Abstract on geography completed by: student of grade 11 B Alyamkin Alexey
Natural-Technical Lyceum
Saransk-2000
Impact of rocket and space technology and civil aviation aircraft.
When operating rocket and space technology, there is an impact on the atmosphere, including stratospheric ozone, as well as on the underlying surface and ecosystems.
Areas where separated parts of launch vehicles fall. The main factors of the negative impact of rocket and space activities on the natural environment in the areas where separated parts of launch vehicles fall are:
– contamination of individual areas of soil, surface and ground water with rocket fuel components;
– contamination of the territories of the impact areas with elements of separating structures of launch vehicles;
– the possibility of explosions and the occurrence of local fires when launch vehicle stages fall;
– mechanical damage to soil and vegetation, including during subsequent evacuation of separated parts of launch vehicles.
Analysis of materials from a comprehensive assessment of the impact of rocket and space technology launches on the ecological state of the impact areas and adjacent territories allows us to draw the following main conclusions:
– intensive atmospheric transfer of contaminants from the fall site occurs within several hours after the landing of the steps and does not reach the boundaries of the fall areas in dangerous concentrations;
– analysis of statistical data on morbidity among the population of administrative districts on whose territory the fall areas are located, in particular, on the territory of the Arkhangelsk region and the Sayano-Altai region, where special surveys were carried out, did not reveal an increase in morbidity cases compared to other areas of the corresponding regions.
In 1998, 24 launch vehicles were launched, including 7 Proton launch vehicles, 8 Soyuz launch vehicles, 3 Molniya launch vehicles, 2 Kosmos launch vehicles, 1 Cyclone launch vehicle, and 1 Zenit launch vehicle. " – 3 (from the Baikonur and Plesetsk cosmodromes – 17 and 7, respectively). In addition, an experimental launch of a spacecraft from a submarine from the Arctic Ocean using a ballistic missile was carried out.
The launch of the Zenit launch vehicle, carried out from the Baikonur cosmodrome on September 10, 1998 by order of the Yuzhnoye design bureau (Ukraine) as part of the Globalstar project, ended with an emergency shutdown of the second stage engine, a subsequent explosion and the fall of the remains of the launch vehicle into the impact area, located on the territory of the Republics of Altai, Khakassia and Tyva.
Impact of rocket and space technology on the atmosphere.
The degree of impact of launch vehicles (LV) on the surface atmosphere and ozone layer is characterized by the following main indicators:
– the decrease in stratospheric ozone during launches of carriers on liquid rocket engines (LPRE) is, depending on the class of the carrier, 0.00002–0.003% in relation to the overall level of its destruction;
– the share of nitrogen oxides emitted during launch vehicles is very small and amounts to less than 0.01% of similar emissions produced by industrial, thermal power and transport facilities;
– emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere are no more than 0.00004% of emissions of this substance from other anthropogenic sources.
Thus, the impact of rocket fuel combustion products on the lower and middle layers of the atmosphere is significantly lower compared to other man-made sources of pollution.
At the same time, enterprises of the rocket and space industry continue to work aimed at reducing the negative impact of rocket launches on the surface atmosphere.
Research shows that launch vehicles have a definite effect on the upper atmosphere. In this case, its chemical composition may change and dynamic, thermal, and electromagnetic effects may appear. Sounding data show that after the launch of a launch vehicle, within about 1 hour, a partial restructuring of the ionospheric structure occurs at distances of up to 2 thousand km, which manifests itself in the occurrence of wave disturbances of the ionosphere of various scales.
In general, minimizing the impact of launch vehicles on the atmosphere can be achieved by rational planning.
Impact of aircraft on the upper atmosphere. Flights of subsonic and future supersonic aircraft, according to studies compiled by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), can have a significant impact on the upper atmosphere through emissions of fuel combustion products. Thus, the contribution of civil aviation aircraft to nitrogen oxide emissions at high altitudes is estimated at 55%, while at low altitudes it is 2–4%, and in terms of carbon dioxide and fuel consumption, the share of civil aviation in the total emissions and consumption of fossil fuels is fuel consumption is estimated at approximately 3%.
Modeling of the environmental impact of aviation shows that emissions of nitrogen oxides from all the world's subsonic aircraft flying in the upper troposphere (at altitudes of 10–13 km) could lead to an increase in ozone concentrations of 4–6%, and In the middle and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, including in air corridors open to global civil aviation over Russian territory, the increase in ozone concentration can reach 9%. Ozone, present in elevated concentrations in the upper troposphere, like carbon dioxide, enhances the greenhouse effect and can contribute to global climate change.
On the contrary, emissions of nitrogen oxides from supersonic aircraft in the stratosphere (at altitudes of about 20 km) can lead to depletion of the ozone layer (the appearance of ozone holes), which protects the Earth's surface, population, vegetation and animal world from hard ultraviolet radiation. Moreover, the sensitivity of the stratosphere to the effects of aviation is immeasurably higher than the troposphere.
In response to growing concerns about the impact of aviation on global atmospheric processes, ICAO has begun developing new standards to limit nitrogen oxide emissions from supersonic aircraft, ensuring minimal and acceptable atmospheric impacts.
Regarding subsonic aircraft in 1998, another, third in a row, tightening international standard on nitrogen oxide emissions.
In a major blow to the ozone scare, a team of researchers from Johns Hopkins University showed that there is no conclusive evidence for the expected harmful effects of a thinning ozone layer. World science has established that as a result of high ultraviolet irradiation, plant productivity drops sharply, and some people develop diseases: the incidence of cataracts and skin cancer increases, but, on the other hand, new evidence has been received that ultraviolet irradiation strengthens bones, preventing them destruction and preventing the occurrence of rickets. No cause-and-effect relationship has been found between decreased ozone levels in the lower atmosphere and increased asthma rates.
A new scourge is radioactive waste in space.
Experts responsible for the safety of space flights compare the near-Earth space to a dump of garbage and metal - thousands of large objects and millions of tiny particles of radioactive dust moving in orbit. As for suspended particles, there is still no reliable data determining their harm in concentrations that actually exist in US cities. Kay Jones, Technical Advisor to the Defense Agency external environment(EPA), said the debate about ozone and particulate matter "has nothing to do with public health. It is a debate about increasing controls and imposing additional restrictions."
Energy problem.
An irrational model of energy production and consumption still prevails in society. In a number of technologies of the near future, it is proposed to use weapons-grade uranium intended for destruction for peaceful purposes in space to create an energy network that supplies environmentally friendly energy from orbit to the planet - reflected light. The use of environmentally friendly energy from space was discussed back in 1991 by the Club of Rome, a famous gathering of politicians and intellectuals involved in solving global problems of humanity. To create giant reflectors, millions of tons of materials are needed, the delivery of which from Earth is impossible for environmental and economic reasons. Nuclear potential delivered into space by rockets can provide the required amount of extraterrestrial materials, in particular asteroidal iron. Nuclear engines can deliver into orbit a small asteroid from a group of those approaching the Earth, with the help of which, as experts from NPO Energomash, the M.V. Keldysh Research Center and others suggest, it will be possible to create a space energy-industrial network - orbital platforms with reflectors sunlight. The delivery of the next asteroids and the expansion of this network will ensure, in particular, the illumination of cities, the intensification of forest growth, etc. Of course, weapons-grade uranium can be burned in a nuclear power plant, but this will not solve the problem of radioactive waste. In addition, processing weapons-grade uranium is very economically unprofitable. The energy stored in nuclear charges can revolutionize the methods and timing of space exploration, say experts working on the project.
Satellite solar power plants.
One of the global challenges for future space transport may be a program for deploying satellite solar power plants in low-Earth orbit.
The goal is to solve the Earth's energy problem. When energy is produced on Earth by burning fuel, there is a danger of impacts on the planet’s climate (“greenhouse effect”).
Peaceful space exploration- this is an important problem, because now is the age of nanotechnology, when the boundaries of the past “impossibility” are erased, disappear, become unclear shadows and a clear understanding of everything around comes.
The starry sky above your head is only a small part of the boundless Cosmos. All humanity at all times looked into the heavens and with curiosity wanted to know the boundless sky. What can we expect from cold emptiness, which is not actually emptiness, but black matter?
Space is a global environment, the common heritage of humanity. Testing various types of weapons could threaten the entire planet at once. “Littering and “clogging” of outer space.
Space is common to all humanity and therefore its peaceful exploration is one of the most important problems today. Humanity has already gone beyond the boundaries of the earth’s atmosphere and is currently exploring deep outer space.
Today, two vectors for the use of outer space have emerged: space geoscience and space production. Space production - development of new materials, alternative energy sources, space technologies for obtaining new alloys, growing crystals, medicines, carrying out installation and welding work.
The problem of peaceful space exploration is that it is necessary to prevent a possible threat from Space to some countries from other countries. To make space not a battlefield, but a space to build the foundation of a new Coming. Also, the problem is that often military goals are covered up with military developments. And scientific goals are often aimed simply at achieving some benefit for oneself.
Solutions:
1) preventing the militarization of outer space;
2) international cooperation in space exploration.
CONCLUSIONS
Problems and situations that affect the living conditions and activities of people pose a threat to the present and future. These problems cannot be solved by the efforts of one country; they require jointly developed actions.
In the course of the development of civilization, complex problems have repeatedly arisen before humanity. But still, this was a distant prehistory of modern global problems. They fully emerged in the second half of the 20th century.
All global problems on our planet are closely interconnected. Demographic and food problems are connected both with each other and with environmental protection. Family planning in some countries will lead to faster relief from hunger and malnutrition, and agricultural progress will ease pressure on the environment. Food and resource problems are associated with overcoming the backwardness of developing countries. Improved nutrition and wiser use of resources lead to higher living standards.
The world has become more saturated with diverse connections and relationships, and at the same time with stressful situations. Dynamism and intensity of human activity both in nature and in the social environment create new problems for humanity.
Humanity still has a chance to cope with global problems, but only if all people and each person individually fight them. To do this, you need to overcome inertia in the person himself.
Introduction:
In the second half XX c. Humanity stepped onto the threshold of the Universe - it entered outer space. Our Motherland opened the road to space. The first artificial Earth satellite, which opened the space age, was launched by the former Soviet Union, the world's first cosmonaut was a citizen of the former USSR.
Space exploration is a huge catalyst modern science and technology, which has become unprecedented short term one of the main levers of the modern world process. It stimulates the development of electronics, mechanical engineering,
materials science, computer technology, energy and many other areas of the national economy.
Scientifically, humanity strives to find in space the answer to such fundamental questions as the structure and evolution of the Universe, the formation of the Solar system, the origin and development of life. From hypotheses about the nature of planets and the structure of space, people moved on to a comprehensive and direct study of celestial bodies and interplanetary space with the help of rocket and space technology.
In space exploration, humanity will have to study various areas of outer space: the Moon, other planets and interplanetary space.
The current level of space technology and the forecast for its development show that the main goal of scientific research using space means, apparently, in the near future will be our Solar system. The main tasks will be the study of solar-terrestrial connections and the Earth-Moon space, as well as Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and other planets, astronomical research, medical and biological research in order to assess the influence of flight duration on the human body and its performance.
In principle, the development of space technology should be ahead of the “Demand” associated with solving current national economic problems. The main tasks here are launch vehicles, propulsion systems, spacecraft, as well as supporting facilities (command-measuring and launch complexes, equipment, etc.), ensuring progress in related branches of technology directly or indirectly related to the development of astronautics.
Fantasy is a quality of the greatest value V. I. Lenin
Before flying into outer space, it was necessary to understand and use in practice the principle of jet propulsion, learn how to make rockets, create a theory of interplanetary communications, etc.
Rocketry is not a new concept. Man went to the creation of powerful modern launch vehicles through millennia of dreams, fantasies, mistakes, searches in various fields of science and technology, accumulation of experience and knowledge.
The principle of operation of a rocket is its movement under the influence of recoil force, the reaction of a stream of particles thrown away from the rocket. In a rocket. i.e., in a device equipped with a rocket engine, the escaping gases are formed due to the reaction of the oxidizer and fuel stored in the rocket itself. This circumstance makes the operation of a rocket engine independent of the presence or absence of a gaseous environment. Thus, the rocket is an amazing structure, capable of moving in airless space, i.e., non-supporting space.
A special place among Russian projects for the application of the jet principle of flight is occupied by the project of N. I. Kibalchich, a famous Russian revolutionary who, despite his short life (1853−1881), left a deep mark in the history of science and technology. Having extensive and deep knowledge of mathematics, physics and especially chemistry, Kibalchich made homemade shells and mines for the People's Will. The “Aeronautical Instrument Project” was the result of Kibalchich’s long-term research work on explosives. He, essentially, for the first time proposed not a rocket engine adapted to any existing aircraft, as other inventors did, but a completely new (rocket-dynamic) device, the prototype of modern manned spacecraft, in which the thrust of the rocket engines serves to directly create a lifting force that supports the device in flight . Kibalchich's aircraft was supposed to function on the principle of a rocket!
But because Kibalchich was sent to prison for the assassination attempt on Tsar Alexander II,
The design of his aircraft was discovered only in 1917 in the archives of the police department.
So, by the end of the last century, the idea of using jet instruments for flights gained large scale in Russia. And the first who decided to continue research was our great compatriot Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (1857−1935). He began the reactive principle of movement It's too early to be interested. Already in 1883 he gave a description of a ship with a jet engine. Already in 1903, Tsiolkovsky, for the first time in the world, made it possible to construct a liquid rocket design. Tsiolkovsky's ideas received universal recognition back in the 1920s. And the brilliant successor of his work, S.P. Korolev, a month before the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, said that the ideas and works of Konstantin Eduardovich would attract more and more attention as rocket technology developed, in which he turned out to be absolutely right!
Beginning of the space age
And so, 40 years after the aircraft design created by Kibalchich was found, on October 4, 1957, former USSR
launched the world's first artificial satellite. The first Soviet satellite made it possible for the first time to measure the density of the upper atmosphere, obtain data on the propagation of radio signals in the vionosphere, work out issues of insertion into orbit, thermal conditions, etc. The satellite was an aluminum sphere with a diameter of 58 cm and a mass of 83.6 kg with four whip antennas 2.4-2 long .9 m. The satellite’s sealed housing housed equipment and power supplies. The initial orbital parameters were: perigee altitude 228 km, apogee altitude 947 km, inclination 65.1 deg. the 3rd of November Soviet Union announced the launch of the second Soviet satellite into orbit. In a separate hermetic cabin there was a dog Laika and a telemetry system to record its weightless behavior. The satellite was also equipped with scientific instruments for studying solar radiation and cosmic rays.
On December 6, 1957, the United States attempted to launch the Avangard 1 satellite using a launch vehicle developed by the Naval Research Laboratory. After ignition, the rocket rose up on the launch table, but a second later the engines turned off and the rocket fell onto the table, exploding on impact.
On January 31, 1958, the Explorer 1 satellite was launched into orbit, the American response to the launch of Soviet satellites. By size and
For the most part, he was not a candidate for record holder. Less than 1 m long and only ~15.2 cm in diameter, it had a mass of only 4.8 kg.
However, its payload was attached to the fourth and final
it is the stage of the Juno-1 launch vehicle. The satellite, together with the rocket in orbit, had a length of 205 cm and a mass of 14 kg. It was equipped with external and internal temperature sensors, erosion and impact sensors to determine micrometeorite flows, and a Geiger-Muller counter to record penetrating cosmic rays.
An important scientific result of the satellite's flight was the discovery of the radiation belts surrounding the Earth. The Geiger-Muller counter stopped counting when the device was at apogee at an altitude of 2530 km, the perigee altitude was 360 km.
On February 5, 1958, the United States made a second attempt to launch the Avangard-1 satellite, but it also ended in an accident, like the first attempt. Finally, on March 17, the satellite was launched into orbit. Between December 1957 and September 1959, eleven attempts were made to place Avangard-1 into orbit, only three of which were successful. that. Between December 1957 and September 1959, eleven attempts were made to place the Avangard into orbit.
Both satellites contributed a lot of new things to space science and technology (solar batteries, new data on density upper atmosphere, precise mapping of islands in the Pacific Ocean, etc.) On August 17, 1958, the United States made the first attempt to send a probe with scientific equipment from Cape Canaveral to the vicinity of the Moon. It turned out to be unsuccessful. The rocket rose and flew only 16 km. The first stage of the rocket exploded 77 minutes into the flight. On October 11, 1958, a second attempt was made to launch the Pioneer 1 lunar probe, which was also unsuccessful. The next few launches also turned out to be unsuccessful, only on March 3, 1959, “Pioneer-4”, weighing 6.1 kg, partially completed the task: it flew past the Moon at a distance of 60,000 km (instead of the planned 24,000 km).
Just as with the launch of the Earth satellite, priority in launching the first probe belongs to the USSR; on January 2, 1959, the first man-made object was launched, which was placed on a trajectory passing fairly close to the Moon into orbit
satellite of the Sun. Thus, Luna-1 reached the second escape velocity for the first time. Luna 1 had a mass of 361.3 kg and flew past the Moon at a distance of 5500 km. At a distance of 113,000 km from Earth, a cloud of sodium vapor was released from a rocket stage docked to Luna 1, forming an artificial comet. Solar radiation caused a bright glow of sodium vapor and optical systems on Earth photographed the cloud in the background
constellation Aquarius.
Luna 2, launched on September 12, 1959, made the world's first flight to another heavenly body. The 390.2-kilogram sphere housed instruments that showed that the Moon does not have a magnetic field or radiation belt.
The automatic interplanetary station (AMS) “Luna-3” was launched on October 4, 1959. The weight of the station was 435 kg. The main purpose of the launch was to fly around the Moon and photograph its reverse side, invisible from the Earth. Photographing was carried out 7
October for 40 minutes from an altitude of 6200 km above the Moon.
Man in space
On April 12, 1961, at 9:07 a.m. Moscow time, several tens of kilometers north of the village of Tyuratam in Kazakhstan, at the Soviet Baikonur Cosmodrome, the launch of the R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile took place, in the bow compartment of which the manned Vostok spacecraft was located with Air Force Major Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin on board. . The launch was successful. The spacecraft was launched into orbit with an inclination of 65 degrees, a perigee altitude of 181 km and an apogee altitude of 327 km and completed one orbit around the Earth in 89 minutes. At the 108th minute after launch, it returned to Earth, landing near the village of Smelovka, Saratov region. Thus, 4 years after the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, the Soviet Union for the first time in the world carried out a human flight into outer space.
The spacecraft consisted of two compartments. The descent module, which was also the cosmonaut's cabin, was a sphere with a diameter of 2.3 m, coated with an ablative material for thermal protection upon entry into the atmosphere. The spacecraft was controlled automatically and by the astronaut. During the flight it was continuously maintained with the Earth. The atmosphere of the ship is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen under a pressure of 1 atm. (760 mmHg). Vostok-1 had a mass of 4730 kg, and with the last stage of the launch vehicle 6170 kg. The Vostok spacecraft was launched into space 5 times, after which it was declared safe for human flight.
3rd rank Alan Shepard became the first American astronaut.
Although it did not reach Earth orbit, it rose above the Earth
to an altitude of about 186 km. Shepard launched from Cape Canaveral in
Spacecraft "Mercury-3" using a modified ballistic
Redstone rockets, spent 15 minutes 22 in flight with an additional landing in the Atlantic Ocean. He proved that a person in conditions of weightlessness can exercise manual control of a spacecraft. The Mercury spacecraft was significantly different from the Vostok spacecraft.
It consisted of only one module - a manned capsule in
shaped like a truncated cone 2.9 m long and base diameter
1.89 m . Its sealed nickel alloy shell was lined with titanium to protect it from heat upon entry into the atmosphere.
The atmosphere inside Mercury consisted of pure oxygen
under a pressure of 0.36 at.
Canaveral launched the Mercury 6 spacecraft, manned by
Navy Lieutenant Colonel John Glenn. Glenn spent only 4 hours 55 minutes in orbit, completing 3 orbits before a successful landing. The purpose of Glenn's flight was to determine the possibility of a person working in the Mercury spacecraft. The last time Mercury was launched into space was on May 15, 1963.
On March 18, 1965, the Voskhod spacecraft was launched into orbit with two cosmonauts on board - the ship’s commander, Colonel Pavel
Ivarovich Belyaev and co-pilot Lieutenant Colonel Alexey Arkhipovich Leonov. Immediately after entering orbit, the crew cleared themselves of nitrogen by inhaling pure oxygen. Then there was
The airlock compartment was deployed: Leonov entered the airlock compartment, closed the spacecraft hatch cover and for the first time in the world made an exit into outer space. The cosmonaut with an autonomous life support system was outside the spacecraft cabin for 20 minutes, at times moving away from the spacecraft at a distance of up to 5 m. During the exit, he was connected to the spacecraft only by telephone and telemetry cables. Thus, the possibility of the cosmonaut staying and working outside the spacecraft was practically confirmed.
On June 3, the spacecraft Gemeny 4 was launched with captains James McDivitt and Edward White. During this flight, which lasted 97 hours and 56 minutes, White exited the spacecraft and spent 21 minutes outside the cockpit testing the possibility of maneuvering in space using a hand-held compressed gas jet gun.
Unfortunately, space exploration was not without casualties. On January 27, 1967, the crew preparing to make the first
manned flight under the Apollo program died on time
fire inside the spacecraft burned out in 15 s in an atmosphere of pure oxygen. Virgil Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee became the first American astronauts to die on space mission. On April 23, the new Soyuz-1 spacecraft was launched from Baikonur, piloted by Colonel Vladimir Komarov. The launch was successful.
On the 18th orbit, 26 hours 45 minutes after launch, Komarov began orientation to enter the atmosphere. All operations went well, but after re-entry and braking, the parachute system failed. The astronaut died instantly when the Soyuz hit the Earth at a speed of 644 km/h. Subsequently, space took away more than one human life, but these victims were the first.
It should be noted that in terms of natural science and production, the world faces a number of global problems, the solution of which requires the united efforts of all peoples. These are problems of raw materials resources, energy, environmental control and conservation of the biosphere, and others. Space research, one of the most important areas of the scientific and technological revolution, will play a huge role in their fundamental solution.
Cosmonautics clearly demonstrates to the whole world the fruitfulness of peaceful creative work and the benefits of joining forces different countries in solving scientific and national economic problems.
What problems do astronautics and the astronauts themselves face?
Let's start with life support. What is life support?Life support in space flight is the creation and maintenance during the entire flight in the living and working compartments of spacecraft. such conditions that would provide the crew with sufficient performance to complete the assigned task and a minimum likelihood of pathological changes occurring in the human body. How to do it? It is necessary to significantly reduce the degree of exposure of humans to unfavorable external factors of space flight - vacuum, meteoric bodies, penetrating radiation, weightlessness, overloads; supply the crew with substances and energy without which normal human life is not possible - food, water, oxygen and food; remove waste products of the body and substances harmful to health released during the operation of spacecraft systems and equipment; provide human needs for movement, rest, external information and normal working conditions; organize medical monitoring of the health of the crew and maintain it at the required level. Food and water are delivered into space in appropriate packaging, oxygen - in a chemically bound form. If you do not restore waste products, then for a crew of three people for one year you will need 11 tons of the above products, which, you see, is a considerable weight, volume, and how will it all be stored throughout the year?!
In the near future, regeneration systems will make it possible to almost completely reproduce oxygen and water on board the station. For a long time, they began to use post-wash and shower water purified in a regeneration system. The exhaled moisture is condensed in the refrigeration-drying unit and then regenerated. Breathable oxygen is extracted from purified water by electrolysis, and hydrogen gas reacts with carbon dioxide coming from the concentrator to form water, which feeds the electrolyzer. The use of such a system makes it possible to reduce the mass of stored substances in the considered example from 11 to 2 tons. Recently, it has been practiced to grow various types of plants directly on board the ship, which makes it possible to reduce the supply of food that needs to be taken into space, Tsiolkovsky mentioned this in his works.
Space science
Space exploration helps in many ways in the development of sciences:
On December 18, 1980, the phenomenon of the flow of particles from the Earth's radiation belts under negative magnetic anomalies was established.
Experiments carried out on the first satellites showed that the near-Earth space outside the atmosphere is not “empty” at all. It is filled with plasma, permeated with streams of energy particles. In 1958, the Earth's radiation belts were discovered in near space - giant magnetic traps filled with charged particles - protons and high-energy electrons.
The highest intensity of radiation in the belts is observed at altitudes of several thousand km. Theoretical estimates showed that below 500 km. There should be no increased radiation. Therefore, the discovery of the first K.K. during flights was completely unexpected. areas of intense radiation at altitudes up to 200−300 km. It turned out that this is due to anomalous zones of the Earth's magnetic field.
Research circulated natural resources Earth using space methods, which greatly contributed to the development of the national economy.
The first problem that faced space researchers in 1980 was a complex of scientific research, including most of the most important areas of space natural science. Their goal was to develop methods for thematic decoding of multispectral video information and their use in solving problems in the geosciences and economic sectors. These tasks include: studying global and local structures earth's crust to understand the history of its development.
The second problem is one of the fundamental physical and technical problems of remote sensing and is aimed at creating catalogs of radiation characteristics of earthly objects and models of their transformation, which will make it possible to analyze the state of natural formations at the time of shooting and predict their dynamics.
A distinctive feature of the third problem is the focus on the radiation characteristics of large regions up to the planet as a whole, using data on the parameters and anomalies of the Earth’s gravitational and geomagnetic fields.
Exploring the Earth from space
Man for the first time appreciated the role of satellites for monitoring the condition
agricultural land, forests and other natural resources
Earth only a few years after the onset of space
era. The beginning was made in 1960, when, with the help of the Tiros meteorological satellites, map-like outlines of the globe lying under the clouds were obtained. These first black-and-white TV images gave very little insight into human activity, but it was still a first step. Soon new technical means were developed that made it possible to improve the quality of observations. Information was extracted from multispectral images in the visible and infrared (IR) regions of the spectrum. The first satellites designed to make maximum use of these capabilities were Landsat-type devices. For example, the Landsat-D satellite ", the fourth in the series, observed the Earth from an altitude of more than 640 km using advanced sensitive instruments, allowing consumers to receive significantly more detailed and timely information. One of the first areas of application of images earth's surface, there was cartography. Pre-satellite era maps of many areas, even developed ones
areas of the world were compiled inaccurately. Images taken from
using the Landsat satellite, allowed us to correct and update some existing US maps. In the USSR, images obtained from the Salyut station turned out to be indispensable for calibrating the BAM railway route.
In the mid-70s, NASA and the US Department of Agriculture decided to demonstrate the capabilities of the satellite system in forecasting the most important agricultural crop, wheat. Satellite observations, which turned out to be extremely accurate, were later extended to other crops. Around the same time, in the USSR, observations of agricultural crops were carried out by satellites of the Cosmos, Meteor, Monsoon series and Salyut orbital stations.
The use of satellite information has revealed its undeniable advantages in estimating the volume of timber in large areas of any country. It has become possible to manage the deforestation process and, if necessary, make recommendations for changes
contours of the felling area from the point of view of the best preservation of the forest. Satellite imagery has also made it possible to quickly estimate the boundaries of wildfires, especially the crown fires found in western North America, and
the same regions of Primorye and southern regions Eastern Siberia in Russia.
Of great importance for humanity as a whole is the ability to observe almost continuously the vastness of the World Ocean,
this “forge” of weather. It is above the thickness of ocean water that monstrous hurricanes and typhoons arise, causing numerous casualties and destruction for coastal residents. Early warning of the population is often critical to saving the lives of tens of thousands of people. Determining the stocks of fish and other seafood also has a huge practical significance. Ocean currents often bend, change course and size. For example, El Nino, a warm current in south direction off the coast of Ecuador in some years it can spread along the coast of Peru up to 12 degrees. S. When this happens, plankton and fish die in huge quantities, causing irreparable damage to the fisheries of many countries, including Russia. Large concentrations of single-celled marine organisms increase fish mortality, possibly due to the toxins they contain. Observation from satellites helps to identify the “whims” of such currents and give useful information to those who need it. By
Some Russian and American scientists estimate that the fuel savings, combined with the “extra catch” from using infrared satellite information, results in an annual profit of $2.44 million. The use of satellites for survey purposes has made the task of plotting a course easier sea vessels. Satellites also detect icebergs and glaciers that are dangerous for ships. Accurate knowledge of snow reserves in the mountains and the volume of glaciers is an important task of scientific research, because as arid territories are developed, the need for water increases sharply.
The cosmonauts' help was invaluable in creating the largest cartographic work - the Atlas of Snow and Ice Resources of the World.
Also, with the help of satellites, oil pollution, air pollution, and minerals are found.
Space Science
Within a short period of time since the beginning of the space age, man has not only sent automated space stations to other planets and set foot on the surface of the Moon, but has also created a revolution in space science unmatched in the entire history of mankind. Along with great technical achievements caused by the development of astronautics, new knowledge was gained about planet Earth and its neighboring worlds. One of the first important discoveries, made not by traditional visual, but by another method of observation, was the establishment of the fact of a sharp increase with height, starting from a certain threshold height, in the intensity of previously considered isotropic cosmic rays. This discovery belongs to the Austrian W.F. Hess, who launched it in 1946. gas balloon with equipment for high altitudes.
In 1952 and 1953 Dr. James Van Allen conducted research on low-
to energetic cosmic rays when launching small rockets to a height of 19−24 km and high-altitude balloons in the area of the Earth’s north magnetic pole. After analyzing the results of the experiments, Van Allen proposed placing cosmic ray detectors that were fairly simple in design on board the first American artificial Earth satellites.
Using the Explorer 1 satellite launched into orbit by the United States
On January 31, 1958, a sharp decrease in the intensity of cosmic radiation was discovered at altitudes above 950 km. At the end of 1958, the Pioneer-3 AMS, which covered a distance of over 100,000 km in one day of flight, recorded, using the sensors on board, the second, located above the first, Earth’s radiation belt, which also encircles the entire globe.
In August and September 1958, at an altitude of more than 320 km, three atomic explosion, each with a capacity of 1.5 kt. The purpose of the tests, codenamed "Argus", was to study the possibility
loss of radio and radar communications during such tests. The study of the Sun is the most important scientific task, the solution of which is devoted to many launches of the first satellites and spacecraft.
American “Pioneer-4” - “Pioneer-9” (1959−1968) were transmitted by radio to Earth from near-solar orbits vital information about the structure of the Sun. At the same time, more than twenty satellites of the Intercosmos series were launched to study the Sun and
circumsolar space.
Black holes
Black holes were discovered in the 1960s. It turned out that if our eyes could only see x-rays, the starry sky above us would look completely different. True, X-rays emitted by the Sun were discovered even before the birth of astronautics, but they were not aware of other sources in the starry sky. We came across them by accident.
In 1962, the Americans, deciding to check whether X-ray radiation was emanating from the surface of the Moon, launched a rocket equipped with special equipment. It was then that, when processing the observation results, we became convinced that the instruments noted a powerful source of X-ray radiation. It was located in the constellation Scorpio. And already in the 70s, the first two satellites, designed to search for research into sources of X-rays in the universe, entered orbit - the American Uhuru and the Soviet Cosmos-428.
By this time, things had already begun to become clear. Objects emitting X-rays were able to be associated with barely visible stars with unusual properties. These were compact plasma clots of insignificant, of course by cosmic standards, sizes and masses, heated to several tens of millions of degrees. Despite their very modest appearance, these objects possessed a colossal power of X-ray radiation, several thousand times greater than the full compatibility of the Sun.
These tiny, about 10 km in diameter, remains of completely burned out stars, compressed to a monstrous density, had to somehow make themselves known. That is why neutron stars were so readily “recognized” in X-ray sources. And it seemed like everything was coming together. But the calculations refuted expectations: newly formed neutron stars should have immediately cooled down and stopped emitting, but these ones emitted x-rays.
With the help of launched satellites, researchers discovered strictly periodic changes in the radiation fluxes of some of them. The period of these variations was also determined - usually it did not exceed several days. Only two stars rotating around themselves could behave this way, one of which periodically eclipsed the other. This has been proven by observation through telescopes.
Where do X-ray sources get their colossal radiation energy? The main condition for the transformation of a normal star into a neutron star is considered to be the complete attenuation of the nuclear reaction in it. Therefore nuclear energy is excluded. Then maybe it's kinetic energy a rapidly rotating massive body? Indeed, it is great for neutron stars. But it only lasts for a short time.
Most neutron stars do not exist alone, but in pairs with a huge star. In their interaction, theorists believe, the source of the mighty power of cosmic X-rays is hidden. It forms a disk of gas around the neutron star. At the magnetic poles of the neutron ball, the substance of the disk falls onto its surface, and the energy acquired by the gas is converted into X-ray radiation.
Cosmos-428 also presented its own surprise. His equipment registered a new, completely unknown phenomenon - X-ray flashes. In one day, the satellite detected 20 bursts, each of which lasted no more than 1 second, and the radiation power increased tens of times. Scientists called the sources of X-ray flares BARSTERS. They are also associated with binary systems. The most powerful flares in terms of energy fired are only several times inferior to the total radiation of hundreds of billions of stars located in our galaxy.
Theorists have proven that “black holes” that are part of binary star systems can signal about themselves x-rays. And the reason for its occurrence is also gas accretion. True, the mechanism in this case is somewhat different. The internal parts of the gas disk settling into the “hole” should heat up and therefore become sources of X-rays.
By transitioning to a neutron star, only those luminaries whose mass does not exceed 2-3 solar ones end their “life”. Larger stars suffer the fate of a “black hole.”
X-ray astronomy told us about the last, perhaps the most rapid, stage of the development of stars. Thanks to her, we learned about the most powerful space explosions, gas with a temperature of tens and hundreds of millions of degrees, about the possibility of a completely unusual superdense state of substances in “black holes”.
What else does space give us? For a long time now, television programs have not mentioned the fact that the transmission is carried out via satellite. This is further evidence of the enormous success in the industrialization of space, which has become an integral part of our lives. Communication satellites literally entangle the world with invisible threads. The idea of creating communication satellites was born shortly after the Second World War, when A. Clark in an issue of the magazine Wireless World ) in October 1945 presented his concept of a communications relay station located at an altitude of 35,880 km above the Earth.
Clark's merit was that he determined the orbit on
in which the satellite is stationary relative to the Earth. This orbit is called geostationary or Clarke orbit. When driving
in a circular orbit with an altitude of 35,880 km, one orbit is completed
in 24 hours, i.e. during the period of the Earth’s daily rotation. Satellite,
moving in such an orbit will constantly be above
a certain point on the Earth's surface.
The first communications satellite "Telstar-1" was launched into low Earth orbit with parameters of 950 × 5630 km; this happened
elk on July 10, 1962. Almost a year later, the Telstar-2 satellite followed. The first telecast showed the American flag in New England with the Andover station in the background. This image was transmitted to the UK, France and to the American station in the state. New Jersey 15 hours after satellite launch. Two weeks later, millions of Europeans and Americans watched negotiations between people on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. They not only talked, but also saw each other, communicating via satellite. Historians can consider this day the birth date of space TV. The largest in the world government system satellite communications was created in Russia. It began in April 1965 with the launch of the Molniya series satellites, launched into highly elongated elliptical orbits with an apogee above the Northern Hemisphere. Each series includes four pairs of satellites orbiting at an angular distance from each other of 90 degrees.
The first long-range system was built on the basis of the Molniya satellites.
space communications "Orbit". In December 1975, the family of communications satellites was replenished with the Raduga satellite, operating in geostationary orbit. Then the Ekran satellite appeared with a more powerful transmitter and simpler ground stations. After the first development of satellites, a new period began in the development of satellite communications technology, when satellites began to be launched into a geostationary orbit in which they move synchronously with the rotation of the Earth. This made it possible to establish round-the-clock communication between ground stations using new generation satellites: the American Sinkom, Airlie Bird and Intelsat, and the Russian Raduga and Horizon satellites.
A great future is associated with the deployment of geostationary
orbit of antenna complexes.
On June 17, 1991, the ERS-1 geodetic satellite was launched into orbit. The main task The satellites were to monitor the oceans and ice-covered land masses to provide climatologists, oceanographers, and environmental organizations with data on these little-explored regions. The satellite was equipped with the most modern microwave equipment, thanks to which it is ready for any weather: the “eyes” of its radar instruments penetrate through cloud mists and provide a clear image of the Earth’s surface, through water, through land, and through ice. ERS -1 was aimed at developing ice maps, which would subsequently help avoid many disasters associated with collisions of ships with icebergs, etc.
With all that, the development of shipping routes is, speaking of
in different words, just the tip of the iceberg, if you only remember the decoding of ERS data on the oceans and ice-covered spaces of the Earth. We are aware of alarming forecasts of global warming of the Earth, which will lead to the melting of the polar caps and rising sea levels. All coastal areas will be flooded, millions of people will suffer.
But we do not know how correct these predictions are. Long-term observations of the polar regions by ERS-1 and its subsequent ERS-2 satellite in late autumn 1994 provide data from which conclusions can be drawn about these trends. They are creating an “early detection” system for melting ice.
Thanks to the images that the ERS-1 satellite transmitted to Earth, we know that the ocean floor with its mountains and idols is, as it were, “imprinted” on the surface of the waters. This way, scientists can get an idea of whether the distance from the satellite to the sea surface (measured to within ten centimeters by satellite radar altimeters) is an indication of rising sea levels, or whether it is the “imprint” of a mountain on the bottom.
Although the ERS-1 satellite was originally designed for ocean and ice observations, it quickly proved its versatility in relation to land. In agriculture and forestry, fisheries, geology and cartography, specialists work with data provided by satellite. Since ERS-1 is still operational after three years of its mission, scientists have a chance to operate it together with ERS-2 for shared missions, as a tandem. And they are going to receive new information about the topography of the earth's surface and provide assistance, for example, in warning about possible earthquakes.
The ERS-2 satellite is also equipped with a measuring instrument
Global OzoneMonitoring Experiment Home which takes into account volume
and the distribution of ozone and other gases in the Earth's atmosphere. Using this device, you can observe the dangerous ozone hole and the changes that occur. At the same time, according to ERS-2 data, it is possible to divert UV-B radiation close to the ground.
Against the backdrop of the many global environmental problems for which both ERS-1 and ERS-2 must provide fundamental information, planning shipping routes seems to be a relatively minor output of this work.new generation of satellites. But this is one of the technical areas in which
The opportunities for commercial use of satellite data are being exploited particularly intensively. This helps in funding other important tasks. And this has an effect on environmental protection that is difficult to overestimate: faster shipping routes require less energy consumption. Or think about the oil tankers that ran aground in storms or crashed and sank, losing their environmentally hazardous cargo. Reliable route planning helps avoid such disasters.
In conclusion, it is fair to say that the twentieth century is rightly called the “age of electricity”, “atomic age”, “age of chemistry”, “age of biology”. But its most recent and, apparently, also fair name is “space age.” Humanity has embarked on a path leading to mysterious cosmic distances, conquering which it will expand the scope of its activities. The space future of humanity is the guarantee of its continuous development on the path of progress and prosperity, which was dreamed of and created by those who worked and are working today in the field of astronautics and other sectors of the national economy.
Used Books:
1."Space technology" edited by K. Gatland. 1986 Moscow.
2.“SPACE, far and near” A.D. Koval V.P. Senkevich. 1977
3.“Space exploration in the USSR” V.L. Barsukov 1982.
4.“Space for earthlings” Beregovoi
6. _________________________________________________________
During the development of civilization, humanity often faced problems. In many ways, it was thanks to them that people managed to rise to the top. new stage. But thanks to globalization, which has connected the most remote corners of the planet together, each new difficulty in development can threaten the survival of the entire civilization. The problem of peaceful space exploration is one of the newest, but far from the simplest.
Terminological apparatus
Global problems are contradictions that are characterized by a planetary scale. Their severity and dynamics of worsening require the combined efforts of all humanity to be resolved. Modern scientists classify as global those problems that act as important factor, impeding the development of civilization, and affecting the vital interests of the world community. They are usually divided into three main groups, depending on the aspect public life, with which their occurrence is associated. It is important to understand each one, since their resolution requires effective policies at all levels: national, regional, global.
Groups and their characteristics
Depending on the areas of public life that they affect, the following global dangers for humanity are identified:
- Problems in the field of international relations. This group includes the dangers of war and peace, the survival of mankind, and applications. Recently, the problem of peaceful exploration of space and the ocean has also arisen. Solving these problems requires concerted action by all and the creation of international institutions.
- Issues affecting human life in society. The main ones in this group are food and demographic. It is also important to preserve the cultural heritage of our civilization and overcome the negative aspect of the scientific and technological development of mankind.
- Problems of human interaction with nature. These include environmental, energy, raw materials and climate.
positive and negative aspects
The starry sky, which humanity never tires of admiring throughout its history, is only a small part of the cosmos. Its limitlessness is difficult to comprehend. Moreover, it was only in the 60s of the last century that people first took the first steps towards its development. But we immediately realized the enormous opportunities that the exploration of other planets opens up. The problem of peaceful space exploration was not even considered at that time. No one thought about reliability and only sought to get ahead of other countries. Scientists focused on new materials, growing plants in the atmosphere of other planets and other equally interesting issues. At the dawn of the space age, there was no time to worry about waste from used technology. But today it threatens the further development of the industry.
Global problems of humanity: peaceful space exploration
Space is a new environment for humans. But already now there is a problem of debris clogging the near-Earth space with debris from obsolete equipment. According to researchers, the liquidation of the stations resulted in about 3,000 tons of debris. This figure is comparable to the mass of the upper layer of the atmosphere, which is located above two hundred kilometers. Contamination poses a risk to new manned objects. And the problem of peaceful space exploration threatens further research in this area. Today, designers of aircraft and other equipment are forced to take into account the debris in Earth's orbit. But it is dangerous not only for astronauts, but also for ordinary residents. According to scientists, one of one and a half hundred pieces of debris that reached the surface of the planet could seriously injure a person. If a solution to the problem of peaceful space exploration is not found soon, then the era of flights beyond the Earth may end ingloriously.
Legal aspect
Outer space is not under the jurisdiction of any state. Therefore, in fact, national laws cannot operate on its territory. Consequently, when mastering it, all participants in the process have to come to an agreement. For this purpose, international organizations are created that develop rules and monitor their implementation. National laws must comply with them, but it is not possible to keep track of this. Therefore, there is every reason to believe that the problem of peaceful space exploration arose because of this state of affairs. Until the permissible limits of human impact on near-Earth space are determined, the danger will only increase. It is important to determine the status of space as an international object of protection and to study it exclusively in accordance with this provision.
The problem of peaceful space exploration: solutions
The 20th century was marked not only by outstanding discoveries that changed our understanding of the world around us, but also by the worsening of all existing problems. Today they have become global, and the continued existence of our civilization depends on their solution. In the last century, man was finally able to conquer the starry sky. But the rosy predictions of science fiction writers have not yet been destined to come true, but the emerging problem of peaceful space exploration makes us think about the veracity of dystopias. Sometimes there is even a feeling that humanity is moving uncontrollably towards its destruction. But before we forget how to think, there is hope to direct the energy of our minds in the right direction. Global problem peaceful space exploration can be resolved. You just need to overcome your selfishness and indifference to each other and the environment.
The world of science regarding astronautics, despite small advances in this field, has been virtually stagnant for the past 50 years. Although colossal amounts of money are spent on research, practical results This does not benefit humanity. This indicates a deep systemic crisis in the global space industry. Why? This situation is primarily due to the fact that world society is in a state of cultural, moral and spiritual systemic crisis, in thinking modern man the consumer attitude towards life dominates. Scientific funding has moved from the stage of “benefiting people” to the stage of “it’s prestigious that they are doing this in our country,” but in fact, scientific stagnation occurs.
This state of affairs also applies to the field of space exploration. There are too many unsolved problems facing the world of science, such as: meteorite danger, astronaut health in space, cosmic radiation (radiation), etc.
An unexpected encounter between a spaceship and a meteorite can end tragically for the aircraft. The speed of meteorites that we see in the night sky as “shooting stars” is on average 50 times faster than the speed of a bullet. Also, artificial space objects, the so-called space debris, for example, lost satellites, fragments of exploding rockets, bolts, cables that orbit the earth. The cluttering of space and the reluctance of people to jointly solve these problems creates a threat of deepening confrontation between countries. For example, a unique orbit, the only one for all actively operating communication satellites, is the geostationary orbit. However, today, out of 1,200 objects located on it, only a few hundred are actively working satellites, the rest is “space debris” of civilization. This suggests that in the next 20 years, while maintaining the same intensity of launching satellites into geostationary orbit, the unique resource will ultimately be exhausted and competition for the required place in this orbit will increase many times over.
The inability of the human physical body to adapt to the conditions of outer space. Experimental flights have shown that the lack of gravity has a detrimental effect on human health. A year on Earth does not eliminate the consequences of flight, because... in conditions of weightlessness, bone mass is lost, fat metabolism is disrupted, muscles weaken, and a person, having returned to normal conditions of existence, cannot stand on his feet, and consciousness, sometimes, unable to withstand the drop, simply turns off. Experts say that the consequences of a long stay in space can be very sad for a person: this is not only a problem with memory, but also possible loss some body functions related to the reproductive process, the occurrence of cancerous tumors and much more.
High level of radioactive radiation. Particles leaving the open space, have a huge energy charge of more than 10 20 eV, which is millions higher than what can be obtained, for example, in the Large Hadron Collider. And all this happens because the conditions in which elementary particles are located on Earth and in space have significant differences. Modern science has too few answers regarding the behavior and properties of elementary particles.
Launch into space. Nowadays, astronautics, just like 52 years ago, relies on rocket technology, that is, humanity can only go into space with the help of rocket launches. Currently, astronautics does not have promising carriers capable of making a new evolutionary leap in the development of this industry.
But society can solve any problems if we transfer human development from the vector of selfish consumption to the vector of spiritual creation. Everything in the world consists of elementary particles. But absolute, accurate knowledge is needed about what exactly elementary particles are made of and how to control them. Only with the help of such knowledge can one create the necessary conditions to achieve the desired results and reproduce processes in the required quality and quantity. Already now, thanks to the knowledge of the PRIMORDIALALLATRA PHYSICISTS are conducting scientific research in many areas, including in the field of the latest technologies for space exploration.
, prepared by the international research group ALLATRA SCIENCE: “Knowledge of PRIMORDIAL ALLATRA PHYSICS opens access to an inexhaustible source of energy that is everywhere, including in outer space. This is renewable energy, thanks to which elementary particles are created, their movement and interaction occur. The ability to receive it and transfer it from one state to another opens up a new, safe, easily accessible source of alternative energy for every person.” Considering that visible world consists of elementary particles, knowing their combinations can be artificially created in the required quantities, food, water, air, necessary protection from radiation and so on, thereby solving not only the problem of human survival in space, but also the exploration of other planets.
PRIMORDIAL ALLATRA PHYSICS is built on universal human moral principles; it is capable of providing comprehensive answers and solving not only these problems. This is a science that leads to evolutionary cosmic breakthroughs, this is a huge potential for creating new research and scientific directions. Knowledge of PRIMORDIAL ALLATRA PHYSICS gives a fundamentally new understanding of the answers to the questions: “What to fly?”, “How far can you fly?”, “Under what conditions can you fly and how to create artificial gravity, close to earthly conditions, on board a spacecraft?”, "Howlive autonomously in space?”, “How to protect a ship from cosmic radiation?”. They also reveal insight into the Universe itself, which is a natural “laboratory” of elementary particles and performs “experiments” under conditions that are impossible on Earth.
Yana Semyonova