The ancient culture of Rome, which existed from the 8th century. BC. and until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 476 AD, gave the world its own vision of a system of ideals and values. For this civilization, love for the Motherland, dignity and honor, reverence for the gods and faith in one’s uniqueness were paramount. This article presents main aspects, capable of describing such a unique phenomenon as the culture of Ancient Rome, briefly.
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Ancient Roman culture
According to chronological data, the cultural history of Ancient Rome can be divided into three main periods:
- royal (8th–6th centuries BC);
- Republican (6th–1st centuries BC);
- imperial (1st century BC – 5th century AD).
The royal period of Ancient Rome is considered the most primitive in terms of Roman culture. However, at that time the Romans already had own alphabet. At the end of the 6th century, the first ancient schools began to appear, in which children studied Latin and Greek, writing and arithmetic for 4–5 years.
Attention! In that short period ancient history, which lasted from 753 to 509. BC, seven kings managed to ascend to the Roman throne: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, Lucius Tarquinius the Proud.
The Republican period is characterized by the penetration of ancient Greek culture into the life of Ancient Rome. At this time they begin to develop philosophy and law.
The most prominent Roman philosopher of that time was Lucretius (98–55), who in his work “On the Nature of Things” called on people to stop fearing superstitions and God’s punishment.
He gave a completely logical explanation for the emergence of man and the universe. An innovation in the system of Roman law was the introduction of the concept “ entity", thanks to which the positions of private owners are strengthened.
During the imperial period of development of ancient culture, everything Greek was abandoned. Roman uniqueness develops. This is clearly visible in the culture and architecture of that time: the Colosseum and the Pantheon. For the first time, attempts are being made to study the activity of the brain. The experiments were carried out by a well-known ancient times doctor Galen. Are being created schools for training doctors. There have also been changes in religion. The Roman emperor was now recognized as a deity, who after death ascended to heaven.
Ancient Roman heritage
Many achievements of Ancient Rome in the field of civilization and culture, created in the ancient period, are now popular all over the world:
- Water pipes. Aqueducts were used back in Babylon, but in Ancient Rome they began to be used not only for irrigation, but also for domestic needs. Water pipelines were also installed to industrial areas: places where resources were mined and craft districts. Surviving aqueducts built during the period of antiquity in the territory of modern Europe can be found in Germany, France and Italy.
- Sewerage. It became a necessary element of large Roman cities. Drainage systems were used both to drain water during rain and sewage of various nature. Antique sewers are still used today, however, only to remove water after a rainstorm.
- Citizenship. The main heritage of Ancient Rome. It was the Romans who established the procedures for obtaining citizenship. All free people were considered legal residents of the Empire, regardless of where they were born and in what territory of the state they lived.
- Republic. The republican form of government, created in Rome in the ancient period, put the beginning of creation modern type authorities. It was the Romans who began to share the reins of government, since, in their opinion, its concentration in the hands of one ruler could be disastrous for all citizens. The Romans managed to maintain harmony between layers of society for a long period of time thanks to delegation. However, ironically, it was the republican form of government that buried the Roman state.
- Cultural monuments of Ancient Rome. This rich heritage includes Roman buildings, sculptures, literary works, philosophical works.
Art
The artistic culture of Ancient Rome was very similar to the Greek one of the same period. But this also has its advantages. Thanks to the Romans managed to save many works of ancient painting that were copied from Greek artists.
The sculptures of the Romans acquired emotions. Their faces reflected their state of mind, making the sculpture come to life. It was in Ancient Rome that this appeared literary direction like a novel.
The unified Greco-Roman culture of the ancient period gave rise to many writers, playwrights and poets. A new direction in literature was born - the novel. Among the famous satirists of that time it is worth noting Plautus and Terence.
Their comedies have been preserved to this day. Livy Andronicus became the first tragedian in Rome and translated Homer's Odyssey into Latin. Among the poets, it is worth noting Lucilius, who wrote poems on everyday topics. Most often in his works he ridiculed the obsession with wealth.
During the time of Cicero in Ancient Rome philosophy is gaining popularity. Such trends appeared as Roman Stoicism, the main idea of which was the achievement of a moral and spiritual ideal by man, and Roman Neoplatonism, which preached the ascent of the human soul to unity with a certain ecstasy.
In the field of astronomy, the ancient scientist Ptolemy is famous, who created the geocentric system of the world. He also wrote a number of works on optics, mathematics and geography.
Architecture of Ancient Rome
The ancient Roman era left majestic monuments of ancient architecture that can still be seen today.
Coliseum. A huge amphitheater whose construction began in 72 AD. and ended only after 8 years. Its second name, the Flavian Amphitheater, is associated with the ruling dynasty, whose representatives were the initiators of construction. The total capacity of the Roman Colosseum was more than 50 thousand people.
Note! Most often, prisoners of war took part in gladiatorial battles. Their lives depended on how colorfully they were able to demonstrate their capabilities and to what extent they won over the public. If the gladiator made a strong impression, the spectators of Rome allowed him to live and raised him. thumb up. If the public wanted death, then the thumb coolly moved down.
Triumphal Arch of Titus. The construction of the monument was initiated by the Roman Emperor Domitian, shortly after the death of his predecessor Titus. This antique monument built in 81 AD in honor of the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 AD. The arch is known for its convex relief within the span. It depicts a procession of Roman soldiers carrying spoils captured in Jerusalem.
Pantheon. A majestic structure built by Emperor Hadrian in 126 AD. The Pantheon is a temple dedicated to all the gods. Perfectly preserved to this day in its original form, this cultural monument of the ancient period is unique for its proportionality and visual lightness. The top of the Roman temple is decorated with a dome with a hole in the center to supply sunlight.
Cultural traditions
The most striking and original traditions of Roman culture of the ancient period are presented in marriage ceremony.
On the eve of the wedding, the girl, as if saying goodbye to childhood, had to donate her toys and clothes. A red shawl was tied around the head, the bride was dressed in a white tunic, which was tied with a sheep's wool belt.
The wedding dress in Ancient Rome was red, which was worn over a tunic. A bright yellow blanket was thrown over the head, which matched the color of the shoes.
The very same the ceremony was accompanied sacrifice of a pig. It was determined by its insides whether it would happy marriage. And if so, then the person conducting the fortune-telling ritual gave his permission.
Already during the ancient period, marriage contracts were drawn up, which specified the bride's dowry and the procedure for dividing property in the event of divorce. The contract was read aloud in front of ten witnesses, after which these witnesses signed.
Specifics
Despite the fact that Ancient Rome imitated Greece in many ways, it had characteristic distinctive features in culture. If the Greeks occupied territories by distributing their goods, then Rome led hostilities, completely depriving the conquered territory of independence.
Once every five years, a population survey was conducted - a census. The activity of the population was valued both in wartime and in peacetime.
The toga was considered national clothing in Rome. That is why the Romans were called "togatus". The eternal companion of Ancient Rome was the army, which stood outside the state. The peculiarities of the culture of Ancient Rome allowed it to become the basis for the subsequent flourishing of Europe.
Musical culture
The musical culture of the ancient ancient period was no different from the artistic culture in the sense that it also completely copied the Greek one.
Singers, musicians, and dancers were invited from Greece. The performance of odes by Horace and poems by Ovid, accompanied by the music of the cithara and tibia, was popular.
However, later in Ancient Rome musical performances have lost their original appearance and acquired an exclusively spectacular character. The musicians' performances were accompanied by theatrical performances. Even gladiator fights were accompanied by the sounds of trumpets and horns.
During the ancient period they were very popular music teachers. A letter from the poet Martial to his friend has survived to this day, in which he says that if he becomes a music teacher, his career will be guaranteed.
Pantomime became a new art movement. It was performed by a solo dancer to the sounds of a choir and large number musical instruments.
The last emperor of Rome, Domitian, at the end of the 1st century. AD organized a “Capitolian competition” between soloists, poets and musicians. The winners were crowned with laurel wreaths.
The contribution of Ancient Rome to world culture
The contribution of Ancient Rome to the development of modern European civilization undeniable. During the ancient period, the Romans created the Latin alphabet, in which everything was written. medieval Europe. Was created in Rome system civil law , civic values are defined: patriotism, belief in one’s own identity and greatness. Christianity also historically developed there, which greatly influenced the subsequent stages of human development. The Romans introduced concrete into use. They taught the world how to build bridges and water pipelines.
Sculpture and art as part of the culture of Ancient Rome
Culture and history of Ancient Rome briefly
Conclusion
The greatest people of history praised ancient Rome and its culture in their quotes. So, Napoleon said: “The history of Rome is the history of the whole world.” It is obvious that if the Roman Empire had been able to withstand the onslaught of the “barbarian” tribes in 476, then the Renaissance would have appeared to the world much earlier. Ancient Rome's contribution to world culture so great that it will take a long time to study it.
CULTURE OF ANCIENT ROME
The culture of Rome is associated with the completion of the history of ancient society. It continued the Hellenistic tradition and at the same time acted as an independent phenomenon, determined by the course of historical events, the uniqueness of living conditions, religion, the character traits of the Romans and other factors.
Initially, the territory of the Apennine Peninsula was inhabited by various tribes, among which the most developed were the Veneti in the north, the Etruscans in the center, and the Greeks in the south. It was the Etruscans and Greeks who had a decisive influence on the formation of ancient Roman culture.
The Etruscans inhabited these lands from the 1st millennium BC. e. and created an advanced civilization that preceded the Roman one. Etruria was a strong maritime power. Skilled metallurgists, shipbuilders, traders, builders and pirates, the Etruscans sailed throughout Mediterranean Sea, assimilating the cultural traditions of many peoples who inhabited its coast, creating a high and unique culture. It was from the Etruscans that the Romans would subsequently borrow the experience of urban planning, craft techniques, technology for making iron, glass, concrete, the secret sciences of the priests and some customs, for example, celebrating a victory with a triumph. The Etruscans also created the emblem of Rome - a she-wolf who, according to legend, suckled the twins Romulus and Remus - descendants of the Trojan hero Aeneas. It was these brothers who, according to legend, founded the city of Rome in 753 BC. e. (April 21).
The Latins living in the west gradually reached a high level of development, conquered neighboring territories and peoples and later formed one of the largest empires of antiquity, which included European countries, the northern coast of Africa and part of Asia.
Chronology
In the cultural history of Ancient Rome, three major periods can be distinguished:
monarchy - 753 - 509 BC e.;
republic - 509 - 29 BC e.;
empire - 29 BC e. - 476 AD e.
Peculiarities of worldview
The ancient population of Italy lived in territorial communities - pagah, as a result of the unification of which the city arose. At the head of archaic Rome was an elected king, combining the duties of high priest, military leader, legislator and judge, and with him was a senate. The most important matters were decided by the people's assembly.
In 510-509 BC e. a republic is formed. Republican rule lasted until 30 - 29 BC. e., after which the period of the empire begins. During these years, Rome waged almost continuous victorious wars and transformed from a small city into the capital of a huge Mediterranean power, spreading its influence over numerous provinces: Macedonia, Achaia (Greece), Near and Far Spain, regions of Africa and Asia, the Middle East. This leads to intensive cultural exchange, an intensive process of interpenetration of cultures.
The luxurious loot of the triumphants, the stories of soldiers, the penetration of wealthy people into the newly acquired provinces led to a revolution at the level of everyday culture: ideas about wealth changed, new material and spiritual needs arose, and new morals were born. The mass passion for oriental luxury began after the Asian triumphs of L. Cornelius Scipio and Gn. Volson's Mandya. The fashion for Attalian (Pergamon) robes, chased silver, Corinthian bronze, and inlaid stocks similar to those of ancient Egypt quickly spread.
The conquest of the Hellenistic states, and by the 1st century. BC e. and Hellenistic Greece revolutionized the culture of Rome. The Romans were confronted with a culture that surpassed their own in depth and variety. “Captured Greece captured its victors,” Horace, the ancient Roman poet, would later say. The Romans began to study the Greek language, literature, philosophy, and bought Greek slaves to teach their children. Wealthy families sent their sons to Athens, Ephesus and other cities in Greece and Asia Minor to listen to lectures by famous orators and philosophers. This influenced the growth of the Roman intelligentsia. Two new comic types appeared in society and in literature: the absurd Greekmaniacs and the harsh persecutors of Greek science. In many families, foreign education was combined with ancient Roman traditions and patriotic ambition.
Thus, the Etruscan and ancient Greek origins are clearly visible in the culture of Ancient Rome.
The entire history of cultural relations between Rome and Greece from that time on reveals the secret admiration of the Romans for Greek culture, the desire to achieve its perfection, sometimes reaching the point of imitation. However, by assimilating ancient Greek culture, the Romans put their own content into it. The rapprochement of Greek and Roman cultures became especially noticeable during the empire. Nevertheless, the majestic harmony of Greek art and the poetic spirituality of its images remained forever unattainable for the Romans. Pragmatism of thinking and engineering solutions determined the functional nature of Roman culture. The Roman was too sober and too practical to, while admiring the skill of the Greeks, achieve their plastic balance and amazing generality of design.
The ideology of the Roman was primarily determined by patriotism - the idea of Rome as the highest value, the duty of a citizen to serve it without sparing strength and life. In Rome, courage, loyalty, dignity, moderation in personal life, and the ability to obey iron discipline and law were revered. Lies, dishonesty, and flattery were considered vices characteristic of slaves. If the Greek admired art and philosophy, the Roman despised writing plays, the work of a sculptor, painter, and performing on stage as slave occupations. In his mind, the only deeds worthy of a Roman citizen were wars, politics, law, historiography and agriculture.
Social structure and economy.
Roman society was slave-owning. The Romans included:
patricians, nobility descended from the founders of Rome. It was the urban population that concentrated all power in its hands;
clients, poor Latins who lived in the countryside and worked the lands of the patricians;
plebeians, descendants of conquered peoples, the most numerous class, and therefore remained powerless for a long time;
slaves, completely powerless, their ranks were replenished with prisoners of war.
Rome was an economically very powerful state; its economy developed through several industries:
Agriculture;
industrial production (weapons, glass, ceramics);
trade;
spoils of war and tribute paid by conquered peoples.
Religion and mythology.
Religion was originally based on a mixture of rituals and beliefs. The mythology and religious beliefs of the ancient Romans are simple and artless. The two-faced god Janus was revered as the creator of the world from chaos, the creator of the firmament. The king himself was the priest of Janus. The main deities: Mana - the spirits of ancestors and Penates - the patrons of the family. The Laras, the deities of the hearth, were considered the patrons of communities and their lands. They worshiped water, fire, and ancient gods- Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Mars, Quirinus, Diana, Venus. As they got closer to the Greek world, the Roman gods were identified with the Greek ones: Jupiter - Zeus, Juno - Hera, Diana - Artemis, Venus - Aphrodite, Victoria - Nike, Mars - Ares, Mercury - Hermesi, etc. Greek myths were adapted, of which he became especially popular myth about the exploits of Hercules, whom the Romans called Hercules. The pantheon began to include greek gods, which had no analogues in Roman mythology: Aesculapius, Apollonai, etc. A little later, eastern cults began to penetrate into Rome, mainly Egyptian - the cult of Isis, Osiris, Cybele. At the beginning of the new era, Christianity became increasingly widespread.
Christianity is gone long haul, before it became a world religion and the spiritual basis of European culture. It originated in the 1st century. n. e., which we count from the Nativity of Christ, and were initially formed in the bosom of Judaism, as one of its sects. But the content of the sermon of Jesus of Nazareth went far beyond the national religion of the ancient Jews. It was this universal meaning of Christianity that made Jesus the Christ (Savior, Messiah) in the eyes of millions of people who find the semantic basis of their lives in the Christian faith.
The Roman authorities long persecuted the early Christians, but almost four centuries later, thanks to the Emperor Constantine, it became the state religion of the Roman Empire, bringing with it not only a new worldview, but also a new art to its culture.
Spectacles and holidays.
The spirit of struggle, competition, and testing is inherent in all ancient culture. The Romans, like the Greeks, loved all kinds of competitions. There was nothing more honorable than becoming a winner in some competition and receiving a wreath as a reward. Theater performances in Rome they were held during the holidays. Grandiose spectacles were especially successful when detachments of cavalry and infantry appeared on the stage, processions of prisoners, and performances of rare animals were included in the action. Solo pantomimes (usually on a mythological plot) with music and choir singing were very popular: comedies, performances in circuses, gladiator fights in amphitheaters.
Scientific and technicalachievements
Disdain for the arts and sciences did not mean that the Roman remained a dropout. In enlightened houses they taught not only Greek language, but also correct, elegant Latin.
Already in the Republican period, original, original art, philosophy, and science were taking shape in Rome, and their own method of creativity was being formed. Their main feature is psychological realism and truly Roman individualism.
The ancient Roman model of the world was fundamentally different from the Greek one. There was no personal event in it, organically inscribed in the event of the polis and the cosmos, like the Greeks. The event model of the Roman was simplified to two events: the event of the individual fit into the event of the state, or the Roman Empire. That is why the Romans turned their attention to the individual.
The Greek saw the world through a comprehensive harmonious model of the world, through a majestic and heroic mythological system, which gave completeness to the model of the world. For the Roman, the world became extremely simplified, myth ceased to be a worldview and turned into a fairy tale. As a result of this, phenomena were perceived more clearly, it became much easier to cognize them, but something irreplaceable was lost - the feeling of the integrity of being disappeared. That is why the Romans could not get closer to the Greek ideal: the natural model of the world was lost - the basis and secret of ancient Greek greatness.
Roman science did not reach the scale of Greek science, because it was dependent on the specific needs of the growing Roman Empire. Mathematics, geography, natural science and other sciences among the Romans were of a narrowly applied nature. A noticeable mark in science was left by the works of Menelaus of Alexandria on spherical geometry and trigonometry, the geocentric model of the world by Ptolemy (both were Greek by origin). Works on optics and astronomy were written (a catalog of more than 1,600 stars was compiled), experiments were carried out on animals in physiology. Doctor Galen famous for his skill and complex operations, laid the foundations of sanitation, and came close to discovering the importance of nerves for motor reflexes and blood circulation.
The Romans were excellent builders. Their construction equipment, which made it possible to create the Flavian Colosseum in Rome and other amphitheatres, a 1.5 km long bridge across the Danube under Trajan, etc. Mechanics were improved, lifting mechanisms were used. According to Seneca, “despicable slaves” (for the citizens of Rome they were mainly conquered scientists and inventors) each time they invented something new: pipes through which steam flowed to heat rooms (in conquered England, Roman houses had steam heating) , special polishing of marble, mirror tiles to reflect the sun's rays.
Astrology, which was studied by major astronomers, was very popular. Mostly Roman scholars studied and commented on the Greeks. Philosophy and jurisprudence occupied a special place in the culture of the ancient Romans. Ancient Roman philosophy eclectically (eclecticism - mixing) combines the principles of various teachings of Greek thinkers, especially the Hellenistic era. Philosophers adopted their scientific apparatus, terminology, and most important directions. The ideas of moral improvement of man and the mystical moods characteristic of the time acquired important significance for Roman philosophy. Among the philosophical trends, the most widespread in republican, and later in imperial Rome, were stoicism And epicureanism.
Representative of Stoicism Seneca saw the meaning of life in achieving absolute peace of mind, overcoming the fear of death. Seneca believes that a person should devote a huge part of his efforts to his own improvement.
Epicureanism is the only materialistic philosophy in ancient Rome. Its most prominent representative is Titus Lucretius Carus- known for his philosophical poem “On the Nature of Things.”
Characteristic of the Roman mentality was a passion for skepticism. The founder of skepticism, Sextus the empiricist, built his teaching on a critical reassessment of modern knowledge. The edge of skepticism was directed against the concepts of philosophy, mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy and grammar. Skepticism became a specific expression of the progressive crisis of Roman society.
Close to Stoic ideals of renunciation of material wealth and life in harmony with nature were also proclaimed at that time cynics, addressing the urban lower classes in a language they understood. Philosophical moralistic treatises were popular Plutarch from Chaeronea. His works were distinguished by excellent living language, common sense, love of life, and tolerance.
The golden age of Roman science was characterized not so much by the increase in knowledge as by encyclopedism, the desire to master and systematically present the already accumulated achievements. The natural science theories of the Greeks in an eclectic, seemingly averaged form were accepted as once and for all given, without discussion. Along with this, a keen interest in scientific, rational knowledge of nature remained, and a whole galaxy of outstanding creative minds and wonderful scientists appeared. Pliny the Elder based on two thousand works of Greek and Roman authors, he compiled the encyclopedic “Natural History”, which included all areas of the then science - from the structure of the cosmos to fauna and flora, from the description of countries and peoples to mineralogy.
The most important cultural innovations of Roman antiquity are associated with the development politicians And rights. Ancient Rome - homeland jurisprudence.
If in small Greek city-states with their diverse and often changing forms of government, many issues could be resolved on the basis of the direct expression of the will of the ruling elite or a general meeting of citizens, then the management of the huge Roman power required the creation of a detailed system of government bodies, a clearly organized administrative structure, legal laws regulating civil relations, legal proceedings, etc. The first legal document is the Law of 12 books, regulating criminal, financial, and trade relations. The constant expansion of territory leads to the emergence of other documents - private law for the Latins and public law regulating the relations between the Latins and the conquered peoples living in the provinces.
Roman historian Polybius already in the 2nd century. BC e. He also saw the perfection of the political and legal structure of Rome as a guarantee of its power. Ancient Roman jurists truly laid the foundation for legal culture. Roman law is still the basis on which modern legal systems are based. But the relationships clearly defined by law , the powers and duties of numerous bureaucratic institutions and officials - the Senate, consuls, prefects, procurators, censors, etc. did not eliminate the tension of political struggle. The nobility (nobility) involves broad sections of the population in its struggle for a place in the system of power, seeking to receive support from them. Slogans and appeals of various parties and groups against the general background of patriotic speeches praising the Roman Empire and the emperor form the public consciousness of citizens and fill their spiritual world. Literature, art, even urban development and architecture are put in the service of political and ideological goals. And although artistic creativity and reality are far from completely subordinate to these goals, they still very significantly influence the nature of art and all cultural life Roman society. This leads to one of the main features of Roman culture - politicization.
Passion for politics and jurisprudence led to a high level of development oratory(Gaius Gracchus, Cicero, Julius Caesar) and logic. Speeches, letters, philosophical writings, treatises on oratory Cicero had a great influence on their contemporaries. But the deepest impression was made by his speeches at trials, in the Senate, and in the people's assembly. Eloquence was the main means of social struggle. Rhetoric has had a great influence on philosophy, literature, and historiography. The art of eloquence was taught in public schools, where teachers received salaries from the state. Quintilian, who wrote a large treatise “Education of the Orator” in 12 books.
Great Roman historian Tacitus, one of the best historians of Rome, in his works “History” and “Annals” shows the tragedy of society, consisting in the incompatibility of imperial power and the freedom of citizens. Another famous historian is Titus Livius.
Literature
From the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. the Latin beginning was gaining strength: prose writers switched to their native language (previously, Roman writers wrote in Greek). Latin was experiencing the emergence of a literary national language, and literature began to play an important role in ancient Roman culture.
Emperor Augustus attracted the best writers of his time. His time is called the “golden age of Roman culture.” The most famous poets were Virgil, Horace, who were part of the circle of Maecenas - close to Augustus - patron of talents, as well as Ovid. Well-known, famous creation Virgil became the poem “Aeneid”, dedicated to the wanderings of Aeneas, which united the author’s love for ancient legends, Greek philosophical views on the structure of the Cosmos, Greek ideas about the world soul and posthumous fate; thoughts about reward for those who faithfully serve the fatherland, and about punishment for those who betrayed it. The Aeneid is the most popular monument of Roman literature.
Horace wrote love poems and satire, ridiculed the vices of Roman society. It was his pen that wrote the famous poem “Monument,” which was so skillfully translated by Lomonosov, Derzhavin, and Pushkin.
Ovid famous for his love elegies, but especially the poem “Metamorphoses” - a mythological epic that tells about the transformation of people into plants and animals. The poem ends with the legend of how Julius Caesar turns into a star.
Art culture
The spirit of struggle and the desire to overcome difficulties played an important role in political life society and in its military successes, which allowed Julius Caesar and other Roman commanders to create a huge Roman Empire. Its geographical unity and integrity were ensured by numerous settlements and cities. The city (“polis”, “civitas” in Latin) was in antiquity a form of organization of society, on the basis of which there was a move beyond the narrow boundaries of tribal consciousness. The Greeks and Romans believed that the absence of city policies was a sign of barbarism, and, conquering new lands, they built cities everywhere.
Numerous cities across the vast expanses of the Roman Empire were created according to the same plan: two cross-shaped intersecting highways - one from north to south, the other from east to west. At their intersection there is a square with a basilica, a market, the Capitoline Temple and the Temple of the Emperor, and near it there is a place for shows (an amphitheater or circus). Around the city there was an area where citizens' land plots were located. It was believed that people could not live otherwise, because to live like a human being, not like a barbarian, means living in a city, participating in public life. That is why Roman architecture is replete with public buildings. Rome was rightfully the center of Roman art.
The artistic culture of Rome was distinguished by great diversity and variegation of forms; it reflected features characteristic of the art of the peoples conquered by Rome, sometimes at a higher level of cultural development. Roman art developed on the basis of the complex interpenetration of the original art of local Italian tribes and peoples, primarily the powerful Etruscans, who introduced the Romans to the art of urban planning (various versions of vaults, engineering structures, tombs, residential buildings, roads, etc.), monumental wall painting, sculptural and pictorial portraits, distinguished by a keen perception of nature and character. Associated with the Etruscan tradition is a specific Italian type of residential building, the compositional center of which was the atrium - a vast hall-type room with a rectangular opening in the center of the ceiling. But the main influence was still Greek art.
The basic principles of the artistic culture of the two peoples were different in their origins. Greece, even during its period of greatest prosperity, did not represent a single state and a single geographical space, but only a conglomerate of city-states. Rome in its heyday was a single state, an empire stretching over thousands of kilometers. Hence the completely different tasks of architecture and the scale of construction. The Greeks recognized the power of harmony, proportionality and beauty, the Romans did not recognize any other power than the power of force. They created a great and powerful state, and the entire structure of Roman life was determined by this great power. Personal talents were not promoted or cultivated - the social attitude was completely different. The strength of the state was expressed primarily in construction, and therefore in architecture, which played a leading role in Roman art.
Architecture and construction. The basic principles of ancient Roman architecture, as well as ancient Roman art, were formed by the time of the republic (IV-I centuries BC).
Architectural monuments now, even in ruins, captivate with their power. The Romans marked the beginning of a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings designed for huge numbers of people: basilicas, baths, theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, libraries, markets. The list of building structures in Rome should also include religious ones: temples, altars, tombs. Throughout the ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses, canals) as architectural objects into the urban, rural ensemble and landscape, and used new building materials (concrete) and structures (arches, domes, etc.). They reworked the principles of Greek architecture, and above all the order system: they combined the order with an arched structure.
No less important in the development of Roman culture was the art of Hellenism with its architecture, which gravitated towards grandiose scales and urban centers. But the humanistic principle, noble greatness and harmony that form the basis Greek art, in Rome gave way to trends to exalt the power of the emperors and the military power of the empire. Hence the large-scale exaggerations, external effects, and the false pathos of huge structures.
Roman roads gained worldwide fame and have not lost their importance to this day. They were divided into three types (according to cost and degree of importance): military or state, under the authority of the central government, small, owned by community magistrates, private and field.
The variety of structures and the scale of construction in Ancient Rome changes significantly compared to Greece: a colossal number of huge buildings are erected. All this required a change in the technical foundations of construction. Performing the most complex tasks with the help of old technology has become impossible: in Rome, fundamentally new structures are being developed and are becoming widespread - brick-concrete ones, which make it possible to solve the problems of covering large spans, speed up construction many times over, and - what is especially important - limit the use of qualified craftsmen by moving construction processes are carried out by low-skilled and unskilled slave laborers.
Around the 4th century. BC e. mortar began to be used as a binding material (first in rubble masonry), and by the 2nd century. BC e. A new technology has emerged for the construction of monolithic walls and vaults based on mortars and small aggregate stones. An artificial monolith was obtained by mixing mortar and sand with crushed stone called “Roman concrete”. Hydraulic additives of volcanic sand - pozzolana (named after the area from which it was exported) made it waterproof and very durable. This caused a revolution in construction. This type of masonry was done quickly and made it possible to experiment with shape. The Romans knew all the advantages of baked clay, made bricks of various shapes, used metal instead of wood to ensure fire safety of buildings, and rationally used stone when laying foundations. Some secrets of Roman builders have not yet been solved.
Ancient Roman architects were familiar with the subtleties of numerical patterns; they knew various types of drawings using compasses and rulers.
In terms of importance, the most important type of building was the temple. The pinnacle of temple construction was Pantheon- temple of all gods, built in 118-125. The Patheon has no analogues in ancient Roman architecture either in composition or in design. This is a grandiose round temple, covered with a dome bowl with a diameter of almost 43 m. The entrance is made in the form of a deep multi-columned portico, topped with a pediment. Constructed using brick and concrete structures, the interior of the temple was decorated with polychrome marbles. Daylight enters the temple through a round light opening at the zenith of the dome (diameter 9 m).
Oh times, oh morals...
1. In ancient Rome, if a patient died during an operation, the doctor's hands were cut off.
2. In Rome during the Republic, a brother had legal right punish your sister for disobedience by having sex with her.
3. In ancient Rome, a group of slaves belonging to one person was called... a surname
4. Among the first fifteen Roman emperors, only Claudius did not have love affairs with men. This was considered unusual behavior and was ridiculed by poets and writers, who said: by loving only women, Claudius himself became effeminate.
5. In the Roman army, soldiers lived in tents of 10 people. At the head of each tent was a senior person, who was called... the dean.
6. B Ancient world, as in the Middle Ages, there was no toilet paper. The Romans used a stick with a cloth at the end, which was dipped in a bucket of water.
7. In Rome, rich citizens lived in houses - mansions. The guests knocked on the door of the house with a knocker and a door ring. On the threshold of the house there was a mosaic inscription “salve” (“welcome”). Some houses were guarded by slaves tied to a ring in the wall instead of dogs.
8. In ancient Rome, noble gentlemen used curly-haired boys as napkins at feasts. Or rather, of course, they only used their hair, which they wiped their hands on. For boys, it was considered incredible luck to get into the service of a high-ranking Roman as such a “table boy.”
9. Some women in Rome drank turpentine (despite the risk of fatal poisoning) because it made their urine smell like roses.
10. The tradition of the wedding kiss came to us from the Roman Empire, where the newlyweds kissed at the end of the wedding, only then the kiss had a different meaning - it meant a kind of seal under the oral marriage contract. So the marriage deal was valid
11. The popular expression “return to one’s native Penates,” meaning a return to one’s home, to the hearth, is more correctly pronounced differently: “return to one’s native Penates.” The fact is that the Penates are the Roman guardian gods of the hearth, and each family usually had images of two Penates next to the hearth.
12. The wife of the Roman Emperor Claudius, Messalina, was so lustful and depraved that she amazed her contemporaries who were accustomed to many things. According to historians Tacitus and Suetonius, she not only ran a brothel in Rome, but also worked there as a prostitute, personally serving clients. She even set up a competition with another famous prostitute and won it, servicing 50 clients versus 25.
13. The month of August, which was previously called Sextillis (sixth), was renamed in honor of the Roman emperor Augustus. January was named after the Roman god Janus, who had two faces: one looking back - in last year, and the second looked forward - into the future. The name of the month of April comes from the Latin word "aperire", which means to open, possibly due to the fact that flower buds open during this month.
14. In ancient Rome, prostitution not only was not illegal, but was also considered a common profession. Priestesses of love were not covered with shame and contempt, so they did not need to hide their status. They walked freely around the city, offering their services, and to make it easier to distinguish them from the crowd, prostitutes wore high-heeled shoes. No one else wore heels, so as not to mislead those who wanted to buy sex.
15. In Ancient Rome, there were special bronze coins to pay for the services of prostitutes - spintrii. They depicted erotic scenes - as a rule, people in various positions during sexual intercourse.
Works of literature, sculpture, applied arts, they can be judged on the basis of surviving business and friendly letters, works of historians and philosophers.
The strength of Ancient Rome is associated with important ideals and principles that were instilled in every free citizen from early childhood:
- Loyalty to the state;
- Service to society;
- Harmony of spirit and body;
- Ideals of beauty and love, etc.
One of the principles of life is loyalty to friendship, which acted as the basis of the relationship. Chatting with friends was busy a large number of time: meetings, conversations, family and friendly celebrations, mutual services and assistance in business and military spheres. Friendship was associated with the concepts of nobility, mutual assistance, kindness, and heartfelt affection.
The ancient world is also associated with the ability to have fun. If the best entertainment for the lower classes was folk holidays and festivities, visiting taverns and taverns, where they could drink, eat and gossip, the higher intellectual strata of the population preferred other entertainment:
- Reading poetry and treatises was fashionable in the heyday;
- Philosophical conversations;
- Sports competitions (chariot competitions, rowing, running, etc.).
If we talk about the period of the decline of Rome, we will have to note a general moral decline.
Decline
Luxury and wealth upper strata During the period of strengthening of the empire, they led to the disappearance of modesty and frugality, the emergence of unbridledness and arrogance. Idleness and idleness, awareness of power and strength in the absence external threat created the illusion of limitless power and permissiveness. The principles of life became profit, wealth, increase in possessions, income through the use of official position.
He builds himself large, richly furnished villas, which are bursting with gold items, expensive clothes, women's jewelry, outlandish overseas animals, etc. The family is valued less and less, the Romans do not want to have children, thinking only about their own pleasures and considering the family an unnecessary burden.
Among the poor, the family also ceases to be a value and support. During the decline of the empire, the abandonment and sale of children became common.
Gluttony
If in former times the Romans ate the same simple food with their servants, now the gentlemen eat separately. Refined and delicious dishes are prepared for them. Among the servants, the number of cooks, bakers, and confectioners is growing.
They ate food lying down, undressed to the waist so that they could “fit in more”, and ate with their hands. If the food no longer fit in the stomach, it was vomited back and eaten again.
Magicians and dancers performed in front of the feasters, and they served the gorging oligarchs women lung behavior. Wives and children were present at the feasts, participating in gluttony, drunkenness and debauchery on equal terms with men.
Spectacles and blood
A large amount of funds: both state and personal funds of major officials - was spent on organizing entertainment for the people, famous shows. The number of days off amounted to more than a third of the days in the year. Entertainment for most of the crowd was free, only the rich paid for VIP seats.
Sophisticated cruelty was expected from entertainment. Gladiator battles were valued the more highly, the more blood of people and animals flowed onto them. If they didn’t like the entertainment, the organizer was brutally tortured and killed.
Wine and women
The favorite pastimes of rich people are not books and philosophical conversations, but wine and women. Instead of a family, numerous erotic relationships are formed that do not require responsibility and care. Voluptuousness was satisfied by relations with minors, perverted relations between the sexes, and incestuous relations became common. To prolong the pleasures, noble families refused to have offspring, women went to any lengths to ensure that pregnancy did not disfigure their figures, and motherhood did not deprive them of freedom and idleness.
Normal relationships between husband and wife are becoming rare and ridiculed by many. The result was not only the moral, but also the genetic decline of the nation. Sexually transmitted diseases and impotence as a consequence of promiscuity and excess become commonplace.
Debauchery and cynicism penetrate literature, theater, and are reflected in works of decorative and applied art.
Not only men, but also women from noble families rushed in pursuit of pleasure. It became fashionable to have a brothel and engage in prostitution. This craft was not shameful; it existed completely openly.
National holidays were dedicated to the gods Priapus, Venus, Isis, and representatives of the higher and lower classes, priests, men, women and children took part in them completely openly and on equal terms.
There were several brothels in the cities; free courtesans were also popular, inviting them to their homes or soliciting clients on the streets, near churches, and in public places.
To engage in prostitution, a lower- or middle-class woman was required to register and pay a tax. This business was serviced by barkers, midwives, maids, massage therapists, and healers who made special compounds to maintain arousal. And rich courtesans behaved openly and brazenly, showing off jewelry, slaves and noble admirers.
The place where general debauchery flourished were the city baths -. During the decline of Rome, they were common to men, women and children, well lit, and lewd action took place in and around large pools.
One of the areas of habitual debauchery was male prostitution, almost as popular as female prostitution.
Reflecting on the reasons for the fall of Ancient Rome, we can say with confidence that one of the good reasons is the gradual decline of morals, the loss of high ideals, faith in the state, beauty, and family.
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Interior of a Roman building
Roman house. Reconstruction. Relander.
Interior of a Roman house. Reconstruction.
Roman feast
Mosaic floor of Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli.
Atrium of the House of the Vettii in Pompeii.
Lunch in a Roman house. The table was surrounded by three beds, and the Romans ate their food lying down, leaning on their left hand.
Interior of a Roman villa. English artist Lawrence Alma-Tadema
Hypocaust - heating system in the houses of Ancient Rome
Baths of Caracalla. Internal view. Reconstruction.
Bath accessories.
Lighting in Roman houses: 1 – silver candlesticks; 2 – bronze lamp; 3 – ceramic lamps; 4 – pendant lamp
Braziers
Silverware from Boscoreale
Silver vessel from the Hildesheim treasure.
Products served on the table in Ancient Rome. Mosaic.
Triclinium floor mosaic depicting food remains.
Image from the tomb of Vestorius Priscus in Pompeii. “When a friend visited a Roman, good manners required that the host
Image fromtombs
Vestoria Prisca in
Pompeii. "When
Roman
some friend visited
rules of good
the tones demanded
to the owner of the house
showed him
most beautiful
things from my
silver
dishes."
Feast scene. Fresco from Herculaneum.
Status of women
The head of the family was called the householder: he had children, his wife and others in his power.relatives (in families upper class the family also included slaves and
servant). The father's power was that he could give out at will
daughter to marry or divorce, sell children into slavery, he could also recognize or not
recognize your child. Patria potestas also extended to adults
sons and their family; with the death of their father, the sons became full-fledged
citizens and heads of their families.
Fathers of families, as a rule, entered into marriages between their children,
guided by prevailing moral standards and personal considerations.
A father could marry a girl from the age of 12, and marry a boy from the age of 14.
After marriage, a woman remained a member of the old family, while
claimed the family inheritance. This case was not the main one and was more like
for cohabitation than for marriage, since the wife could almost at any time
leave your husband and return home.
A Roman woman appeared freely in society, went on visits, attended
ceremonial receptions. But being involved in politics was not a woman’s business, she was not
was supposed to be present at meetings of the people.
It is important to note that the Romans also made sure that women received
education in connection with the role they had in the family: organizer
family life and children's educator in early age. There were schools where girls
studied with the boys. And it was considered honorable if they talked about the girl,
that she is an educated girl. This point needs to be considered more
in detail
Portraits of women from the Fayum.
Hairstyles of noble Roman women. On the right is Livia, wife of Augustus.
Women's jewelry.
Women's accessories: sewing basket, spindle, vase, basin, dressing table, needle case, casket.
Gold bracelet from Pompeii.
Jewelry
decorations
Women's sandals and handbag.
Female gymnasts
The tunic and toga - the basis of the ancient Roman men's costume - differed in their artistic and constructive design from the Greek chi
The tunic and toga - the basis of the ancient Roman men's costume - in their own wayartistic and constructive solutions differed from the Greek
chiton and himation, although they had common features.
A little later, these bulky heavy togas are replaced by a light cloak, reminiscent of a Greek chlamys, which was not fastened at the shoulder,
A little later, these bulky heavy togas are replaced by a light cloak,reminiscent of the Greek chlamys, which was fastened not at the shoulder, like the Greeks, but at
middle of the chest under the neck. They also wore lazerna - a cloak similar to a chlamys, but made of more
expensive fabrics woven with gold and silver threads.
Stola (lat. stola) was a special form of women's tunic with short sleeves, wide and with many folds, reaching to the ankles, at the bottom
Stola (lat. stola) was a special form of women's tunic with short sleeves, wide andwith many folds, reaching to the ankles, at the bottom of which a purple
ribbon or frill (lat. instita).
Clothes The life of the Romans during the Republican period remained quite strict. The Roman costume was similar to the Greek one, it was also draped
ClothLife of the Romans in
republican period
there was still quite a bit
strict. Roman costume
looked like Greek
was also draped,
but an aesthetic ideal
there were no ancient Romans
beautiful human
body, and harsh courageous
warriors and majestic
women. Therefore difficult
Roman costume, which
originally produced
from wool, and later from
linen cloth, attached
static figure,
majesty, some
theatricality. IN
imperial period
clothes become richer and
more magnificent. Appear
imported silk fabrics.
Clothes of Roman patricians: The man wears an embroidered tunic, toga, and calceus shoes. The woman is wearing stola and peplum. Hairstyle with bouffant and extensions
Roman clothingpatricians:
The man is wearing a tunic with embroidery,
toga, calceus shoes.
On a woman - table
and peplum. Hairstyle
with fleece and
invoices
curls.
On a woman: lined cloak-foil, tunic with a border On a man: leather armor with shoulder pads, sagum cloak, calceus boots
The main Roman elements of ornamentation are acanthus, oak, laurel leaves, climbing shoots, ears of corn, fruits, flowers, figures of people and animals, ma
The main Roman elements of ornamentation are acanthus, oak, laurel leaves,curly shoots, ears of corn, fruits, flowers, figures of people and animals, masks,
skulls, sphinxes, griffins, etc. Along with them, vases, military
trophies, flowing ribbons, etc. They often have a real shape.
The ornamentation also carried certain symbols, an allegory: the oak was considered
a symbol of the highest heavenly deity, an eagle - a symbol of Jupiter, etc.
The Greeks valued art out of love for beauty, the Romans - out of love for
luxury. In the late Roman ornament, oriental patterns gradually intensified.
influence. It outlines the features of the future style of Byzantine culture,
became the successor to antiquity.
During the heyday of the Roman state, its borders expanded greatly, including the territory of modern England, France, Spain, and Holland.
During the heyday of Romestates its borders are very
expanded to include
territory of modern
England, France, Spain,
Holland and other countries. Rome
has become a huge world
the power that led
endless wars and vast
trade. Loot
wealth, many slaves,
who did all the work, led to
luxury even in everyday life
life. All this was reflected in
character of the ancient Roman
suit.
The Romans dressed in clothes
bright colors: red,
purple, violet, yellow,
brown. Suit white
colors were considered ceremonial, his
worn for ceremonial occasions
exits.
Wall paintings in Pompeii. The woman is dressed in a blue stola, which is fastened at the shoulder with a fibula.
shoes
Kaligi. Boots worn by peasants, cab drivers and, above all, soldiers. Kaliga consisted of a thick sole (about 8 mm) with 80-90 points
Kaligi. Boots worn by peasants, cab drivers andprimarily soldiers. Kaliga consisted of a thick sole (about
8 mm) with 80-90 sharp iron nails; sewn to the sole
a piece of leather cut into strips, forming a sort of mesh around
heels and feet: toes remained open
Sandals. They consisted of a sole, which was secured to the foot with soft straps, while most of the foot remained open. Sandals
Sandals. Consistedfrom the sole, which
fastened on the leg
soft
with straps, with
that's most of it
feet remained
open. Sandals
were different colors
soles are different
heights, in winter
time also from
wool. They were worn
like house shoes.
wearing sandals in
in public places
was considered a violation
good manners.
Sitting down at the table
took off sandals or
the slave removed them for them.
Hats. Hairstyles
The ideal of beauty. The Roman ideal of beauty is very different from the Greek. Conquest policy and militarized lifestyle of the male population
The ideal of beauty. The Roman ideal of beauty is very different from the Greek. Invadingpolitics and paramilitary image life of the male population of Rome created a very
a certain ideal of a man: tough, hardy, strong, athletic
physique. A woman was considered beautiful if she was portly, dignified, had
smooth, dignified gait. Small breasts and wide hips were
ideal signs of her future motherhood of many children. Roman facial features
beauties were not supposed to be small: big eyes with large eyelids,
regular almond shape, high bridge of the nose, whimsical mouth shape,
resembling a hunting bow.