Each era is unique with its own special culture. Likewise, the art of India has been constantly changing over the centuries. Painting, architecture and sculpture developed in this country.
The development of art in the country of India
Indian art dates back to prehistoric times rock paintings. Overall, the elements are a pure reflection of the mentality of that country, making them more introspective. One of them is the idea of yoga about the importance of detachment from all distracting external influences and fleeting emotions. Therefore, the surrounding reality plays minor role in the country of India. The art of India is distinctive in that the emphasis in iconography is on the religious and metaphysical, even when ornaments, costumes, etc., borrow elements of modern life.
Features of the image of the surrounding world
The issue of the environment must be considered in the context of the country's aesthetics, which does not accept superficial naturalism, realism or illusion. What really matters is the “creation of truth,” which presupposes India to be very simple, because nature itself is created complex and intelligent, and only through signs and symbols has it become possible to express it. This is why symbols play a crucial role here. Simplicity from this point of view does not carry any derogatory meaning, which could be observed in decadent art. It comes down to the development of a number of techniques for expressing true meaning objects or objects that the artist and sculptor captured.
Image methods surrounding reality in art always, to a greater or lesser extent, reflect the modern views of a particular era. Here we are not talking about perspective, but techniques and means that serve to convey ideas to viewers who are different periods time were different, from an aesthetic point of view they did not have any advantages over others in the country of India. Indian art is often very symbolic, especially in terms of conveying the nature of things.
Art of the 2nd century BC. - III century AD
In ancient art, during the 2nd century. BC. - III century AD, one can find a certain emphasis on Artists such as Amaravati, for example, tried to object to the surrounding reality. In their search through symbols they sought to represent not only episodes from the life of the Buddha, but also, for example, the worship of Yakshas and trees, which was very common among the people of that period. But not all art was devoted to aspects of everyday life. Artists always strive to emphasize the fact that external natural phenomena can evoke only limited feelings. Nature, in their opinion, is rich in deep symbolic meanings. The art of ancient India is rich in traces of cosmology, which cannot be understood without reference to ancient Indian literature. Such features can be found up to the 6th century in the paintings of Ajanta and Bagh.
Indian culture VI - X centuries.
With the onset of the Gupta era, new elements began to appear. Artists lost interest in man, but began to show it in the gods and their habitat. And even with this shift in emphasis, they still paid attention to the everyday, although to a lesser extent. The depiction of nature has become more stereotypical. In the Vishnu Dharmottara Purana, written during this period, one can find a special section devoted to painting, which talks about how conventions should be observed. In the following centuries in art we can observe mainly only themes dedicated to the gods, and very little of the life current at that time.
Art of the X - XIV centuries.
After the 10th century, very few elements of nature and modern life can be found in Indian painting, as well as in Buddhist manuscripts. Ignoring their surroundings, the artists concentrated exclusively on Buddhist gods, goddesses and Mandalas. Since they had limited space at their disposal, the painters were content with depicting gods and goddesses. This fills the manuscripts they illustrated with magical power, making them an object of worship for admirers in the country of India. Indian art is very original. The only external influences that the artists considered were the beliefs of Tantric Buddhism. They were not worried about either nature or the social conditions of that period.
Art of India XIV - XVI centuries.
By the end of the 14th century, artists became a little more interested in environmental themes. social life. In their works one can notice the manifestation of Muslim stereotypes in the depiction of all the foreigners who appeared in them. This suggests that they had certain opinions about the Turks who ruled the northern and western parts of India during that period. In their works, landscapes were depicted as a separate part of the composition, and not just as a backdrop to specific scenes.
The visual arts of India provide a much clearer picture of people's lives than any other literary source of the time. In the 16th century this interest still existed. For example, images of specific residents appear here for the first time rural areas, farmers and shepherds, as well as women involved in daily household life. Nature also became much more widely represented, with full-scale illustrations of forests and wild animals appearing. Indian art began to be filled with new meanings.
In ancient times, in Sri Lanka, as well as in India, decorative and applied arts were not distinguished as an independent field of art. The creation of sculptures and artistic products, painting and architecture were all considered crafts. The works were, as a rule, anonymous.
The main, most widespread type of decorative and applied art should be considered the art of artistically designed things, that is, artistic products - objects everyday life and tools, accessories of sacred ritual and weapons. This art has existed since ancient times.
The form of simple tools was, as a rule, harmonious and artistic, and the images on them were of a plot-thematic or purely ornamental nature. Decoration always took into account the everyday purpose and shape of the object.
Decorative and applied arts were widely used to decorate architectural details, where carving was especially often used.
The materials from which the artistic products were made were extremely diverse; almost everything that nature provided was used: wood, leaves and herbs, plant fiber, nut shells; plain, semi-precious and precious stone; clay, metals, including precious ones; bone, horn, turtle, shell, etc. Of these, the most important are: wood, stone, metal, ivory and fiber.
Sri Lankan artistic products are close to Indian ones, but they are, of course, not identical; they differ in their specificity and local originality. It is interesting that in Sri Lanka, even more than in India itself, the traditions of Indian art of ancient times have been preserved - the period of the spread and flourishing of Buddhism. By the 11th century. Buddhism almost disappeared in India, but survived in Sri Lanka, transmitting the ancient Indo-Sinhala tradition in art monuments. This tradition contributed in the Middle Ages to distinguishing Sinhalese crafts from Tamil ones, which were no longer associated with Buddhism, but with Hinduism. But besides this, the artistic skills and tastes of the Sinhalese, their aesthetic perception brought originality to local artistic production, to monumental painting and sculpture.
The bulk of the art products that have survived to us date back to no earlier than the 18th century.
The artistic crafts of Sri Lanka were closely related to those of South India. For many centuries, skilled Tamil artisans from South India were imported to Sri Lanka, and even in the 18th century. they competed with Sinhalese artisans. Visiting weavers from large cities in southern India, members of local craft organizations (shreni), called "salagamayo" in Sinhalese, wove gold threads onto thin muslins for the robes of the Sinhala nobility. The Tamil kings of Sri Lanka especially encouraged their native fashions of clothing and jewelry.
For many centuries, until the English occupation of Kandy in 1815, the form and decoration of the crafts remained without noticeable changes from previous centuries. The colonial era in Sri Lanka was disastrous for the arts and crafts. The state organization of artisans was destroyed by the British colonialists, and traditional artistic production fell into decay. The development of capitalist relations and the import of foreign manufactured goods completely undermined folk arts and crafts. The fall of national decorative and applied art actually meant the disappearance from the everyday life of the people of the only form of art accessible to them in general. However, some types of artistic production survived in Sri Lanka by the time it achieved independence, when a new period in the development of national art began.
Ivory products
In Sri Lanka, as in India, bone carvers were famous for their art. Ivory is an excellent material for fine carving due to its strength and fine-grained, uniform texture; it is especially pleasing to the eye with its fine, graceful layering and delicate tint.
79-80. Ivory box and cup.
Local chronicles report on the high art of ancient Sinhalese craftsmen - ivory carvers. An interesting testimony is preserved in the Chulavamsa (37.100) that King Jetthatissa (IV century) was famous for his ivory carvings and even taught others his wonderful art. Ancient chroniclers reported that the king made an ivory figure of a bodhisattva and parts of his royal throne.
In Sri Lanka, figurines, panels, doorposts with carvings (for example, from Ridivihara, with dancers and animals), caskets (Fig. 79), book bindings, women's jewelry, combs, knife handles, etc. were made from elephant tusks.
The traditions of the art of ivory carving were stable. This is clearly evidenced by surviving examples of work from the 18th – early 19th centuries.
The combs were very elegant and beautiful - panava, two-sided and one-sided. On one of them, for example, kept in a museum in Kandy, in the middle part, an openwork carving created a relief rich in shape. In the center, the goddess sits on a throne, holding tree branches in her hands. On either side of her are two dancers. A simple frame with a geometric pattern sets off the complex image.
78. The bases of the doorposts of the temple.
At another double-sided comb, the space enclosed in an elegant openwork frame is divided into three vertical parts: in the middle there is a figure of a mother sitting with a baby in her arms, on the right there is a figure standing woman with a child, on the left side - a pair of lovers. The clothes are painted with black and red stripes (Colombo Museum).
A comparison of both combs shows the artistic flair with which the master changes the shape of the frame depending on the central carving: the first comb has a complex design inside, with many small details, which required simplification of the frame; at the second ridge, the figures without detailed details allowed for a complex frame, which in its design did not compete with the internal images. Decorative taste and experience, based on a long tradition, prove impeccable.
Large artistic value is represented by a skillfully and subtly executed figure of a guardian deity on a plate from the door frame of the temple (collection of A.-K. Kumaraswamy) (ill. 78).
In low relief, a goddess is carved frontally, holding a plant shoot and a flower in her bent hands.
The fingers and the thin folds of the robe, tightly fitting the figure, are extraordinarily gracefully executed. Scientists dated this plate to the 18th century, but one might think that it is much older in time.
Interesting are the caskets and boxes with fine continuous relief carvings. The carved handles of knives of various shapes are very impressive - sometimes in the form of “liya pata” (plant motifs), sometimes in the shape of a monster’s head with an open mouth - and many other items made of bone (ill. 80).
Artistic wood processing
Wood carving was closely associated with architecture, which during the Kandyan period was mainly wooden. The work of local carpenters, who made various products from wood necessary for home life, was distinguished by its originality. They skillfully made furniture, tools, carved boxes, etc.
81. Playing board. Tree. XIX century
For example, the beautifully ornamented boards for the game “olinda-colombu” are a real work of art. They are located on low legs and have seven round indentations along each longitudinal edge.
It is a local national predominantly women's game. It was usually played by two women who placed five to seven olinda seeds in each hole. Women from royal family They played with pearls instead of seeds.
The sides of the board were decorated with a geometric pattern, the pits were placed in rectangular sections, in pairs or one at a time. A relief figure of a fantastic beast was sometimes carved in the center of the board (an example is in the Kandy Museum). The composition of seed holes and geometric motifs can be quite varied.
The shape of the rice press is original and complex, but very elegant. In the center it has the shape of a barrel, close to a cylinder, into which the ground is poured. boiled rice and squeezed out through holes in the metal bottom. The head of a fantastic bird and (on the opposite side) its tail, made in a stylized form, extend from the cylinder in both directions. The cylinder is decorated with a screw-shaped thread, which seems to go to the neck of the bird. There is a convenient horizontal handle located above. The whole shape is quite impressive.
The handles of wooden scoops are beautifully and intricately curved. The head of a monster or ornamental plant motifs were often carved under the scoop. The latter pattern, but in a richer form, was also used on door bolts (“agula”).
In the Kumaraswamy collection there is a round flat wooden box, one of those intended for storing royal regalia. She is a turning technique, covered
varnish, with concentric stripes. The main ornamental detail is a wide openwork brass loop with complex floral motifs.
National furniture is very diverse. Bizarre shapes were given to the legs of stools and chairs; Headboards of beds, etc. were also decorated with rich carvings. Judging by the sources, furniture in rich houses was made of very expensive wood. The Chulavamsa states that in the palace of King Parakramabahu, the furniture was decorated with gold and expensive ivory.
Lucky
Topical varnish is obtained from a resinous substance secreted by two types of insects that live on trees and plants. In addition, imported Indian varnish of similar origin is used in small quantities.
Lacquer workers are called i-vaduvo, which literally means “arrow maker.” These artisans are the lowest class of craftsmen because they primarily work as woodturners. They turn wood and decorate it, making arrows, bows, spears, legs of beds and other furniture, barrel boards, torch handles, banner poles, etc. When turning an object on a lathe, it can be easily varnished by pressing a varnish stick against it ; then the latter, heating up from friction, softens and fills the recesses cut out on the object. A similar Kandyan technique is used in India by the Jodhpur varnishers. Kandyan varnishes were especially famous in the 19th – early 20th centuries.
A different technique was used in Matale, known as niyapoten-veda, that is, working with the nail, since here the lathe was not used and the varnish was applied with the thumbnail. A coloring agent is added to the varnish: red, yellow, green and black. This varnish is used to cover wooden canes, shafts of ceremonial spears and banners, powder flasks, book bindings, and oboes. Colored lacquer is also inlaid on ivory, horn and shell.
Metal products
Metalworking was considered one of the most ancient and respected professions of artisans. Metalworkers were divided into several groups - blacksmiths, coppersmiths and goldsmiths. Chronicles also report about these groups of artisans. Chulavamsa (68.25) tells how Parakramabahu hired blacksmiths, coppersmiths and even jewelers for the construction, since at that time there was a noticeable shortage of stone carvers.
Sri Lanka has always been famous for the wonderful work of jewelers. The chronicles repeatedly mention excellently crafted gold jewelry. The Sinhalese loved and continue to love various decorations. In ancient times and the Middle Ages, kings and rich courtiers wore gold earrings, bracelets, and rings with precious stones.
Jewelry art, in particular processing precious stones, and now flourishes in the city of Ratnapura, in the area of which semi-precious and precious gems are mined. Cutting is done mainly by Sinhalese jewelers from Galle. For many centuries, Ceylonese artisans produced a variety of products from simple and precious metals.
However, by the beginning of the 20th century, according to Kumaraswamy, the author of the book “Medieval Sinhalese Art” (54), iron smelting was preserved only in Khatarabagh, near Balangoda, among representatives of the lower caste, and steel production was carried out in those years by only a few people in Alutnuvar. Steel smiths were called “Navandanno”. Since ancient times, they have made not only farmer's tools and carpenter's tools, but also swords, spear and arrowheads, knives, betel mortars, parts of palanquins, surgical instruments, goads for elephants, stilettos for writing, locks, keys and plates for them, door hinges, bolts, handles.
(54) Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Mediaeval Singhalese Art.
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There are three main technical techniques metal decorations in gold or silver:
1) the simplest method, when the surface of the metal is incised with light intersecting grooves, and then a layer of noble metal is attached with blows of a hammer. Due to the plasticity and ductility of gold and especially silver, they adhere tightly to the uneven surface of the product and hold onto it quite firmly. In Northern India, such a notch is called koftgari;
2) inlay, when in iron or steel the pattern lines are made in the form of a narrow deep groove, the exit side of which is narrower than the bottom, and a noble metal wire (or copper, brass - generally of a different color than the metal of the product itself) is driven into it. The wire is driven in very firmly with a hammer, the edges of the groove grip it tightly, and then the surface only needs to be smoothed by polishing. This method is more difficult; more metal is required for the ornament than with notching. But where special strength is required from the ornament, for example on weapons, inlay is used more often than notching;
3) an overlay, when the place under it is slightly deepened and a groove is made along the contour. Then a thin plate of gold or silver (also copper), cut to the shape of the recess, is inserted into it, and the edges of the plate are driven into the groove, hammered and polished. The plate itself can be decorated with engraving or chased relief.
All these methods of decoration are called by the general term “ridiketayanveda”. The work is usually done by blacksmiths, but especially delicate items are processed by a goldsmith.
82-83. Saber handle and knives.
Kandyan blacksmiths often blacken wrought iron to give it a similar appearance to European blued steel. Then the metal rusts less, and the precious metal and, in general, notches and inlays stand out more effectively against a dark background. For blackening, the metal surface is treated with a special compound and fired.
Products from brass are minted by goldsmiths, and molds are cast by smelters - lokaruvo, belonging to a lower group of artisans.
An example of a brass item is the key plate from Malwatte Pansala. Around the hole there are stylized openwork plant and flower forms, and at the top there is an image of the sacred goose (hans), and two birds with crossed necks are shown. Such plates are usually decorated with smaller plant motifs made using openwork technique. The iron plate from Danagirigalavihara is also very impressive, in the form of two heads of a bird of prey facing in opposite directions.
All kinds of vessels are cast from brass and bronze, for example for water, available in every vihara, from which flowers placed on the altar are watered. They often have a spout, and then they also drink water from them. Bronze is less commonly used for casting, but elephant bells, musical cymbals, molds for forging brass, silver and gold, and tools for repousse coining are almost always cast in bronze.
Lamps, which come in a variety of different and very interesting shapes, are more often cast from brass than from bronze. They are available standing and hanging. Among the latter is a good brass example in the Colombo Museum in the form of a bird suspended on a chain. Below there is a spout with a reservoir for oil and wick, on which rises a small figurine of a bird. The same museum houses a standing lamp, decorated on the top with a stylized figure of Hans. Below is an expanding tray for five wicks. The work appears to be Tamil, very typical of South India.
Copper church water vessels (kendiyya) are sometimes studded on the neck and lid with cabochon garnets (with rounded grinding). One such jug from Ridivihara has a rounded body, a high, rather thick neck with a slight bell, a convex lid, a slightly curved, high spout. At its base there is an engraved floral ornament.
Almost every household item is decorated with amazing ingenuity, artistic taste and skill. Let us take, for example, the key to the door of Maduvanvelyvihara, massive, iron, trimmed with brass, with a rich ornament on the ring; ankh (ankuza), brass, with an iron tip (from the Paranatella collection), with a bent point in the form of a monster’s head, or torches, where a figurine of a peacock or a rearing lion is added to the bowl with decorative boldness and grace - all things amaze with a skillful combination of practical convenience and subtle artistic taste.
After the plunder of Kandy by the British in 1815, little silver and gold items were preserved in Kandyan temples. Mostly vessels, lamps, trays, and fans remained, for example, in the Hindu temple of Maha Devale and the Buddhist temple of the tooth of Buddha - Dalada Maligawa in Kandy (55).
Here are some of these items. Kendiyya is a church water vessel, silver, of excellent proportions: the body is round in cross-section, but flattened vertically, the neck is high, massive, slightly expanding downwards, at the end there is a widening and a convex lid, a round wide leg, a vertical, high spout. Light ornament on the throat in the form of rings. The forms are massive, even monumental, and this corresponds to the almost complete absence of ornament. A large glass for storing sandalwood paste, made of black stone, in a gold frame with inserts of rubies in it and with four sapphires at the corners of the square stem. The glass was in the possession of Rajadhiraja Sinha and was donated by him to the Maha Devale Temple. Along the edges of the glass there is a gold border with a geometric pattern in relief, and gold decorations of complex shapes hang down on four sides. There is a relief ornament on the leg. All this contrasts beautifully with the black stone.
A golden fan in the form of a round disc from Dalada Maligawa is a gift offering made by King Kirti Sri Rajasinha. An ornamented border strip runs along the edges of the disk, and in the center there is an elegant, slightly embossed rosette. The thin profiled handle of the fan is connected by an ornament to the central rosette, and on the opposite edge of the disk protrudes a false tip, as if extending across the entire width of the disk. This skillful technique gives a special grace to the fan and creates a unified visual impression.
77. Silver ladle with ivory handle.
A luxuriously decorated silver scoop - “kinissa” - with a carved ivory handle (London South Kensington Museum (56)), originating from a Kandyan temple or palace (see fig. 77). The scoop is hemispherical, richly decorated with slightly embossed stylized floral patterns.
From the side, a figurine of a man seems to be climbing onto the scoop, the end of an ivory handle resting on his back, representing a single whole with it. This unexpectedly impressive detail, placed between the scoop and the end of the handle, shows the original and bold creative imagination of the master.
In form and composition, the human figure is exceptionally successful and turns out to be appropriate in its decorative role. The ornament on the handle is of the liya pata type with the head of a monster resembling either a sinha (lion) or a dragon fish, like the Indian monster makara.
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(55) See: A. M. Hocart, The Temple of the Tooth in Kandy, London, 1931.
(56) Now called the Victoria and Albert Museum.
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Ceramic products
Ceramics, despite its apparent simplicity, had great artistic significance due to the beautiful shapes of the vessels and, although simple, skillfully executed ornaments.
Pottery products were used not only for domestic needs, but also for sacred ritual, as well as architecture, since clay tiles were required for construction.
The potters themselves made the ornament with carvings or stamps. On more expensive products the ornament was figured. Sometimes colorful paintings were also used.
Village potters skillfully knew how to use the plastic qualities of clay as a material and, when giving shape to their products, undoubtedly took into account the specifics of their practical purpose. The ornament usually also corresponded to the material.
There were potters in every village; Sometimes potters' settlements arose near rich clay deposits. From here the products were transported to different regions. It is not surprising that excellent quality red pots from Nikapata (near Haputale), where the Tamils worked, went to Balangoda, and vessels from Kelaniya, decorated with white carved patterns, ended up in Ratnapura, Kegalla and even Kandy. Some pottery was also imported from South India.
The potters' tools were extremely simple; the main thing is a wheel (poruva), with a stone sleeve, which was inserted into a stone nest sunk in the ground, so that the wheel rose from the ground no more than 15 cm. Handwork gave artistic products freedom of form, plasticity, in contrast to dryness, inevitably resulting from the execution of the form using a machine stencil.
Here, for example, are several pieces of pottery.
The massive vase (kalakha) that served as a stand for a lamp is beautiful in shape. It has a round cross-section, vertically flattened body, with a thick cylindrical throat, with three annular thickenings; the leg is wide, round, low. All details of the vase are proportional. The painting is light yellow on a red background, in the form of stylized foliage motifs.
There is another vessel of a bizarre shape, with twelve spouts sticking up and with ring rims on a low, wide neck. In full accordance with the complex shape of the vessel, the leg is made very massive, wide and quite high; it visually “holds” the wide body with spouts well. The vessel was used for ritual dances and is called “punava”.
The cornice tiles from the Dalada Maligawa temple were richly decorated; on one side there is a magnificent Sinha (lion) in relief, on the other there is a Khansa (goose). In Kandy, similar tiles were also made in the shape of a leaf of the sacred Bodhi tree and decorated with images of a lion and a goose.
The potter's song is very interesting, dedicated to the description of the work process, including the decorative painting of vessels.
“Waking up at dawn, taking a basket, [the potter] goes to the clay deposits;
Having cleaned the basket and prepared a place among the clay, he pays homage to the guardian deity;
Dressed only in a loincloth, he cheerfully takes the coozin and descends into the pit;
Without touching the sides of the hole, he digs out clay from the middle and fills the basket.
Having crushed the clay into pieces, he puts the basket on the beam and pours the clay into the potter's yard;
He then divides the clay into equal pieces and places them on a large mat in the sun;
Having dried the clay and removed the stones from it, he poundes it in a mortar and sifts it through a culla;
Then, taking the powder, he adds the same amount of water to it and makes balls from the mixture.
He takes these clay balls, places them one on top of the other and covers them with leaves;
After three days he again divides them into three parts, and then kneads them again;
Knowing the correct proportion, he adds the finest sand and, splashing water, mixes everything again;
Having kneaded the mass, he again makes round balls out of it and puts them in a pile; and takes them again after three days.
After preparing them in this way, he tramples and kneads the clay again and again;
When it becomes like sticky wax, he knows that it is ready;
He then divides it into separate lumps for vessels of different sizes;
He places the lumps prepared in this way near the workshop and carefully covers them.
The next day, using split reeds, he separates the clay lumps from one another;
And having divided them properly, he again makes balls of them and holds them together as on the previous day;
The next day, waking up at dawn, he sweeps and tidies up the workshop;
And holding all the clay balls close at hand, he sits down in front of the wheel.
He takes the clay balls one by one with his right hand and places them on the wheel;
With his left hand he turns the wheel, with his right hand he shapes [the vessel];
Knowing the size and shape [of the vessel], he presses down with his hand;
When the desired shape appears, he shapes the edges.
Leaving [the vessel] in this form and making a rim, he rotates the wheel very quickly;
And observing whether it has become smooth, he corrects all the irregularities with the tip of his finger;
Sprinkling a little water, he polishes the pot, then carefully takes it with his wide open palm;
He puts it down and then picks it up again thirty hours after making it.
Then holding a stone galicheda in the left hand and a wooden mallet in the right, holding the vessel firmly with the foot;
He beats [on its lower edges] with the flat surface of the mallet, making [of them] the bottom the entire width of the pot;
And having thus completed the bottom and polished it, he places [the vessel] in the sun;
After it dries a little, he draws branches with leaves [liyavel], garlands and flower petals around the vessel.
Drawing around the lines, flower petals, roosters, parrots, pigeons, selalihini;
And in turn the leaves of the bo [tree], bouquets of flowers and dates, flowers of na, flowers of oleu and lotuses;
By creating discs of the sun and moon, makara at the gate [toran] and golden hansu;
Elephants, horses, deer, lions, tigers, wolves, bears, cobras and polongas.
Swimming tisara, flying lihini, beautiful kinduro and honey bees;
Great boas, many fierce snakes, sharks, turtles and golden peacocks;
Beautiful young maidens, whose plumping breasts are like golden swans;
Don't forget to draw cute adorable children.
Drawing around the nari lata, branches with leaves and also letters of the alphabet with vowel signs;
By placing a trident with the sign “om” in the middle as a talisman;
Drawing in the four corners animals with intertwined necks [puttu], a peacock, a cobra, a swan and a snake;
Zodiac signs, nine planets and twenty-seven stars.
He takes good red [paint] gurugal and white - macula and mixes them in water until a thick solution;
Mixing it with the right amount of oil to make the colors shine;
After this, he exposes [the pots] to the sun to dry completely;
And then, having placed them in a kiln, he dries them in the smoke on the first day.
On the second day, adding as much wood as needed, he maintains a moderate fire;
On the third day he kindles a fairly hot flame and burns [the pots] to the end;
After this, he takes out the wood and extinguishes the flame, leaving [the product] to cool for three days;
On the fourth day, making sure that the oven has completely cooled down, he takes out the vessels one by one.” (57)
This song contains all the production experience of the potter, passed down for centuries from generation to generation, and his work is subtly poeticized.
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(57) Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Mediaeval Singhalese Art.
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Textile art
Weaving, embroidery, and mat weaving have been very widespread throughout the island since ancient times.
Among the Sinhalese there were two groups of weavers: the Salagamayo - craftsmen originating from South India who made fine and brocade fabrics, and the Beravayo - a caste of local weavers who simultaneously worked as musicians, astrologers, etc.
According to tradition, King Vijayabahu III (XIII century) from Dambadeniya, trying to revive fine weaving, sent a messenger to South India with a request to send good craftsmen. The envoy returned, bringing with him eight weavers, to whom the king provided villages, wives and honors. The descendants of these weavers incurred the disfavor of the Kandyan rulers and were forced to move to the southwestern coast. There they were no longer engaged in weaving, but in growing cinnamon on the royal lands. The same was their position under Portuguese and Dutch rule.
The late medieval work Janavamsa reports the repeated importation of Indian weavers into Sri Lanka. Local production was virtually disappearing and had to be constantly supported by the immigration of craftsmen from South India.
During the period of English rule, folk textile production fell into decline. Before Sri Lanka gained independence, as A.K. writes. Kumaraswamy, weaving from homemade cotton yarn, formerly common in all the Kandyan provinces, survives only in Talagun, Uda Dumbara and locally near Vellasa in Uva.
Since ancient times, the caste of local Sinhalese weavers produced simple cotton fabrics, which were produced until the beginning of the 20th century. The village weavers of the Kandy region were especially famous. Their products were not influenced by changes in court fashions and the art of the South Indian weavers who arrived here.
Local, like Indian, national clothing, as a rule, is not sewn by tailors from various pieces of fabric, its parts are woven ready-made, and therefore they must come out of the loom different forms and sizes. This is how towels and napkins (indul kada), wearable fabrics for men (tuppoti), for women (pada, hela), men's aprons (diya kachchi), headscarves or shawls (lensu, ura mala), sashes (pati), blankets are made and sheets (etirili), carpets (paramadana), covers for clay jugs (gahoni) and pillowcases, etc. White, blue or red fabrics without a pattern were made for monks’ clothes, hats, pillowcases, betel bags, etc. These village weavers never made thin muslins.
The patterns were predominantly geometric in nature or in the form of highly stylized forms of animals, snakes, birds, the figures of which were collected in strictly decorative compositions.
An interesting and richly decorated sash, for example, with woven images, belonged to a high Buddhist monk from Malwatta, made in the Uva region. In the horizontal belts there are rows of elephants, horses, lions, and highly stylized birds following each other. These belts alternate with stripes filled with geometric motifs. The colors are also varied: black, red, pink, blue, green and yellow.
Geometric forms are not impersonal: they usually depict plants and flowers, curls from flower cups, etc.
Embroidery, like fabrics, was divided into limited-scale production (for the court and nobility) with decorative motifs of Indian origin and actually local, Sinhalese production.
There were few professional tailors (khannali), they served the king and his court with luxurious embroideries; for Buddhist and Hindu temples they made sacred robes, curtains, temple banners, etc., and participated in decorating chariots for sacred processions. FOR wealthy secular landowners, they made brocade jackets, gold-embroidered square hats (toppiyya), and embroidered sweaters for their families. Expensive materials for such items were mostly imported from India, such as red felt, velvet, sequins and tinsel, brocade for jackets, and gold thread for embroidering hats and ceremonial fans.
One of them, originating from Maha Devale in Kandy, is made of red velvet, embroidered with gold and silver thread, with green velvet appliqué; ornament in the form of geometrical plant forms, in the center there is a rosette, the front side is made of blue velvet, on which the sun, moon and stars are embroidered.
The betel bag was embroidered impressively and variedly, most often with plant and floral motifs, always with a richly ornamented border strip. One of these bags, kept in the Colombo Museum, is embroidered especially elegantly and finely. In the center there is a rosette with four sharp leaves, between which there are small flowers on the thinnest stems and figures of birds. Between the central rosette and the circular border, embroidered with thin floral twists and flowers, there are also bird figures.
Mats (dumbara), which are woven by weavers of the lowest caste - kinaraya (58), are of no small importance for economic and everyday life. The fiber is made from hemp. Part of the fiber is left natural white, the rest is dyed black, yellow or red.
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(58) See: N. D. Wijesekera, The People of Seoul, Colombo, 1965.
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The warp threads are spun like cotton on a spindle; For the weft, ready-made natural hemp fibers are taken, the length of which is the diameter of the mat. The loom is horizontal, similar to a cotton loom, but more primitive. Mats are also woven from grass and are called “peduru”. The main color for them is Patangi, which gives a beautiful shade of red.
The images on the mats are massive, geometric, even monumental in their form and composition and are highly suitable for the decorative purpose of the mats as they are inextricably linked with the room and architecture.
There are two interesting examples of such mats in the collection of A. K. Kumaraswamy. On one, in the central square, divided into nine rectangular sections, there are depicted: in the middle - an elephant, in the side rectangles - a naga (cobra), raised with an inflated hood. The upper and lower rows of rectangles have the same filling: in the middle - a doe, on the sides - a pair of birds. The composition of these figures shows the correct artistic tact: the doe (upper and lower) are turned in opposite directions; each pair of birds is also separated by placing their heads in different directions. This subtly calculated artistic device the master avoids emphasized monotony.
From the central square with figures there are transverse stripes: the first is decorated with zigzag lines, then three wide stripes, and then a number of narrow ones. Everything is designed for visual effect.
On another mat, the general composition is similar to the previous one. In the center are two birds, also turned in opposite directions, and naked on the sides. Above and below are belts with fish and birds, three belts at the top and bottom. All figures are directed in a different, but strictly thought out order, with the right decorative effect.
Making masks
It is impossible not to touch upon such a unique and vibrant art of Sri Lanka as masks. They have long been widespread as an integral part of folk drama and dance and have been extremely popular in the country since ancient times (59).
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(59) See: Verge de Zoete, Dance and Magic Drama in Ceylon, London, 1935; E.R. Sarachandra, The Folk Drama in Ceylon, Colombo, 1966.
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The dramatic kolam performance is all about the use of masks. Masks are also used in the demonic “tovil” dances.
85. "Drummer"
Although the symbolic and religious significance of the dances has now been largely lost, the masks of the dancers and actors themselves remain a most attractive spectacle for the population, especially in villages.
Carvers of wooden masks did not always pursue purely artistic goals, and many masks have only specific symbolic meaning. But whole line they can be considered genuine works of folk art due to their external expressiveness. Their ethnographic significance is also great.
The most artistically interesting masks are used in the “rassaya” dance as a prelude to the “kolam” performance. There are very fantastic and monstrous-looking masks depicting semi-divine beings.
Much more realistic are the numerous masks of the “sanniya” dance used in the “tovil” performance. They seem to reproduce caricatures of people.
Very peculiar, for example, is the mask of an old drummer with a large thick beard and a deeply wrinkled, senile, expressive face, although his bulging eyes and snarling mouth give him a special grotesqueness (ill. 85).
A concentrated but sly expression on the face with a refined fold of the lips of a mudali - a high government official.
86. Raja mask.
The Raja has a face with a beautiful black mustache and a crown in the form of a complex structure three times the size of his head; on the sides of the face are the muzzles of two fantastic makars (ill. 86). At the bisawa (queen) Beautiful face with an elegant fold of the lips, eyes wide open, as if in surprise. The majestic crown is memorable for its plant and floral motif. From it descend on both sides pendants on “pearl” fabric, against which the queen’s face looks especially solemn.
The face of a black woman with luxuriantly wavy hair in a hairstyle that falls behind her ears to the level of her chin is also interesting. She laughs with all her might, showing rows of shiny teeth. It should be noted that this detail is used to caricature characters of low social rank: they usually have terribly protruding abnormally huge, distorted or sparse teeth. The black woman, whom the artist clearly tried to show as attractive, has straight and beautiful teeth.
If the teeth are not shown at all in the highest persons, in the royal couple, in the mudali, in the village headman and the policeman, then the moneylender (hettiya) has a distorted face, a crooked nose, small predatory eyes and two large teeth in a half-open mouth.
The washerwoman (male) has bulging huge eyes, a wide nose, and a tongue sticking out between rows of large, tightly set teeth. His assistant is even more caricatured with a flattened nose and the upper row of teeth pushed far forward. Sanniya dance masks are very expressive, they have a lot of creativity, but they look much more naturalistic.
87. Mask for ceremonies
The described handicrafts date back to the end of the colonial era, when crafts were in decline, both artistic and industrial. But this industry folk culture, fortunately, did not perish: almost all types of artistic products, although in small quantities, continued to be created, preserving their national characteristics.
The increased interest in local national culture after Sri Lanka achieved independence, comprehensive assistance from the government to artistic crafts contributed to their new development, and some types of artistic production were literally revived.
New types of products appeared, in particular of a purely decorative nature, whereas in ancient times all artistic production had only a practical purpose.
Ceramics made on the basis of ancient traditions appeared, and decorative sculpture began to be made, for example wood sculpture from valuable mountain woods, decorative wall trays, hammered from brass and other metals that reproduce the great art famous ancient “Moon stones”.
By reviving folk artistic crafts, the Sinhala and Tamil population of the island preserves and develops their national traditions; your creative talent and skill.
India is one of the ancient states with a vibrant and diverse culture. The formation of its special architectural style, as well as sculpture, painting, music and dance, was influenced by three different religious movements - Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. In this regard, historical cultural monuments that can tell a lot about the life of the country in ancient times have been preserved to this day.
Architecture of India
The main religion of India is Hinduism; it is a multifaceted religious doctrine with a diverse pantheon of gods. Hindu temples, or mandirs as they are also called, are an amazing sight; these are pillar-shaped stone structures covered with exquisite stone carvings. The temple is usually dedicated to one of the incarnations of God or one of the virgins, and it is he who people come to worship. There are also temples dedicated to several gods at once. Hindu temples in India that have survived to this day have important historical or archaeological significance and are therefore protected by the Archaeological Survey of India. Most often, such temples were built of brick and wood, moreover, architectural style they differ from each other depending on the area where they are located. A huge part of the Hindu temples were damaged during the Islamic rule.
Buddhist architecture includes Buddhist temples built into rocks with numerous statues of Buddha in the form of a man. Each of these statues carries an encrypted message to people, so from various small details one can say a lot about what our ancestors wanted to convey to us. In Buddhist temples there are “stupas”, which are circular memorial structures. It is assumed that they once contained the remains of the deceased. The walls of Buddhist temples are decorated with frescoes depicting scenes from the life of Buddha, which have been preserved in excellent condition to this day, thanks to the use of special durable paints.
Since the time when India came under the influence of Islamic conquerors, many beautiful mosques have been built on its territory. The most famous landmark in India is the Taj Mahal mausoleum. She was a symbol of Shah Jahan's love for his wife Mumtaz, who died during childbirth. The Taj Mahal is made of white marble, decorated with the finest carvings and installed on a huge pedestal, so it resembles a white airy cloud. Other mosques located in India also have important cultural significance.
Sculpture of India
In addition to temples, a large number of figurines representing gods have survived to this day. The main Hindu gods are Brahma (the creator, his incarnation is a seated human figure with several heads and several arms, most often he sits on a lotus flower), Vishnu (the guardian, his incarnation is various avatars: he is most often depicted of blue color with four hands, each of which contains a sea shell, a disc, a club and a lotus, he can also be depicted sitting on a ring of snakes, or on the back of a bird. Other avatars associated with Vishnu are the Fish, Turtle, Lion Man, Boar, Dwarf, Rama, Krishna and Buddha. At the feet of Vishnu there may be an image of his wife.) Shiva (the destroyer, he is sometimes depicted as an ascetic, whose body is rubbed with white ash, he himself sits in a pose of meditation on a tiger skin in the Himalayas. Attached to his hair on the top of his head is a crescent moon from which flows the sacred river Ganges. Sometimes he - Nataraj, the lord of dance, is depicted in a graceful whirl, while he supports the Universe with his endless dance, Shiva is often depicted together with his wife Parvati and the bull Nandi, on which he moves, Shakti (the female embodiment of wives). the gods Shiva and Vishnu, sometimes they are also called Shakta. Shiva-Shakti is a beautiful woman, she has many incarnations - Durga, Kali, Chandi or Chamundi-Shakta is most often depicted as a beautiful woman sitting in a meditation pose, in some cases she. depicted next to her husband Shiva and little son Ganesha). There are many other gods in Hinduism, the most popular of them is Ganesha, he is the son of Shiva and Parvati. He is usually depicted as a figurine of a man with the head of an elephant. Pictorial representations of the gods of the Hindu pantheon, as well as from statues and sculptures, are of great cultural significance.
Arts and Crafts of India
A large number of valuable objects of art, which are the heritage of this amazing ancient civilization, are stored in museums. These include many ancient texts of religious content, poetry and prose, paintings and many icons, Mughal miniatures, which are illustrations for books, as well as dishes, jewelry, weapons, carpets, textiles, unique lacquerware, bronze and metal products and household items. The Russian artist Roerich made a great contribution to the preservation of treasures and architectural monuments of India. Later, his initiative was supported by his son Svyatoslav Roerich, who at one time contributed to the conclusion of the International Pact for the Protection of Cultural Property.
The art of Ancient India gradually emerged as a synthesis of architecture, sculpture and painting. It, of course, was influenced by foreign artistic styles, but did not lose any of its uniqueness.
Sculptural, and even more so architectural monuments Very little remains of the Harappan and Vedic eras. Most likely, the architecture of that time had simple and strict forms, because, at least externally, the houses of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro did not have any decorative elements. The ancient art of sculpture and glyptics (stone, terracotta and bronze figurines and seals, the purpose of which is not clear, pottery) developed in a realistic direction and showed the high artistic tastes of its creators.
The heyday of ancient Indian architecture and art occurred during the Mauro era and the “golden age of the Guptas.”
During the era of the first Indian empires, intensive palace construction was carried out in the country, but the royal palaces were built of wood and therefore have not survived. At the same time, Buddhist temple architecture flourished, which, unlike palace architecture, was made of stone and was partially preserved. Its most ancient attractions are stupas in which Buddhist relics (parts of the body of Buddha and Buddhist saints) were kept. The domed stupa, the prototype of which was, perhaps, an earthen burial mound, symbolized the emptiness, fragility and illusory nature of earthly existence (from the outside, the stupa looks like a water bubble, which immediately bursts when it rains).
In the 3rd century. n. That is, near the stupas and cremation sites of Buddhist saints, the construction of rock chaitya temples and vihara monastic cells began. They were cut into the rock using the “internal carving” method: first, the premises were cut down, and then in its walls - sculptural images of Buddha and saints. The facade of the temple along the entire surface was decorated with reliefs, columns, and special “sunny windows” through which daylight penetrated into the temple. When the temple became too small for the monks, new caves were cut down next to it, as a result of which entire cave complexes arose.
One of the oldest temple complexes (by the way, the best preserved one) was erected in Karli, southeast of modern Bombay. But the most famous temple complex is Ajanta in Maharashtra - 29 rock caves in the mountainous frame of the Vahuara River. Ajanta became famous thanks to its wonderful paintings, which will be discussed separately.
The art of sculpture also flourished in the ancient Indian empires. Sculptors reproduced scenes from the Jatakas in stone (they, in particular, dominate the carved gate-Toran of the stupa in Sanchi), carved statues of Yakshas and Yakshinis - gods of fertility, guards of the god of wealth Kubera.
In the southern capital of the Kushan Empire - Mathura, where an independent art school had developed, local courtesans willingly posed for sculptors to create statues of Yakshini, who took part in financing the construction of altars and temples. Such statues had little in common with the mythical images of the Yakshini; eroticism dominated in them. Sculptors from Mathura generally loved to decorate temples with elegant erotic scenes, next to which the eroticism of other art schools of old looks pathetic. The stone pornography of individual Indian temples was generated by the strong sexual mysticism of Indian religions, on which the art was completely dependent.
During the Mauryan period, a tradition arose of constructing carved stambha columns in places associated with the biography of Buddha and on pilgrim routes to Buddhist shrines.
In the first centuries of our era in Gandhara, under the influence of Hellenistic artistic traditions, a local art school emerged, which is called “Greek-Buddhist” or simply Gandhara. It was distinguished by the transfer of Buddhist subjects into Greco-Roman sculpture. It was in Gandhara that the iconography of Buddha first appeared (most likely in the 1st century AD), and images of Buddhist symbols took over: the “wheel of the law” (chakra), the “sacred tree” (bodhi), the “umbrella”, feet, throne and the like. Buddha was depicted with his 32 canonical signs: drawn-out earlobes, a characteristic bulge on the crown of the head (a sign of supreme wisdom), a mark between the eyebrows (a symbol of great spiritual power), short hair on the head, twisted into curls (symbolizing the movement of the sun and eternity) , halo, etc. The Buddha’s face was idealized as much as possible. A complex symbolism of the positions of the hands and fingers (mudra) was developed: each gesture of God was depicted in three canonical poses: sitting (in deep meditation), standing (Buddha is going to). deliver a sermon) and lying down (the moment of transition to nirvana). Mahayanists believed that the larger the Buddha statue, the better it conveys the greatness of the deity (and the stronger its influence on believers), so they often created stone and copper colossi, next to which the ancient Egyptian colossi would stand out. not so majestic. During the Gupta era, sculptors depicted individual gods with many arms and many legs, thus trying to convey their superhuman strength and power.
A large number of valuable objects of art, which are the heritage of this amazing ancient civilization, are stored in museums. These include many ancient texts of religious content, poetry and prose, paintings and many icons, Mughal miniatures, which are illustrations for books, as well as dishes, jewelry, weapons, carpets, fabrics, unique lacquerware, bronze and metal products and household items. The Russian artist Roerich made a great contribution to the preservation of treasures and architectural monuments of India. Later, his initiative was supported by his son Svyatoslav Roerich, who at one time contributed to the conclusion of the International Pact for the Protection of Cultural Property.
When Europeans and Americans mention India, they have strong associations. This is Bollywood, yoga, strict traditions, unshakable family values and stunningly beautiful decorations. Indian jewelry with an abundance of jewelry, gold and silver of the highest standard, and intricate designs that “speak” with folk motifs are enjoying great success all over the world. Indian jewelry culture had a great influence on European culture, as evidenced by the best jewelry of the British Crown, which is either made in the Indian style or decorated with a large number of Indian stones. The Cartier company was imbued with the spirit at the beginning of the 20th century Indian civilization and now periodically releases collections based on this theme.
Indian maharajas, making long journeys to Europe and America, brought their fancy jewelry, thanks to which master jewelers began to learn how to perform complex filigree work with precious stones, making jewelry in the Indian style. European residents, having fallen in love with the oriental melodies of Indian jewelry, began to demand that local craftsmen make them to order. This is how India found its window to Europe.
Products made from semi-precious stones. Indian jewelry has its own distinctive features that make it recognizable and unique. These products are symmetrical. Despite the variety of stones of different colors and the combination of different materials, they do not have any clutter. The festive life of the Indians is closely connected with dancing, and jewelry has always been part of the ceremonial costume. Therefore, they have their own sound and musicality.
India is a country with its own jewelry traditions that are passed down through generations. Each city where jewelry is made specializes in a certain type of work. The famous Jaipur is famous for the art of working with enamel, Andhra Pradesh is famous for its silver work, and Delhi for its jewelry setting. Each such city has its own gold bazaar, and, despite the high price of pure gold and silver, Indian jewelers never skimp on the abundance of details made from these precious metals.
Indian jewelry is made from gold, silver, earthenware, ivory, ceramics, copper, bronze, precious and semi-precious stones. they were found in different places during excavations, and since then each city has its own jewelry features.
Traditions and modernity of Indian jewelry. Menakari and Kundali styles were born in Jaipur and Delhi. Menakari is the art of enamel - a traditional Indian craft. Enamel was applied to the jewelry to test the quality of the gold. The brighter the enamel jewelry shines, the better the gold used.
Kundali is the oldest method of making gold jewelry in India. The menakundan style features actual works of art in different colors displayed on the back side of the jewelry, while the kun dala style is showcased on the front side. Modern jewelry in these styles is made by artisans in Bikaner and Rajasthan. They are attractive because of their historical aura, which takes us back to a time when such luxury was only available to wealthy blue bloods.
Some of the simplest Indian jewelry without the use of stones are gold bracelets, beads, earrings, pendants, which are several rows of flat parts, bars, fastened together with the finest threads.
Indian art is famous for its traditional motifs, which are also reflected in jewelry. They especially often resort to floral and animal themes. These decorations are a kind of talismans, since they do not serve only a decorative purpose. Each flower and each animal personifies the wishes of the owner, protects him from misfortune, brings wealth, fertility, and good luck. Even in an inexpensive bracelet there will not be a random design - everything is thought out to the smallest detail.
Decoration from Hindustan is national traditions, combined with luxury, to which another world is drawn. A scattering of precious stones on the neck or modest earrings - you just have to choose according to your taste, capabilities and the appropriate occasion.
Wood carving. When the Mongols invaded India in the 16th century, they encountered one of the world's oldest civilizations. Around 3000 BC e. the city of Mohenjodaro in the Indus Valley had a regular layout; Most of the buildings, due to significant humidity, were made of baked bricks.
The hot climate required the construction of courtyards that surrounded the space of the chambers.
Around the 4th century BC. e. artistic forms have undergone significant changes. Greek elements mixed with Indian ones, resulting in new and unique forms. Furniture also changed during this period. A low, primitive bed-frame on four legs with supports passed through them became widespread. In this case, the lying surface was wicker. Such beds, made of expensive material, were always lavishly decorated. A characteristic Indian product is a stool with turned and varnished legs and a wicker seat.
In India, rich in various resins, the technique of varnishing was highly developed, as well as the use of resins for decorative purposes. One of the methods was varnishing with colored varnishes, which dried fairly quickly. This was mainly used for turned furniture pieces. Individual small pieces of furniture and drawers were made of papier-mâché and varnished in a rather complex way. To decorate furniture, inlay made of ebony, mother-of-pearl, ivory (Bombay mosaic), as well as ivory carvings were used.
The unpretentiousness of the Indians is evidenced by a simple portable “piece of furniture” - a support for the body: a fakir who squats, rests his hands and head on the stand and sleeps peacefully. However, the Indians also knew well what comfort was. This is evidenced, for example, by the ceremonial chair of a Buddhist monk, which in its design resembles an ancient Indian throne.
Modern Indian style furniture. Later, when the influence of Europe affected India, new needs arose that revived the thousand-year-old craftsmanship of the Indians. A new, mixed style emerged. In the 19th century in Europe there were many lovers of Indian furniture, which was most often purchased through its lush and exotic decor. First of all, furniture decorated with Bombay mosaics was valued. All this led to the revival of Indian furniture art. Although new Indian furniture began to take on European forms, thanks to the large amount of Indian-Arab ornamentation, they retained their characteristic national character.
Indian furniture style, despite its unusual and alien features, is interesting and very decorative. Along with the careful elaboration of details, we are first of all impressed by the passion of Asian peoples for pomp and complex ornamentation, which is not always organically connected with the purpose of a particular product.
The most typical colors for modern Indian style are turquoise, crimson, and orange. Moreover, they are completely unique in their kind. Indian silk is a little rough and does not feel as smooth and gliding to the touch as Chinese silk. Furniture in Indian houses low, hand-cut from teak, a very durable wood.
A characteristic feature of the Indian interior is the easy transformation of the details of the house: chairs and tables, screens, shutters and doors often “change roles”. Residents of India used every opportunity to decorate and decorate their homes.
Lush openwork carving in Indian furniture art is evidence of the special passion of Indians for luxurious decor and decorations.
So, the artistic craft of India is one of the oldest in the world. Folk artisans have achieved extraordinary skill in weaving and metal processing. They were especially famous for embossing, metal carving, filigree, inlay, wood and bone carving, and the manufacture of lacquer products. Handicrafts were common not only in cities, but also in rural areas, where, depending on natural conditions or the presence of any type of material (ivory, valuable wood), one or another type of applied art flourished. Kashmir wool, Jaipur enamels, Travancore-Cochin ivory, etc. have become world famous.
Deep folk look art is vibivanki - cotton fabrics on which multi-figured scenes (musicians, dancers, wicker animals, entire scenes from peasant life) are reflected with wooden stamps, which amaze with their brightness, cheerfulness and decorativeness. The folklore legends and beliefs of India and the flavor of its rich tropical nature are reflected in the vibivankas. Silk brocade self made with gold or silver thread, which is intended for upper castes, amazes with the grace and subtlety of the design, delicate color combinations, and the nobility of the ornament.
The manufacture of utensils (utensils) from bronze, copper and steel achieved a wide variety of shapes and ornamentation.
The most ancient types of folk art - wood and bone carving - were common in many regions of India. Carved furniture, architectural details, caskets, boxes, and figurines were made from wood. From elephant tusks, folk craftsmen made entire compositions or sculptures depicting deities and epic heroes, as well as jewelry.
1.1 History of development and influence of religion on DPI in India
In ancient times, in India, as well as in other countries, decorative and applied arts were not distinguished as an independent field of art. The creation of sculptures and artistic products, painting and architecture were all considered crafts. The works were, as a rule, anonymous.
The main, most widespread type of decorative and applied art should be considered the art of artistically designed things, that is, artistic products - everyday objects and tools, accessories of sacred ritual and weapons. This art has existed since ancient times.
The form of simple tools was, as a rule, harmonious and artistic, and the images on them were of a plot-thematic or purely ornamental nature. Decoration always took into account the everyday purpose and shape of the object.
Decorative and applied arts were widely used to decorate architectural details, where carving was especially often used.
The materials from which the artistic products were made were extremely diverse; almost everything that nature provided was used: wood, leaves and herbs, plant fiber, nut shells; plain, semi-precious and precious stone; clay, metals, including precious ones; bone, horn, turtle, shell, etc. Of these, the most important are: wood, stone, metal, ivory and fiber.
Artworks of India in different parts countries are not identical and differ in their specificity and local identity. It is interesting that, for example, in Sri Lanka, even more than in India itself, the traditions of Indian art of ancient times have been preserved - the period of the spread and flourishing of Buddhism. By the 11th century. Buddhism almost disappeared in India, but survived in Sri Lanka, transmitting the ancient Indo-Sinhala tradition in art monuments. This tradition contributed in the Middle Ages to distinguishing Sinhalese crafts from Tamil ones, which were no longer associated with Buddhism, but with Hinduism. But besides this, the artistic skills and tastes of the Sinhalese, their aesthetic perception brought originality to local artistic production, to monumental painting and sculpture.
The bulk of the artistic products that have survived to us date back to the time
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