara” II.173). Sometimes the knowledge of dialects was not impeccable, and then alien forms characteristic of the scribe’s native language penetrated into the translations.
They wrote from dictation in the Brahmi script, which is common throughout India except the northwestern territories. During recording, errors occurred related to the perception of the text by ear. If it was then rewritten in a different script (kharosthi), errors could appear due to incorrect reading of the Brahmi written sign17. It is worth noting in passing that the Greek-Aramaic bilingual found in Kandahar does not apparently go back to the same original. Judging by the fact that the king's name is rendered in Greek as nioSaccfj, the translator had at his disposal the same version as we see in eastern India (Prakrit piyadasi). Meanwhile, the Aramaic translation was apparently made from the same text as we find in the Kharoshthi inscriptions from northwestern India: the Prakrit priyadrasi is rendered in Aramaic by Prydars. But it is quite possible that both scribes were not in Kandahar at all, but in the same royal office in Pataliputra - only the Greek translator used the original of the edict, and for Aramaic it was easier to work with the text in Kharosthi and the Gandhari dialect.
The royal envoy brought a separate copy of the decree to each region, from which copies were then made for further distribution. For this reason, even obvious errors in the original could be replicated: for example, in Mansehra and Shahbazgarhi there is the same typo: dhamangala instead of dhammamangala. W. Schneider18 made an attempt to determine the relationship between the versions of the Great Rock Edicts (GRE) by building their “family tree” (Stammbaum). This should supposedly contribute to the reconstruction of the structure of the administration of the Mauryan state. But the methodology of such constructions raises serious doubts. If the translations were prepared in Pataliputra, then the relationship between the versions is not related to the structure of the state, but to a purely clerical procedure.
Three local versions of the II MNE (from Brahmagiri, Siddapur and Jatinga-Rameshwar) contain the scribe's signature. It is fully preserved in the inscription from Brahmagiri: “written by Chapada scribe (Hr1kaga).” By “scribe,” of course, we do not mean the artisan19 who carved the inscription on the stone (he, most likely, was illiterate). A scribe is a person who wrote down a text from dictation20 with paint or chalk, so that the stone carver could then begin his work. The assumption that the scribe only copied the received message with utmost accuracy (even respecting the width of the intervals between groups of words in the original) does not seem convincing. It is well known that the text was often shortened locally. Even Ashoka himself knew about this, pointing out in the XIV BNE: “what is not written in full - this happens due to the location or (other) reason or due to the scribe’s oversight.”
The only question is who this Chapada was - the man who wrote from dictation on stone, or the scribe who produced the original decree in Pataliputra. In the first case, we would have to assume that the royal envoy was accompanied on his trip around the country by the same scribe, who left his signature in three places. G. Falk21 claims that the scribe’s handwriting in all three cases is completely different - therefore, the scribes were different and, most likely, local. But then one can only think that Chapada signed the original message sent from the capital. By the way, the presence at the end of the letter of an indication of the name of the copyist is fully consistent with later practice and the requirements of medieval scribes22. In all other places (except for the three indicated) where there are versions of the MNE, the authorities did not consider it necessary to reproduce the scribe’s signature - just as the address accompanying them was omitted.
Particularly interesting is the fact that the word “scribe” in all three local versions is written in the Kharosthi script, while the entire inscription is in Brahmi. The Kharostha script was widespread only in northwestern India. On this basis it is usually assumed that the scribe Chapada himself was a native of Gandhara. The written tradition in the North-West had deeper roots than in Magadha, and the use of Gandharan scribes in the service of Pataliputra would have been quite natural. Is it true,
K.R. Norman23 doubts this interpretation, noting that in the Kharosthi inscriptions from northwestern India the word “scribe” has a different, closer Persian, form - dipikara. However, the use of kharostha in the signature under the edict in Brahmagiri did not at all oblige Chapada to switch to his native Gandhari dialect in his vocabulary.
In recent decades, it has been hypothesized24 that the Brahmi script was invented under Ashoka specifically for recording his edicts in stone. In our opinion, this point of view contradicts the degree of spread of literacy in the middle of the 3rd century. BC e. In order to write edicts in different parts of the vast country, a certain number of scribes were required, as well as readers who knew the Brahmi script. People who read the king's edicts on holidays local residents, obviously, could be found even in small settlements25. In order for literacy to be mastered throughout the country by at least a very narrow layer of people associated with government, of course, time was required26.
After the 3rd century. BC e. the number of inscriptions increases sharply, and many of them were private (dedicatory, dedicatory, etc.). From the 2nd century BC e. inscriptions in Brahmi and Kharosthi also appear on coins (not without Hellenistic influence). Literacy becomes prestigious as a form of knowledge. Thus, King Kharavela (1st century BC, Orissa) boasts that he youth mastered literacy and numeracy (lekharüpagananä). In the inscriptions of the turn of the century. e. names of scribes or members of the scribe's family are found who visit holy places and bring donations to the Buddhist community27.
The later parts of the Pali canon contain references to writing (although the canon itself had not yet been written down). The activity of a scribe is considered one of the “noble crafts” (ukkattham sippam - Vinaya IV.7.128). At the turn of the century e. or at the beginning of the century e. The most important literary monuments in Pali and Sanskrit, such as the Tipitaka, Mahabharata and Ramayana, were written down. Author's works (for example, Sanskrit poems and dramas of Ashvaghosa) are created in written form. The Kushan era was the heyday of cities whose culture was largely associated with writing. And it’s not without reason that, speaking about the bearer of urban culture,
ry (nagaraka - lit. “city dweller”), the Kama Sutra mentions that there must certainly be “some kind of book” on the table by his bed (D4.4). Kalidasa (“Raghuvamsha” Sh.28) likens knowledge to the “verbal ocean” ^apshauash samudram), the path to which is opened by the possession of literacy (Pro. In the period of late antiquity, culture and knowledge could already be associated with the book.
One of the later books of the Mahabharata (XIII.24.70) contains the following phrase: “Those who write down the Vedas will go to hell.” Two conclusions can be drawn from this. Firstly, already at the end of antiquity there were recordings of Vedic texts. Secondly, the attitude of the orthodox Brahmins, editors of the didactic parts of the epic, towards the procedure of writing down sacred texts (but only them!28) and in the first centuries A.D. e. remained sharply negative. We see a similar situation later. An aphorism is attributed to Chanakya (“Vriddha-Chanakya” XVII.!), according to which true knowledge can only be obtained from the lips of a mentor. Knowledge gained from books is compared to an illegitimate child conceived by a lover. This comparison is quite understandable: a self-taught person lacks the main thing - a living connection with a mentor-guru, involvement in a continuous line of teachers. And in the 11th century. Abu Reikhan Biruni29 noted that Indians “do not consider it permissible to write down the Vedas.”
The attitude towards book knowledge among Buddhists was much less severe. Buddhism sought to spread, and the rewriting of manuscripts contributed to the increase in the number of its adherents. Buddhist authors projected the situation of their time onto the era when the founder of the teaching lived. Therefore, in “La-litavistara” (125.19), for example, it is said that the Buddha knew 64 types of writing (the number, of course, is conventional and sacred). Supporters are very fond of referring to this passage early origin brahmi and kharosthi30. However, in the list of types of writing (just as in a similar list in “Mahavastu” - N35) there are obvious anachronisms. Along with Brahmi and Kharosthi, one can find here Greek writing31, and Chinese (which Indians could have become acquainted with no earlier than the 2nd century BC), and even the writing of the Huns (which appeared in India only in the middle of the 1st millennium AD). )32.
A sharply negative attitude towards the recording of the Vedas did not in the least hinder the widespread spread of literacy and the use
writing for other, non-sacral purposes. This is evidenced by the Brahmanical books - shastras. In the Arthashastra, in accordance with the theme of the entire treatise, we mainly talk about official documents. There is also a special chapter (II. 10) on the rules for drawing up decrees (^ala)33. It is assumed that the royal office does not use spoken dialects (Prakrits) as a language, but Sanskrit. This means that Sanskrit experts - learned brahmins - should have taken the most active part in drawing up decrees and royal correspondence. This is also indicated by the widespread use in this chapter of the treatise of the special terminology of traditional grammar and logic - subjects that formed the basis of Brahman education.
In the ancient dharmasutras that told about the judicial procedure (“Apastamba”, “Baudhayana”), documents were not mentioned at all - they only talked about the oral testimony of witnesses. But in the dharmashastras of the mid-1st millennium (“Yajnavalkya”, “Narada”, “Vishnu”, fragments of “Brihaspati” and “Katyayana”) we see the widest use of business documentation. The shastras list numerous types of documents: agreements on debt, pledge, sale, slavery or other dependence, etc. (“Nara-da”, Introduction P.38, etc.). It is documents, and not oral testimony of witnesses, that become the most important method of evidence in court (Narada G66, etc.). The authors pay great attention to ways to verify the authenticity of the submitted document (by handwriting, signatures, compliance with the form, etc.). The mention in this regard of “handwritten receipts” indicates the spread of literacy.
The document was drawn up by a scribe (1ekbaka), whose name had to be indicated - just like the names of the witnesses to the transaction. Strictly speaking, Iekbaka could not have been a professional, but simply a competent person (Nrupa), who was brought in to formalize the transaction (“Narada”, P.146; “Vishnu”, VII.4). However, the need to adhere to the form suggests that he was usually a professional scribe. If we are talking about various transactions carried out in rural areas, the documents were apparently drawn up by the one who is called by the word grama1ekhaka - “village scribe” or grаmakayastha (“Rajatarangini”, U175). “Every village and every city must have a scribe,” as stated in Shukra-
nitisare" P.220. In the Middle Ages and in modern times, “village scribes” participated in the collection of taxes. In the 19th century, in different regions of India, their position was not the same: in some places they were government officials, in other places they were considered as employees of the village community itself34. It is quite natural that the spread of literacy contributed to the fact that representatives of increasingly lower social strata gained access to it. Among the scribes in the Middle Ages, we sometimes meet Brahmins, but, of course, the majority of village literates did not belong to high castes.
Letter books have been preserved from the Middle Ages, containing samples of both official documents of various kinds, and private letters addressed to relatives or friends. And although we are talking in this case about literary genre, which requires some convention, it is difficult to doubt that the basis of these texts was genuine act material. Scribes could pursue practical purposes - to serve as a guide for scribes (as well as for judges who determined the authenticity of documents). The most famous of them, “Lekhapadchati,” dates back to the 13th-15th centuries. Some texts of this kind are known only from mentions in Sanskrit literature - for example, “Trishastilekhaprakara-na” (“Sixty-three types of documents”) by Kalyanabhatta. It is worth noting that the author of the last treatise was a learned Brahmin - it was he who edited Asahai’s commentary on the Narada Smriti, one of the most important monuments of Hindu law.
We do not have at our disposal such manuals that date back to ancient times. But the rules for drawing up decrees contained in the Arthashastra allow one to assume the existence of such benefits already at the beginning of the century. e.35 The requirements set out in the dharmashastras of Yajnavalkya and Vishnu for the execution of deeds of gift for land are fully consistent with the practice of issuing such documents on copper plates, known since the Gupta era. Therefore, we can say with confidence that even then the foundations of diplomacy were developed in India.
Classical Sanskrit drama of late antiquity depicts several figures of a scribe. They are usually referred to by the term k aua8Sha (as in the inscription from Damodarpur of the mid-6th century, cf. “Vishnu” VII.3). In one of the scenes of “The Clay Cart” Shudraki the scribe ass.
reports to the judge together with the merchant foreman (shresthi), - he draws up a protocol of interrogation. The original text of this protocol was probably written with chalk on a board lying on the ground, because the participant in the process who let it slip tried to quietly erase the recording with his foot. The scribe has the official status of a member of the judiciary (Ykagapa), although he speaks not Sanskrit, but the prestigious Shauraseni dialect.
In Visakhadatta's drama “The Ring of Rakshasa,” the scribe Shakata Dasa is a person especially close to the main adviser of the deposed king. True, the brahman Chanakya speaks of him somewhat disparagingly: the small bird is just a scribe (kayastha Ш ^ьу! та^а)37. However, he takes Shakatadasa very seriously as an opponent to be reckoned with. In the same play we see that only professional scribes were trusted with the design of letters. After all, as Chanakya asserts, learned brahmanas write indistinctly (zgoShuakvagash pgayatnalikhitanyapi niyatamasphutani byauapi)38.
Mentions of k^a^Ia in Sanskrit texts of the 1st millennium are often accompanied by extremely harsh reviews about them. This is perhaps the earliest formulated in Yajnavalkya's dharmashastra: the king is advised to protect his people from all kinds of rapists and robbers, but mainly from kayast:ha (P.336). This aphorism became popular, it was repeated in various texts39 for several centuries, and slight variations indicate that it was usually quoted by heart. In the synonymous dictionary "Amarakosha" the scribe was associated with the king: the word Nr1kaga - as well as ambassador and purohita (household priest) - was considered in the section on kshatriya. Its main function was to collect taxes40. Often the scribe is referred to as the royal favorite, which makes him especially dangerous for the population of the country41. This is a representative of the all-powerful bureaucracy, the “jug’s snout,” as our writer puts it. The medieval Sanskrit chronicler Kalhana (“Rajata-rangini”, V. 180) calls the scribes the word “son of a slave” (^TrShha - this expression roughly corresponds to our “son of a bitch”). He says that the whole earth came under the rule of the Kayasthas (U181). The scribes are trying to take everything away from decent people, leaving them only air (U185, cf. IV.629-630). In a typically Indian spirit, an artificial etymology was attributed to the ancient sage Ushanas42
the words kaua81ba from kaka - uata - yaray. She was supposed to reveal the very essence of the scribe: he is greedy, like a crow, and ruthless, like the god of death himself.
Since the 9th century. we can talk about scribal castes. The position of representatives of these castes is often contradictory43. They could be associated with the court and administration (especially if this administration is foreign). However, their occupations themselves were considered as a service, serving labor, similar to craft professions44. In later Sanskrit texts, a disgusted attitude towards “ink souls”45 on the part of learned Brahmins46 is evident. The status of Kayasthas in the caste hierarchy has been the subject of fierce debate in traditional society47. In Bihar and Uttar-pradesh in the century before last they were considered as twice-born, and in Bengal they were considered sudras.
Notes
H. Scharfe emphasizes the difference in this regard between India and classical Greece, in which the leading science was geometry (Scharfe H. Education in Ancient India. Leiden: Brill, 2002. P. 60). See Renou L. Les divisions dans les texts sanskrits // Renou L. Choix d "études indiennes. Tome II. P.: École Française d "Extrême-Orient, 1997. Rhys Davids T. W., Oldenberg H. Introduction // Sacred Books of the East. Vol. XIII (Vinaya Texts). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880. P. XXXI-XXXII. Hinüber O. von. Der Beginn der Schrift und frühe Schriftlichkeit in Indien. Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, 1989. S. 31; Idem. Untersuchungen zur Mündlichkeit früher mittelindischer Texte der Buddhisten. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1994.
See Renou L. Les divisions... P. 20; Scharfe H. Investigations in Kautalyas's Manual of Political Science. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1993. P. 16 f. True, a number of archaeologists claim that they discovered objects with Brahmi writing signs in layers of the 4th century during excavations in Anuradhapura in Lanka. BC (Salomon R. Indian Epigraphy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. P. 12). Mayrhofer M. Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen. III. Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1976. S. 103. From lipi “letter”
(in Prakrit livi) the word “scribe” (lipika - livika) also originates, see Divyävadäna, 293, 5; 9.
Filliozat J. Paléographie // L"Inde classique. Tome II. P.: EFEO, 1996. P. 670.
Janert K.L. About the Scribes and their Achievements in Asoka's India // German Scholars on India. Vol. I. Varanasi: Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series Office, 1973. P. 141.
Voigt R. Die Entwicklung der aramäischen zur Kharosthl- und Brähml-Schrift // ZDMG. Bd. 155. 2005. S. 48. Bühler G. Indian Paleography. P. 18, 33.
Fick R. Die sociale Gliederung im nordöstlichen Indien zu Buddhas Zeit. Graz: Akademische Druck- und Verlags-Anstalt, 1974. S. 93-94, 164. The fact that the inventors of Indian writing were experienced phoneticians was noted long ago. In our opinion, this contradicts the assumption that significant role Traders traveling to Western Asia could have played a role in the creation of writing. The Vaishya traders were hardly people versed in the science of phonetics.
Janert K.L. Abstände und Schlussvokalverzeichnungen in Asoka-Inschriften Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1972.
Schneider U. Zum Stammbaum der grossen Felseninschriften Asokas // Indologen-Tagung 1971. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1973; Idem. Die grossen Felsen-Edikte Asokas. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1978. S. 18. For criticism of these constructions, see: Fussman G. Central and Provincial Administration in Ancient India: the Problem of the Mauryan Empire // IHR. Vol. XIV No. 1-2. 1987-1988.
Upasak (Upasak C.S. History and Palaeography of Mauryan Brähml Script. Varanasi: Siddhartha Prakashan, 1960. P. 27) believes that it was an engraver.
SalomonR. Indian Epigraphy. P. 65; Sircar D.C. Indian Epigraphical Glossary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1966. P. 171.
Falk H. Asokan Sites and Artefacts. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2006. P. 58. “Yajnavalkya” II.88: etanmayä likhitam hyamukeneti... lekhako "nte tato likhet (“Let the scribe write at the end: this was written by me, so and so”) Norman K.R. Middle Indo-Aryan Studies X // Norman K.R. Collected Papers. Vol. I. Oxford: Pali Text Society, 1990. P 161-162. Hinüber O. von. S. 59-60; . Falk: Falk H. Schrift im alten Indien: Günter.
Narr, 1993; see also Goyal S.R. Ancient Indian Inscriptions. Recent Finds and New Interpretations. Jodhpur: Kusumanjali Book World, 2005. Perhaps sometimes these were officials who migrated from Magadha - in any case, the inscriptions from the southern borders of the state are written in the same eastern dialect (and the population there was completely Dravidian).
K.L. rightly draws attention to this circumstance. Yanert. See JanertK.L. Abstände... S. 19.
Lüders H. A List of Brahmi Inscriptions. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1912. No. 209, 1037, 1045, 1138, 1148, 1149, 1291. In the Puranas (Shabdakalpadruma II.93) one can find the following statement: “The scribe has the right to write down whatever he wants with a pen ink (masya saha lekhanya) - but not the Vedic text (vaidikam).” Biruni A. India // Biruni A. Selected works. T. II. Tashkent: Publishing house. Academy of Sciences of the UzSSR, 1963. P. 141.
Dieringer D. Alphabet. M.: Publishing house. foreign literature, 1963. P. 388. Yavanl.
Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya claims that the text dates back to the turn of the century. e., which is difficult to reconcile with the mention of the Huns (Vorobyeva-Desyatovskaya M.I. Manuscript book in the culture of the peoples of the East. Book 2. M.: Nauka, 1988. P. 23).
Stein O. Versuch einer Analyse des Sasanadhikara // Stein O. Kleine Schriften. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1985.
Wilson H. A Glossary of Judicial and Revenue Terms. London: W.H. Allen and Company, 1855, p. 406.
Strauch I. Die Lekhapaddhati-Lekhapancasika. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 2002. S. 17.
Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings (CII, Vol. III). Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1981. P. 360.
Visakhadatta. Mudraraksasa. Poona: Royal Book Stall, 1948. P. 20. Ibid. P. 24.
“Parasara-smriti” XII.25; "Vishnudharmottara Purana" II.61.28; Agni Purana 223.11, cf. "Nitisara" V.81; "Manasollasa" II.155-156; "Yogayatra" I.18.
Already in the Mahabharata it is said (II.5.62) that “scribes and accountants” (ganakalekhaka) are used in matters of “receipt and expense” (ayavyaya) at the royal court. Apararka explains the word kayastha in Yajnavalkya II.336: "tax officials" (karadhikrta). In a similar sloka "Manu" there is simply "the king's servant" (bhrtya). At least after the 11th century. some kayasthas received villages with dependent farmers (Thapar R. Social Mobility in Ancient India
with Special Reference to Elite Groups // Indian Society: Historical Probings. Delhi: People's Publishing House, 1974. P. 112). See EI. XVIII.243: vallabha from kayasthavamsa “feudal lord from the family of scribes,” cf. Vijnanesvara’s commentary on “Yajnavalkya” II.336 about royal scribes “ favorites" or feudal lords (rajavallabha).
Kane P. V. History of Dharmasastra. Vol. II. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1974. P. 76.
Baines A. Ethnography (Castes and Tribes). Strassburg: K.J. Trubner. 1912. P. 38-39; ThaparR. Cultural Pasts. Essays in Early Indian History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. P. 202. See Angavijja. Banaras: Prakrit Text Society, 1957. P. 160; Wed Kane P.V. History. P- 76 (quote from Veda-Vyasa-smriti, according to which scribes are associated with barbers, potters and other sudras). Food from a scribe should no more be accepted than from a goldsmith or a libertine. masisaka - lit. "wielding ink."
See Sabdakalpadruma. Vol. II. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, 1961 for a selection of derogatory characteristics of scribes (kayastha, lipikaraka), who are said to be the Sudra caste: they come from the feet of Prajapati and are supposed to be servants of brahmanas (viprasevaka ). Kane P. V. History. P. 75-77.
A significant part of the primary sources on the history of ancient India has perished irretrievably. Many works of ancient Indian literature were written on birch bark or palm leaves and did not withstand the unfavorable conditions of a climate more humid than in Egypt (where such fragile material as papyrus could be preserved). On the other hand, fires, which could not destroy collections of clay books in Western Asia, turned out to be destructive for the archives of ancient India. Only those texts that were carved on stone survived in the original, and relatively few of them were discovered. Fortunately, Sanskrit, unlike most ancient Eastern languages, was never forgotten; the literary tradition was not interrupted for thousands of years. Those works that were considered valuable were systematically rewritten and came to us in later copies with additions and distortions.
The situation is worse with the ancient chronicles. Almost nothing remains of them, except for fragments included in later medieval chronicles.
The largest in volume and richest in content are the poetic works: the Vedas (extensive collections of hymns, chants, magical spells and ritual formulas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda), Mahabharata (epic poem about the great war of the descendants of Bharata) and Ramayana (the tale of the deeds of Prince Rama).
In addition to mythical and epic works, the collection “Laws of Manu” has also been preserved, the chronological fixation of which also presents great difficulties (c. 3rd century BC - c. 3rd century AD). This is a typical monument of sacred law, in which civil and criminal regulations are closely intertwined with ritual regulations and prohibitions.
A unique written monument is the Arthashastra, the composition of which is attributed to the outstanding dignitary, contemporary of Alexander the Great, Kautilya. This remarkable treatise on government contains a whole series of advice and instructions reflecting the conditions of the era when centralization and bureaucratization were established in the country.
For the study of early Buddhism, the main source is the collection of legends and sayings of the Tipitaka.
The edicts of King Ashoka (III century BC), carved on rocks, are most accurately dated. They report on the warriors and religious policies of this king.
Among the ancient authors, along with Herodotus, who gave a description of western India of his time (5th century BC), Arrian, who lived in the 2nd century, should be especially noted. AD In his “Anabasis of Alexander” he described the campaign of this king to India, in a special work - “India” - he gave a detailed geographical outline of the country11 Bongard-Levin T.M. “Ancient Indian civilization”, M., 1993.
The history of ancient Indian literature is usually divided into several stages: Vedic, epic, and the period of classical Sanskrit literature. The first two stages are characterized by the predominance of the oral tradition of text transmission. The two great epic poems of Ancient India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are true encyclopedias of Indian life. They depict all aspects of the life of ancient Indians. The epic absorbed material that, emerging from the oral poetic tradition, acquired a didactic character and included religious and philosophical works and ideas. In subsequent eras, many prominent Indian artists, including the famous Kalidas, drew their inspiration from these treasures of wisdom of their people.
In the era of classical Sanskrit literature, the collection of stories and parables “Panchatantra”, based on folklore, gained particular popularity. It was translated into many languages, and they became acquainted with it quite early in Russia.
Among the literature attributed to the Buddhist tradition, the work of the poet and playwright Pshvaghosh (1-2 century AD) stands out clearly. The poem “Buddhacharita” written by him was the first artificial epic to appear in Indian literature. The Gupta era was the time of development of ancient Indian theater. Even special treatises on dramaturgy appeared. The tasks of the theater and the technique of acting were determined. The Indian theatrical tradition preceded the Greek one.
The theory of literary creativity, including poetry, reached a high level in Ancient India. The rules of versification and treatises on the theory of metrics and poetics were developed in detail. Several schools of “poetic science” are emerging, and there are debates about genres, the purpose of literature, and artistic language.
The concept of the divine character of speech influenced the development of the science of language. It was believed that speech lies at the basis of the sciences and arts. In Panini’s grammar “The Eight Books” the analysis of linguistic material is carried out so deeply and thoroughly that modern scientists find similarities between the theory of the ancient Indians and modern linguistics.
The first monument of the thought of the ancient Indians was the “VEDAS”, literally meaning “knowledge, knowledge” when translated from Sanskrit. The VEDAS, having emerged between the second and first millennium BC, played a huge, decisive role in the development of the spiritual culture of ancient Indian society, including the development of philosophical thought.
The VEDAS consist of hymns, prayers, spells, chants, sacrificial formulas, and so on. They are the first to attempt a philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around man, nevertheless, they are considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources. Actually, the first literary works in which attempts are made to philosophize, i.e. interpretations of the world around a person could not be different in content. The figurative language of the Vedas expresses a very ancient religious worldview, the first philosophical idea of the world, man, and moral life. The VEDAS are divided into four groups (or parts). The oldest of them is Samhitas (hymns). The Samhitas, in turn, consist of four collections. The earliest of them is the Rig Veda, a collection of religious hymns (about one and a half thousand years BC). The second part of the Vedas - Brahmanas (collection of ritual texts). The religion of Brahmanism, which dominated before the emergence of Buddhism, relied on them. The third part of the VED is the Aranyakas ("forest books", rules of conduct for hermits). The fourth part of the VEDAS is the Upanishads, the actual philosophical part, which arose about a thousand years BC.
Already at this time, the first elements of philosophical consciousness arose, the formation of the first philosophical teachings (both religious-idealistic and materialistic) began.
Upanishads (“to sit near”, i.e. at the feet of the teacher, receiving instructions; or - “secret, intimate knowledge”) - philosophical texts that appeared about one thousand years BC and in form, as a rule, represented the dialogue of a sage - a teacher with his student or with a person seeking the truth and subsequently becoming his student. In total, about a hundred Upanishads are known. They are dominated by the problem of the root cause, the first principle of being, with the help of which the origin of all natural and human phenomena is explained. The dominant place in the Upanishads is occupied by teachings that believe that the spiritual principle - Brahman, or Atman - is the primary cause and fundamental principle of existence. Brahman and Atman are usually used as synonyms, although Brahman is more often used to designate God, the omnipresent spirit, and Atman - the soul. Starting from the Upanishads, Brahman and Atman become the central concepts of all Indian philosophy (and above all Vedanta). In some Upanishads, Brahman and Atman are identified with the material root cause of the world - food, breath, material elements (water, air, earth, fire), or with the whole world as a whole. In most Upanishad texts, Brahman and Atman are interpreted as the spiritual absolute, the incorporeal root cause of nature and man.
A common thread running through all the Upanishads is the idea of the identity of the spiritual essence of the subject (man) and the object (nature), which is reflected in the famous saying: “Tat tvam asi” (“You are that”, or “You are one with that”) .
The Upanishads and the ideas expressed in them do not contain a logically consistent and holistic concept. With a general predominance of the explanation of the world as spiritual and incorporeal, they also present other judgments and ideas and, in particular, attempts are made to provide a natural philosophical explanation of the root cause and fundamental basis of the phenomena of the world and the essence of man. Thus, in some texts there is a desire to explain the external and internal world as consisting of four or even five material elements. Sometimes the world is presented as an undifferentiated being, and its development as the sequential passage of certain states by this being: fire, water, earth, or gaseous, liquid, solid. This is precisely what explains all the diversity that is inherent in the world, including human society.
Cognition and acquired knowledge are divided into two levels in the Upanishads: lower and higher. At the lowest level, you can only cognize the surrounding reality. This knowledge cannot be true, since its content is fragmentary and incomplete. The highest is the knowledge of truth, i.e. spiritual absolute, this perception of being in its integrity, can be acquired only with the help of mystical intuition, the latter in turn being formed to a large extent thanks to yogic exercises. It is the highest knowledge that gives power over the world.
One of the most important problems in the Upanishads is the study of the essence of man, his psyche, emotional disturbances and forms of behavior. The thinkers of Ancient India noted the complexity of the structure of the human psyche and identified in it such elements as consciousness, will, memory, breathing, irritation, calm, etc. their interrelation and mutual influence are emphasized. An undoubted achievement should be considered the characteristics of various states of the human psyche and, in particular, the waking state, light sleep, deep sleep, the dependence of these states on the external elements and primary elements of the external world.
In the field of ethics, the Upanishads predominantly preach a passive-contemplative attitude towards the world: the deliverance of the soul from all worldly attachments and worries is proclaimed to be the highest happiness. The Upanishads make a distinction between material and spiritual values, between goodness, as a calm state of the soul, and the base pursuit of sensual pleasures. By the way, it was in the Upanishads that the concept of transmigration of souls (samsara) and retribution for past actions (karma) was first expressed. Here the desire is expressed to determine the cause-and-effect relationship in the chain of human actions. An attempt is also made, with the help of moral principles (dharma), to correct human behavior at every stage of his existence. The Upanishads are essentially the foundation for all or almost all subsequent philosophical movements that appeared in India, since they presented or developed ideas that “nourished” philosophical thought in India for a long time.
Speaking about the philosophy of Ancient India, one cannot fail to mention the extensive epic poem Mahabharata, consisting of eighteen books. The main source of philosophical thought of the later - epic period is the extensive epic poem "Mahabharata", which consists of 18 books telling about the struggle for power between two clans - the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Along with the narration of this struggle, in various books of the Mahabharata there are texts of philosophical content. Of greatest interest from this point of view are “Bhagavad-Gita”, “Mokshadharma”, “Anugita” and some others (VII century BC - II century AD).
In terms of their content and orientation, most of the philosophical ideas of the Mahabharata represent a continuation and development of the views dominant in the Upanishads about Brahman-Atman or Purusha as a spiritual absolute and about its comprehension as a means of salvation and deliverance from the shackles of karma and samsara. However, unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented primarily in the form of individual statements and positions with unsettled, sometimes amorphous terminology, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear in the Mahabharata, giving a more or less unified interpretation of the main ideological problems, ranging from ontological to ethical and sociological, and having a more strictly fixed and more unambiguous conceptual apparatus.
Among these concepts, the teaching of Samkhya and closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned already in the Upanishads, acquires the main importance among these concepts in the epic. True, these teachings are presented differently in different parts of the Mahabharata, but everywhere they are based on the position of prakriti, or pradhana (matter, nature), as the source of all existing existence (including the psyche and consciousness) and independent of it and the pure spirit unaffected by its modifications - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman).
One of the books that is of greatest interest from a philosophical point of view is the Bhagavad Gita (divine song). Unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented in the form of individual statements and provisions, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear here, giving an interpretation of worldview problems. Of primary importance among these concepts is the teaching of Samkhya and the closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned in the Upanishads. The basis of the concept is the position of prakrit (matter, nature), as the source of all existence (including the psyche, consciousness) and the pure spirit independent of it - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman). Thus, the worldview is dualistic, based on the recognition of two principles.
The main content of the Bhagavad Gita consists of the teachings of the god Krishna. God Krishna, according to Indian mythology, is the eighth avatar (incarnation) of the god Vishnu. God Krishna speaks of the need for every person to fulfill his social (varna) functions and duties, to be indifferent to the fruits of worldly activity, and to devote all his thoughts to God. Bhagavad Gita contains important ideas of ancient Indian philosophy: about the mystery of birth and death; about the relationship between prakriti and human nature; about genes (three material principles born of nature: tamas - an inert inert principle, rajas - a passionate, active, exciting principle, sattva - an uplifting, enlightened, conscious principle). Their symbols are respectively black, red and white, the colors that define people’s lives; about the moral law (dharma) of fulfilling one’s duty; about the path of a yogi (a person who has devoted himself to yoga - the improvement of consciousness); about genuine and non-genuine knowledge. The main virtues of a person are called balance, detachment from passions and desires, and detachment from earthly things.
Each of the monuments we examined has, as we sought to show, a special, unique specificity. The mythological and ideological ideas that underlay the Vedas, epics, Buddhist and Jain canons, respectively, are different, the principles of their composition are dissimilar, and the stylistic accents are placed differently. However, at the same time, one cannot help but notice that they all have certain General characteristics, which, in accordance with chronological criteria, definitely indicate that they belong to one, namely the early period of the development of ancient Indian literature.
First of all, as evidenced by the comparative history of the literatures of Antiquity, the formation of these literatures usually begins with the appearance of religious codes and epics. The first works of Chinese literature are considered to be “Shujing”, “Shijing” and “Iijing”, included in the Confucian “Pentateuch”; the history of Iranian literature opens with the Avesta, Jewish - the Bible, Greek - “Iliad” and “Odyssey”. Among ancient monuments Mesopotamian, Ugaritic, Hittite and Egyptian literatures are dominated by fragments of mythological epic and ritual texts. From this point of view, it seems logical that the beginning of the development of Indian literature was marked by the creation of precisely those four literary complexes (Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and epic) that were discussed.
Further, the Vedas, the Tipitaka, and the epic developed as a whole over many centuries, and they developed in line with the oral rather than written tradition. We know that the letter was already known to the population of the Indus Valley in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e., then his skills were lost, and writing in India was revived only around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. However, initially it was apparently used mainly only for administrative and economic purposes. Although the Rig Veda already existed by 1000 BC. e., Vedic literature in general - by 500 BC. e., and the early versions of the epic and the first Buddhist and Jain texts - by 400-200 BC. Don. e., they were not recorded immediately and, at least until the turn of our era, functioned as oral monuments. This led to several important consequences for all Indian literature of the ancient period.
Since her works were not fixed, we often deal with not one, but several texts (editions) of the same monument, and in this case it is useless to find its original or archetype. Oral existence also explains such features of the style of the Vedas, epics, “Tipitaka”, as the abundance in them of clichéd phraseological units (so-called “formulas”), repetitions, refrains, etc. Formulas and repetitions are often seen as a heritage inherent, for example, in hymns Vedas of magical functions, but first of all they were a necessary condition for the creation of any kind of text in oral form and its subsequent reproduction “from memory” by new performers. Oral origin finally determines some of the basic methods of constructing the most ancient Indian monuments (in the form of a sermon, dialogue, address, panegyric, etc.), as well as a number of their names that have come down to us by tradition (shruti, upanishads, etc.).
Partly related to the oral nature of the works we have considered is the fact that we have already noted that they are not distinguished as strictly literary works. It would, of course, be wrong to say that every ancient Indian text pursued only practical - religious or didactic - goals, but in general aesthetic goals have not yet come to the fore. And although we are dealing with works whose artistic merits are unique in their own way, it is no coincidence that most of them were part of religious codes, and the Sanskrit epic, and above all the Mahabharata, is highly characterized by ethical and philosophical coloring.
Lack of artistic self-awareness in Indian culture of the 1st millennium BC. e. It also reveals itself in the fact that the idea of the creator of the work has not yet crystallized into the concept of the poet. The hymns of the Rigveda were composed, as legend says, by the legendary prophets-rishis, the Brahman prose and dialogues of the Upanishads - by holy sages, Buddhist and Jain texts - by religious teachers Buddha and Mahavira and their associates.
At the same time, literature remained mostly anonymous, the name of the author did not so much indicate the real creator of this or that monument, but rather asserted its significance, and the literary work belonged, in fact, to the entire society or at least one of its social or religious stratum in in general.
And therefore - perhaps with the only exception of the Ramayana, which is already on the threshold of a new stage in the development of literature - it would be futile to look for signs of individual style, themes, and means of expression in ancient Indian literature.
Naturally, when literature is not yet aware of its autonomy, literary theory cannot take shape, although the unlimited possibilities of the word as such were more than once praised by the creators of Vedic chants. And since there was no literary theory, one cannot speak in connection with ancient Indian literature and about a clear differentiation of genres in it. When in the Vedic Samhitas we distinguish epic, dramatic and even lyrical hymns, in the Brahmanas we separate theological instructions from narrative episodes, in the Upanishads we isolate philosophical dialogues, and in the Tipitaka - fables, parables, biographies, etc., we are in some kind of In this way, we introduce the genre classification of later literature into monuments that are syncretic in their essence. In Indian literature of the Ancient period, a work existed as an indivisible whole, subject to special laws, and this literature must be assessed, first of all, in accordance with the norms and principles put forward by it.
However, this does not mean that already in the literature of the 1st millennium BC. e. new genres and forms had not matured, though still in a diffuse, mixed state. These genres and forms were adopted, developed and refined in stable outlines, by the subsequent literary tradition. Together with them, she inherited everything that turned out to be viable in the ideological concepts, themes and visual means of the Vedas, epics, Buddhist and Jain texts. And these monuments, although they remain valuable and unique in their appearance and artistic achievements, at the same time can be considered as a prologue to the entire further development of Indian literature.
History of world literature: in 9 volumes / Edited by I.S. Braginsky and others - M., 1983-1984.