The East European Plain is one of the most large plains on our planet (the second largest after the Amazon Plain in Western America). It is located in the eastern part of Europe. Since most of it is located within the borders of the Russian Federation, the East European Plain is sometimes called the Russian Plain. In the northwestern part it is limited by the mountains of Scandinavia, in the southwestern part by the Sudetes and other mountains of central Europe, in the southeastern part by the Caucasus, and in the east by the Urals. From the north, the Russian Plain is washed by the waters of the White and Barents seas, and from the south by the Black, Azov and Caspian seas.
The length of the plain from north to south is more than 2.5 thousand kilometers, and from west to east - 1 thousand kilometers. Almost throughout the Eastern European plain Gently flat terrain predominates. Within the territory of the East European Plain, most of the population of Russia and the majority major cities countries. It was here that the Russian state was formed many centuries ago, which later became the largest country in the world by its territory. A significant part is also concentrated here natural resources Russia.
The East European Plain almost completely coincides with the East European Platform. This circumstance explains its flat terrain, as well as the absence of significant natural phenomena associated with movement earth's crust(earthquakes, volcanic eruptions). Small hilly areas within the East European Plain arose as a result of faults and other complex tectonic processes. The height of some hills and plateaus reaches 600-1000 meters. In ancient times, the Baltic shield of the East European Platform was at the center of glaciation, as evidenced by some forms of glacial relief.
The East European Plain. Satellite view
On the territory of the Russian Plain, platform deposits lie almost horizontally, making up lowlands and hills that form the surface topography. Where the folded foundation protrudes to the surface, hills and ridges are formed (for example, the Central Russian Upland and the Timan Ridge). On average, the height of the Russian Plain is about 170 meters above sea level. The lowest areas are on the Caspian coast (its level is approximately 30 meters below the level of the World Ocean).
Glaciation left its mark on the formation of the relief of the East European Plain. This impact was most pronounced in the northern part of the plain. As a result of the passage of the glacier through this territory, many lakes arose (Chudskoye, Pskovskoye, Beloe and others). These are the consequences of one of the most recent glaciers. In the southern, southeastern and eastern parts, which were subject to glaciations for more early period, their consequences are smoothed out by erosion processes. As a result of this, a number of hills (Smolensk-Moscow, Borisoglebskaya, Danilevskaya and others) and lake-glacial lowlands (Caspian, Pechora) were formed.
Even further south is a zone of hills and lowlands, elongated in the meridional direction. Among the hills one can note Priazovskaya, Central Russian, and Volga. Here they also alternate with plains: Meshcherskaya, Oksko-Donskaya, Ulyanovskaya and others.
Even further south are the coastal lowlands, which in ancient times were partially submerged under sea level. The flat relief here was partially corrected by water erosion and other processes, as a result of which the Black Sea and Caspian lowlands were formed.
As a result of the passage of the glacier through the territory of the East European Plain, valleys were formed, tectonic depressions expanded, and even some rocks were polished. Another example of the influence of the glacier is the winding deep bays of the Kola Peninsula. When the glacier retreated, not only lakes formed, but also concave sandy depressions appeared. This happened as a result of the deposition of a large amount of sandy material. Thus, over many millennia, the multifaceted relief of the East European Plain was formed.
Meadows of the Russian Plain. Volga river
Some of the rivers flowing through the territory of the East European Plain belong to the basins of two oceans: the Arctic (Northern Dvina, Pechora) and the Atlantic (Neva, Western Dvina), while others flow into the Caspian Sea, which has no connection with the world ocean. The longest and most abundant river in Europe, the Volga, flows along the Russian Plain.
Russian Plain
On the East European Plain there are almost all types of natural zones found in Russia. Along the coast of the Barents Sea, the subtropical zone is dominated by tundra. To the south, in the temperate zone, a strip of forests begins, which stretches from Polesie to the Urals. It includes both coniferous taiga and mixed forests, which in the west gradually become deciduous. To the south begins the transition zone of the forest-steppe, and beyond it steppe zone. A small strip of deserts and semi-deserts begins on the territory of the Caspian lowland.
Russian Plain
As mentioned above, on the territory of the Russian Plain there are no natural events such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Although some tremors (up to magnitude 3) are still possible, they cannot cause damage and are recorded only by highly sensitive instruments. The most dangerous natural phenomena that can occur on the territory of the Russian Plain are tornadoes and floods. The main environmental problem is the pollution of soil, rivers, lakes and the atmosphere with industrial waste, since many industrial enterprises.
The East European or Russian Plain is one of the largest in the world: from north to south it stretches for 2.5 thousand km; from west to east - 1 thousand km. In size, the Russian Plain is second only to the Amazon, located in Western America.
East European Plain - location
From the name it is clear that the plain is located in the East of Europe, and most of it extends into Russia. In the northwest, the Russian Plain runs through the Scandinavian mountains; in the southwest - along the Sudetes and other European mountain ranges; from the West the border is the river. Vistula; on the south-eastern side the border is the Caucasus; in the East - the Urals. In the North, the plain is washed by the White and Barents Seas; in the South - the waters of the Black, Azov and Caspian seas.
East European Plain - relief
The main type of relief is gently flat. Large cities and, accordingly, the bulk of the population of the Russian Federation are concentrated on the territory of the East European Plain. The Russian state was born on these lands. Minerals and other valuable natural resources are also found within the Russian Plain. The outlines of the Russian Plain practically repeat the outlines of the East European Platform. Thanks to such an advantageous location, there is no seismic hazard or likelihood of earthquakes. On the territory of the plain there are also hilly areas that appeared as a result of various tectonic processes. There are elevations up to 1000 m.
In ancient times, the Baltic shield platform was located in the center of glaciation. As a result, there is a glacial relief on the surface.
The terrain consists of lowlands and hills, because... The platform deposits are located almost horizontally.
In places where the folded foundation protruded, ridges (Timansky) and hills (Central Russian) formed.
The height of the plain above sea level is approximately 170 m. The lowest areas are located on the coast of the Caspian Sea. 
East European Plain - glacier influence
Glaciation processes significantly influenced the relief of the Russian Plain, especially in its northern part. A glacier passed through this area, resulting in the formation of famous lakes: Chudskoe, Beloe, Pskovskoe.
Previously, glaciation affected the topography of the southeast of the plain, but its consequences disappeared due to erosion. Uplands were formed: Smolensk-Moscow, Borisoglebskaya, etc., as well as lowlands: Pechora and Caspian.
In the south there are highlands (Priazovskaya, Privolzhskaya, Central Russian) and lowlands (Ulyanovskaya, Meshcherskaya).
Further to the south are the Black Sea and Caspian lowlands.
The glacier contributed to the formation of valleys, the increase in tectonic depressions, the grinding of rocks, and the formation of ornate bays on the Kola Peninsula. 
East European Plain - waterways
The rivers of the East European Plain belong to the basins of the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, the rest flow into the Caspian Sea and have no connection with the ocean.
The longest and deepest river in Europe, the Volga, flows through the Russian Plain. 
East European Plain - natural areas, flora and fauna
Almost all natural zones of Russia are represented on the plain.
- Off the coast of the Barents Sea, in the subtropical zone, tundra is concentrated.
- In the temperate zone, to the south from Polesie and to the Urals, coniferous and mixed forests stretch, giving way to deciduous forests in the West.
- In the South, forest-steppe prevails with a gradual transition to steppe.
- In the region of the Caspian Lowland there is a strip of Deserts and Semi-Deserts.
- Arctic, forest and steppe animals live on the lands of the Russian Plain.
The most dangerous natural phenomena that occur on the territory of the Russian Plain include floods and tornadoes. The environmental problem is acute due to human activities.
the East European Plain occupies an area of about 4 million km 2, which is approximately 26% of the territory of Russia. In the north, east and south, its borders run along natural boundaries, in the west - along the state border. In the north, the plain is washed by the Barents and White Seas, in the south by the Caspian, Black and Azov Seas, and in the west by the Baltic Sea. From the east, the plain is bordered by the Ural Mountains.
At the base of the plain lie large tectonic structures - the Russian Platform and the Scythian Plate. In most of the territory, their foundation is deeply buried under thick layers of sedimentary rocks of different ages, lying horizontally. Therefore, flat terrain predominates on the platforms. In a number of places the foundation of the platform is raised. Large hills are located in these areas. Within the Ukrainian shield there is the Dnieper Upland. The Baltic Shield corresponds to the relatively elevated plains of Karelia and the Kola Peninsula, as well as the low Khibiny Mountains. The raised foundation of the Voronezh anticlise serves as the core of the Central Russian Upland. The same rise of the foundation is found at the base of the highlands of the High Trans-Volga region. A special case is the Volga Upland, where the foundation lies at great depth. Here, throughout the Mesozoic and Paleogene, the earth's crust subsided and thick layers of sedimentary rocks accumulated. Then, during the Neogene and Quaternary times, this section of the earth’s crust rose, which led to the formation of the Volga Upland.
A number of large hills were formed as a result of repeated Quaternary glaciations and the accumulation of glacial material - morainic loams and sands. These are the Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow, Klinsko-Dmitrovskaya, Northern Uvaly hills.
Between the large hills there are lowlands in which the valleys of large rivers - the Dnieper, Don, and Volga - were laid.
On the outskirts of the East European Plain, where the foundation of the platform is lowered very deeply, there are large lowlands - the Caspian, Black Sea, Pechora, etc. These areas have been repeatedly invaded by the sea, including recently in Quaternary times, so they are covered with thick marine sediments and are distinguished by a leveled relief. The average height of the Russian Plain is about 170 m, some elevations reach 300-400 m or more.
The East European Plain contains rich deposits of various minerals. Iron ores of the Kursk magnetic anomaly are associated with the foundation of the platform. The Kola Peninsula is especially rich in minerals, where there are significant reserves of iron, copper, nickel, aluminum ores, huge reserves of apatite. The sedimentary cover of the platform is associated with such minerals as oil shale, mined in the strata of the Ordovician and Silurian ages in the Baltic region. Carbon deposits are associated with deposits of brown coal in the Moscow region, Permian - hard coal in the Pechora basin, oil and gas in the Urals and Volga region, salt and gypsum in the Urals. Phosphorites, chalk and manganese are mined in the sedimentary layers of the Mesozoic.
The East European Plain is located in temperate latitudes. It is open to the north and west and as a result is exposed to air masses forming over the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Atlantic air masses bring significant amounts of precipitation to the East European Plain, which is why forests grow over most of its territory. The amount of precipitation decreases from 600-900 mm per year in the west to 300-200 mm in the south and southeast. As a result, in the south of the East European Plain there are dry steppes, and in the extreme southeast, in the Caspian lowland, there are semi-deserts and deserts.
Atlantic air masses have a moderating effect on the climate throughout the year. In winter they bring warming up to thaws. Therefore, in the western regions of the plain it is much warmer than in the eastern ones. Average January temperatures drop from -4°C in the Kaliningrad region to -18°C in the Urals. As a result, winter isotherms in most of the plain (except for the extreme south) extend almost meridionally, from north-northwest to south-southeast.
Arctic air in winter spreads over the entire territory of the East European Plain right down to the extreme south. It brings with it dryness and coldness. In summer, the invasion of Arctic air is accompanied by cold snaps and droughts. The alternate invasion of Atlantic and Arctic air masses causes instability of weather phenomena and the dissimilarity of seasons in different years. Summer temperatures naturally increase from north to south: average temperatures in the north are +8...+10°С, in the south +24...+26°С, and isotherms extend almost in the latitudinal direction. In general, the climate in most of the East European Plain is temperate continental.
Unlike other large parts of Russia, the largest rivers of the East European Plain flow to the south. These are the Dnieper, Dniester, Southern Bug, Don, Volga, Kama, Vyatka, Ural. This allows their water to be used to irrigate the arid lands of the south. Large irrigation systems have been created in the North Caucasus, which use water from the Volga, Don and local rivers. Extensive irrigation systems are built on lower Don, they are also in the Volga region.
Such high-water but relatively short rivers as the Pechora, Northern Dvina, Onega carry their water to the north, and to the west - the Western Dvina, Neva and Neman.
The headwaters and beds of many rivers are often located close to each other, which, in conditions of flat terrain, facilitates their connection by canals. These are the channels named after. Moscow, Volgo-Baltic, Volgo-Don, White Sea-Baltic. Thanks to the canals, ships from Moscow can sail along rivers, lakes and reservoirs to the Caspian, Azov, Black, Baltic and White Seas. That's why Moscow is called the port of five seas.
In winter, all rivers of the East European Plain freeze. In the spring, when the snow melts, floods occur in most parts. To retain and use spring water, numerous reservoirs and hydroelectric power stations have been built on rivers. The Volga and Dnieper turned into a cascade of reservoirs used both for generating electricity and for shipping, irrigation, water supply to cities and industrial centers.
A characteristic feature of the East European Plain is a clear manifestation of latitudinal zoning. It is expressed more fully and clearly than on other plains of the globe. It is no coincidence that the law of zoning, formulated by the famous Russian scientist Dokuchaev, was primarily based on his study of this particular territory.
Flat territory, abundance of minerals, relatively mild climate, sufficient rainfall, diversity natural landscapes, favorable for various branches of agriculture - all this contributed to the intensive economic development of the East European Plain. In economic terms, this is the most important part of Russia. More than 50% of the country's population lives on it and two-thirds of the total number of cities and workers' settlements are located there. The plain has the densest network of roads and railways. Most of the largest rivers - the Volga, Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Western Dvina, Kama - have been regulated and converted into a cascade of reservoirs. Over vast areas, forests have been cut down and forested landscapes have become a combination of forests and fields. Many forest areas are now secondary forests, where coniferous and broad-leaved species have been replaced by small-leaved trees - birch and aspen. The territory of the East European Plain contains half of the country's entire arable land, about 40% of hayfields, and 12% of pastures. Of all the large parts of the East European Plain in to the greatest extent mastered and changed by human activity.
The North Caucasus occupies a vast space between the Black, Azov and Caspian seas. In the north of this large part of Russia the Kuma-Manych depression stretches, and in the south there is the state border. The North Caucasus consists of the Ciscaucasia and the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus Mountains.
In Ciscaucasia there are vast lowlands that are separated Stavropol Upland. By origin and natural features they are associated with the Caucasus Mountains. The Kuban, Terek, Kuma and other rivers carry large amounts of loose material from the mountains, which is deposited on the plains. As a result, rivers flow in their own sediment higher than the surrounding plains. Therefore, despite the arid climate in the Ciscaucasia, in the lower reaches of the rivers there are vast wetlands - floodplains. Due to the fact that river beds are elevated, the most favorable opportunities open up for the development of irrigated agriculture. In the Kuban valley there are vast flooded fields where a lot of rice is grown.
The climate of the Ciscaucasia is arid. Annual precipitation in the west is 550 mm, in the east - about 200 mm. With this not large quantities moisture, productive agriculture is possible only with the use of irrigation. Therefore, a number of irrigation systems have been created that use the waters of the Volga, Don, Kuban, Kuma, Manych and other rivers.
Stavropol Upland is located in the axial part of Ciscaucasia. As a result of intense tectonic uplifts of the earth's crust, it was raised to a height of 800 m. On the relatively high slopes of the hill, a large amount of precipitation falls - about 800 mm per year.
Chernozems dominate in the western part of the Ciscaucasia. In the past, feather grass and forb steppes grew here, now almost completely plowed and occupied by wheat, sugar beets and sunflowers. To the east of the Stavropol Upland, where it is much drier, there are dry steppes on chestnut soils and semi-deserts. They are used primarily as pasture for numerous flocks of sheep.
To the south of the Stavropol Upland, laccolithic mountains rose along faults in the earth's crust above the plains. The largest of them are Beshtau and Mashuk. At their feet there are springs of healing mineral waters- Narzan and Essentuki and a number of others. They are used in numerous sanatoriums and resorts in Pyatigorsk, Zheleznovodsk, Essentuki, Kislovodsk, etc.
Oil and gas reserves formed in tectonic foothill troughs. Oil fields are located near the city of Grozny. Gas is produced in the Stavropol region.
Main Watershed, or Greater Caucasus, ridge stretches from northwest to southeast, rising up to 5000 m in huge anticlinal folds. Its highest part is the central part, where solid crystalline rocks are broken by numerous tectonic cracks. In past geological eras, lava flowed through cracks and volcanoes formed. The largest of them are Elbrus (5642 m) and Kazbek (5033 m). The snow-capped peak of Elbrus is the highest peak in the Caucasus. In the region of the high mountains of the Greater Caucasus there is a lot of snow and there are numerous glaciers (Table VIII.9). From them originate rivers that carry swift waters to the plains (Kuban, Terek, Kuma, etc.). The rivers of the Caucasus have large reserves of hydropower resources.
The Greater Caucasus Mountains are located on the border of the temperate and subtropical zones. They serve as a barrier to the movement of cold air masses to the south. Under the cover of high mountains, the subtropics in this area have moved far to the north (Anapa and Sochi areas). The southwestern part of the mountains receives the greatest amount of precipitation (from 2600 to 4000 mm). Throughout the year, cyclones move over the Black Sea from west to east. When moist air masses rise along mountain slopes, moisture condenses and precipitation occurs. Thus, in the vicinity of Sochi there is a large amount of precipitation - up to 2500 mm per year. On the southeastern slope of the mountains the picture is reversed. The air masses flowing from the mountains heat up and dry out, so this area contains arid areas.
Changes in the amount of precipitation and air temperatures are directly reflected in the nature of the soil and vegetation cover, in the features of vertical zonality along the mountain slopes. The highest peaks of the central part of the Caucasus Range are occupied by snow and glaciers.
Below are lush alpine and subalpine meadows with thickets of Caucasian rhododendron. These meadows are used as excellent summer pastures. Between altitudes of 2000 and 1300 m spruce-fir forests grow, which are replaced by broad-leaved forests downwards - oak forests. Evergreen shrubs and vines are common in the lower parts of the southwestern slopes. In the eastern part of the Caucasus Mountains, both on the northern and southern slopes, due to a decrease in precipitation, forests occupy significantly smaller areas. They are replaced by thickets of thorny bushes - shiblyak.
The depths of the Greater Caucasus are rich in minerals. At the eastern foot of the mountains on the Absheron Peninsula there are oil and gas fields.
Ural
Ural stretches in a meridional direction for 2000 km from north to south - from the Arctic islands of Novaya Zemlya to the sun-scorched deserts of the Turan Plain. The Cis-Urals marks a conditional geographical border between Europe and Asia. The Ural Mountains are located in the inland boundary zone of the earth's crust between the ancient Russian platform and the young West Siberian plate. The folds of the earth's crust that lie at the base of the Ural Mountains were formed during the Hercynian orogeny. Mountain formation was accompanied by intense processes of volcanism and metamorphism of rocks, therefore, numerous minerals were formed in the depths of the Urals - ores of iron, polymetals, aluminum, gold, platinum. Then, for a long time - in the Mesozoic and Paleogene - processes of destruction and leveling of the Hercynian mountains took place. Gradually the mountains subsided and turned into hilly hills. In Neogene-Quaternary times, the ancient folded structures lying at its base split into blocks that rose to different heights. Thus, the former fold mountains turned into folded block mountains. There has been a rejuvenation of the ancient destroyed mountains. Nevertheless, the modern ridges of the Urals are predominantly low. In the north and south they rise to 800-1000 m. The highest peak of the Urals is Mount Narodnaya (1894 m). In the middle part, the height of the ridges does not exceed 400-500 m. Through the low passes of this part of the Urals there are railways, along which trains move between the European and Asian parts of Russia.
The uneven uplift of blocks of the earth's crust led to differences in the height of mountain ranges and their external shapes. According to the relief features, the Urals are divided into several parts. The Polar Urals stretches along four ridges, gradually rising from the Pai-Khoi hills to 1500 m. The ridges of the Subpolar Urals have many sharp peaks. The Northern Urals consists of two elongated parallel ridges that rise to 800-1000 m. The western of these two ridges has flat tops. The eastern slope of the Urals drops steeply towards the West Siberian Lowland. Middle Urals- the lowest part of the entire Urals: the dominant heights are about 500 m. However, individual peaks here rise to 800 m. The Southern Urals are the widest, dominated by foothill plateaus. Mountain tops are often flat.
The distribution of mineral resources in the Urals is determined by the peculiarities of its geological structure. In the west, in the Cis-Ural trough, sedimentary strata of limestone, gypsum and clay accumulated, which were associated with significant deposits of oil, potassium salts and coal. In the central part of the Urals, metamorphic rocks of the internal folds of the mountains appeared on the surface - gneisses, quartzites and shales, broken by tectonic faults. Igneous rocks intruded along faults led to the formation of ore minerals. Among them, the most important role belongs to the ores of iron, polymetals, and aluminum. On the basis of iron ore deposits, a large iron ore plant and the city of Magnitogorsk were built during the first five-year plans. The eastern slope of the Urals is composed of a variety of geological rocks - sedimentary, metamorphic and volcanic, therefore the minerals are very diverse. These are ores of iron, non-ferrous metals, aluminum, deposits of gold and silver, precious and semi-precious stones, asbestos.
The Urals is a climatic divide between the temperate continental climate of the East European Plain and the continental climate Western Siberia. Despite their relatively low altitude, the Ural Mountains influence the climate of our country. Throughout the year, moist air masses brought by cyclones from the Atlantic Ocean penetrate into the Urals. As air rises along the western slope, the amount of precipitation increases. The descent of air along the eastern slope is accompanied by its drying out. Therefore, on the eastern slopes of the Ural Mountains, precipitation falls 1.5-2 times less than on the western slopes. The western and eastern slopes differ in both temperatures and weather patterns. Average January temperatures vary from -22° in the north to -16°C in the south. On the western slope, winter is relatively mild and snowy. On the eastern slope there is little snowfall, and frosts can reach -45°C. Summer in the north is cool and rainy, in most of the Urals it is warm, and in the south it is hot and dry.
Many rivers originate in the Urals. The largest among them flow to the west. These are Pechora, Kama, Belaya, Ufa. Ishim flows to the east, and the Ural to the south. On the meridional sections, rivers flow calmly through wide valleys in basins between ridges. In latitudinal sections they rush rapidly across ridges along tectonic faults along narrow rocky gorges with many rapids. The alternation of narrow gorges and wide sections of valleys gives the rivers amazing diversity and beauty and is conducive to the construction of reservoirs. In the Urals there is a very great need for water, which is needed in large quantities for numerous industrial enterprises and cities. However, many rivers are heavily polluted by wastewater from industrial enterprises and cities and need to be cleaned. The economic importance of the rivers of the Urals and the Urals is great and varied, although their role in shipping and energy is not so great. The hydropower reserves of the Ural rivers are below the national average. The average annual power of the middle rivers of the Urals is about 3.5 million kW. The Kama basin is the richest in hydropower. A number of large hydroelectric power plants have been built here. Among them are the Kama and Votkinsk hydroelectric power stations. The largest reservoir of the Kamskaya hydroelectric station stretches for 220 km. A hydroelectric power station of significant capacity was built on the river. Ufa. Despite the abundance of rivers in the Urals, only a few of them are suitable for navigation. This is primarily Kama, Belaya, Ufa. In the Trans-Ural region, ships sail along Tobol and Tavda, and to high waters along Sosva, Lozva and Tura. For shallow-draft vessels, the Urals below Orenburg are also navigable.
To improve water supply, ponds and reservoirs have long been built on the rivers of the Urals. These are the Verkhne-Isetsky and city ponds in Yekaterinburg, Nizhne-Tagilsky and others. Reservoirs have also been created: Volchikhinskoye on Chusovaya, Magnitogorskoye and Iriklinskoye in the Urals.
Numerous lakes, of which there are more than 6 thousand, are used for industrial, agricultural, recreation and tourism purposes.
The Urals crosses several natural zones. Along its peaks and upper slopes they are shifted to the south. Mountain tundras are common in the Polar Urals. To the south, on the western slopes, in conditions of high moisture, dark coniferous spruce-fir forests dominate, while on the eastern slopes - pine and cedar forests. In the Southern Urals, on the western slope there are coniferous-deciduous forests; to the south they are replaced by linden and oak forest-steppe. On the eastern slope Southern Urals- birch-aspen forest-steppe. In the extreme south of the Urals and in the low Mugodzhary mountains there are dry steppes and semi-deserts.
Western Siberia
Western Siberia- the largest plain in the world. It extends from the Kara Sea to the northern slopes of the Kazakh small hills for 2.5 thousand km. In the northern part, the plain stretches from the Urals to the Yenisei for 1000 km, and in the southern part - almost 2 thousand km. The entire plain lies on the West Siberian plate with a deeply depressed folded basement of Paleozoic age. It is overlain by Mesozoic, Paleogene and Quaternary sedimentary strata of enormous thickness, reaching 6 thousand m. They are represented by clays, sandstones, sands and shales. Quaternary strata consist of marine, river and glacial deposits: loams, sands and clays. During the revival of the Ural and Altai mountains loose sedimentary strata of the West Siberian plate were slightly deformed. Folds appeared in them, leading to the formation of underground domes. In such domes, composed of sands and covered with impenetrable dense clays, oil and gas accumulated. The largest fields are in the Surgut region, gas fields are in the Urengoy region and on the Yamal Peninsula. In the south of the plain, where the folded foundation is elevated, there are iron ore deposits. The largest of them is Sokolovsko-Sarbaiskoye.
A thick horizontal layer of sedimentary rocks determines the flatness of the modern topography. The northern and central parts of Western Siberia are lowlands located at an altitude of up to 100 m above sea level. The southern part of the plain rises slightly higher. In general, Western Siberia has the shape of a huge bowl, rising slightly to the south, west and east and inclined to the north. The northern most depressed part of the plain is separated from the rest of the part by a narrow, latitudinally elongated hill Siberian Uvaly.
Rivers flow slowly across the gently sloping plain. They are shallowly incised and form extensive meanders and channels with an unstable bed. During spring floods they overflow widely.
The flat surface of the northern half of the territory, weak drainage associated with shallow incision of rivers, excessive moisture, and an abundance of groundwater coming from the elevated outskirts of the plain - all this led to the formation of extensive swamps. Western Siberia is the most swampy plain in the world. The swampiness is 38%.
The inland location of Western Siberia determined the continental nature of its climate, especially in the south of the plain. The average January temperature varies from -25°C in the north to -18°C in the south. Middle July - from +2°C on the Kara Sea coast to +22°C in the far south. In the second half of winter, an area of high pressure spreads over Western Siberia. At this time, windless, sunny, frosty weather sets in. Little snow falls (except in the northeast), but since there are practically no thaws in Western Siberia, it accumulates and a stable snow cover is formed. In the south of the plain its thickness is 30 cm, in the northeast, in front of the Putorana Mountains, 80 cm. In summer, arctic air rushes onto the heated surface of the plain, which meets heated southern air currents. As a result of their interaction, cyclones arise and precipitation occurs.
In Western Siberia, latitudinal zoning is clearly expressed. The far north on the Yamal, Tazovsky and Gydansky peninsulas is occupied by the tundra zone. The forest-tundra descends to the south almost to the Siberian Uvaly. It presents larch and birch forests. In the south of the forest-tundra, pine and cedar appear in larch forests. Along the rivers, forests extend far to the north, since river valleys are drier due to better drainage, and heat comes from the south with river water. In the tundra and forest-tundra zones there are pastures where thousands of reindeer herds graze. Rich prey is provided by commercial hunting (Arctic fox skins) and fishing. Gas production is underway.
Sixty percent of the territory of Western Siberia occupied by forest-swamp zone. The interfluve spaces are dominated by swamps. Taiga forests grow mainly on the slopes of river valleys and narrow sandy elevations in the interfluves - ridges. In the western Cis-Ural part of the zone, pine forests. The northern and middle parts of the plain are dominated by spruce-cedar and larch forests, while the southern part is dominated by taiga of spruce, cedar, fir, and birch. In the taiga they hunt sable, squirrel, marten, muskrat and mink. To the south, the taiga gives way to birch and aspen forests, which turn into forest-steppe. It consists of grassy steppes with numerous birch and aspen groves in depressions (kolkas). The extreme south of Western Siberia is occupied by a steppe zone, where chernozems and dark chestnut soils have formed under arid climate conditions. They are almost completely open. On vast tracts of former virgin lands there are fields of spring wheat. The plowing of the steppes led to dust storms. Currently, in the vast expanses of the south of Western Siberia, special methods of no-moldboard tillage are used, which preserve the stubble of grain crops. It promotes the accumulation of snow and protects the soil from blowing out. In the steppes there are many salt lakes in which soda and table salt are mined.
Abstract on geography
Russian or East European Plain: description, dimensions and historical details.
2) Hydrography
4) Flora and fauna
III. History of relief formation and climate fluctuations of Eastern Europe.
IV. Used Books.
Dimensions.
A significant part of the European part of Russia is located on one of the largest plains in the world - the East European (Russian) plain, the length of which from west to east, from the borders of the country to the Urals, reaches 1600 km, and from north to south, from the seas of the Arctic Ocean to the Caucasus mountains and the Caspian Sea, - 2400 km; the amplitude of recent tectonic movements here is low; the main features of the relief were formed in the late Cenozoic. Most of the territory of the East European Plain lies below 200 m above sea level; highest point- 343 m - located on the Valdai Hills. However, the nature of the relief of the Russian Plain is quite complex. To the north of the latitude of Moscow, glacial landforms predominate - including moraine ridges, of which the most famous are the Valdai and Smolensk-Moscow uplands (the latter reaches a height of 314 m); Moraine, outwash, and glaciolacustrine lowlands are common. To the south of the latitude of Moscow, hills, directed predominantly in the meridional direction, alternate with flat areas. There are numerous ravines and gullies on the hills. In the west there is the Central Russian Upland (maximum height 293 m), separating the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Oka and Don; here the valleys of small rivers are clearly defined; at the same time, large rivers have wide, shallow floodplains; In some places, a strong influence of aeolian processes and the formation of dunes was noted. To the east is the Volga Upland, reaching a height of 329 m and steeply plunging towards the river. The lower reaches of the Volga are located within the Caspian lowland, some sections of which have an altitude of 90 m below sea level. To the south, the East European Plain extends all the way to the spurs of the Greater Caucasus. The vast Kuban and Kuma lowlands are separated by the Stavropol Upland, where the predominant heights are from 300 to 600 m (in the upper reaches of the Kuma there is also a group of island mountains up to 1401 m high). Economic activity humans greatly changed the topography of the East European Plain
Description.
1) Relief .
Almost the entire length is dominated by gently sloping terrain.
The East European Plain almost completely coincides with the East European Platform. This circumstance explains its flat terrain, as well as the absence or insignificance of manifestations of such natural phenomena as earthquakes and volcanism. Large hills and lowlands arose as a result of tectonic movements, including along faults. The height of some hills and plateaus reaches 600-1000 meters.
On the territory of the Russian Plain, platform deposits lie almost horizontally, but their thickness in some places exceeds 20 km. Where the folded foundation protrudes to the surface, hills and ridges are formed (for example, the Donetsk and Timan ridges). On average, the height of the Russian Plain is about 170 meters above sea level. The lowest areas are on the Caspian coast (its level is approximately 26 meters below the level of the World Ocean).
2) Hydrography.
Hydrographically, the territory of the East European Plain is divided into two parts. Most of them drain into the ocean. The northern rivers (Mezen, Onega, Severnaya, Dvina, Pechora) belong to the Arctic Ocean basin, the western and southern ones belong to the Atlantic Ocean basin. The latter include rivers flowing into the Baltic (Neva, Western Dvina, Neman, Vistula, rivers of Sweden and Finland), Black (Dnieper, Southern Bug, Dniester) and Azov (Don) seas. The rivers of the Volga, Ural and some other basins flow into the Caspian Sea, which has lost connection with the World Ocean.
3) Climate.
Moderate continental climate. It is characterized by moderate Cold winter and warm summers with an average July temperature from +12 degrees C (off the coast of the Barents Sea) to +24 degrees C in the southeast (on the Caspian lowland). Average January temperatures vary from −8 degrees C in the west of the territory (along the border with the territory of Belarus) to −16 degrees C in the Urals. Precipitation falls throughout the year from 800 mm in the west to 400 mm in the southeast. In the region of a temperate continental climate, moisture varies from excessive in the north and northwest to insufficient in the east and southeast. This is reflected in the change of natural zones from taiga to steppe.
| From north to south, the East European Plain, also known as the Russian Plain, is dressed consistently in the Arctic Tundra, coniferous forest (taiga), mixed and broadleaf tobacco forests, field (steppe), and semi-desert (fringing the Caspian Sea), as changes in vegetation reflect changes in climate. Siberia maintains a similar sequence, but is largely taiga. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves, known as "lungs of Europe", second only to Rainforest The Amazon absorbs the amount of carbon dioxide. There are 266 species of mammals and 780 species of birds in Russia. A total of 415 animal species were included in theRed Directory of the Russian Federation for 1997 and are now protected. |
History of relief formation and climate fluctuations in Eastern Europe.
The relief of Eastern Europe, modern plains, lowlands and mountains, were formed as a result of complex and long-term geological development. The most ancient structure of crystalline rocks, representing the geological basis of Eastern Europe, is the Russian platform, in the rigid foundation of which mining processes stopped relatively early.
This, as well as the activity of glaciers, explains the predominance of the flat landscape. Where the platform was in contact with others, there were moving areas of the earth's crust. Its vertical uplifts and subsidences, combined with magmatic processes, led to the formation of folds and active manifestations of volcanism. The end result of this process was the formation of the mountainous regions of Eastern Europe - the Urals, the Caucasus, and the Carpathians.
The last stage was of great importance in the formation of the most important features of the physical geography of Eastern Europe geological history– Quaternary period. It is also called the Anthropocene (Greek anthropos - “man” and genos - “birth”), that is, the time of the appearance and development of man, and the beginning is dated from 1 million to 600 thousand years ago. In the geological and natural sphere, this is the period of continental glaciation. It was during the Ice Age that varieties of soils appeared, the movement of glaciers led to the creation of modern relief and the formation of coastlines.
Moraine ridges, boulder clays, sands and other glacial sediments cover the bulk of the northern half of the plain. The last significant changes in the natural environment of Eastern Europe date back to the 12th–10th millennium BC. e. This is the time of the so-called Valdai glaciation, the southern border of which ran approximately along the line Vilnius - Vitebsk - Valdai - Vologda. It was after this that natural and climatic conditions were gradually established, the basic character of which has been preserved to this day. The post-glacial period, which began 8-10 thousand years ago, represents a time of global warming.
It is characterized by a retreat from Europe to the north and the melting of the Scandinavian ice sheet, the rise of the earth's crust freed from the ice load (this process was uneven in time and space), and a slow rise in the level of the World Ocean. The evolution of one of the huge lakes that existed at the edge of the glacier over several millennia led to the emergence of the Baltic Sea, which acquired its modern form approximately 4.5 thousand years ago. By this time, the warm interval (the so-called “climatic optimum”) had ended, the average annual air temperature had dropped, and humidity, on the contrary, had increased, and the modern type of climate had formed.
IN historical period(for Eastern Europe, more or less detailed information from written sources is available from the 5th century BC) the most important of natural conditions– relief and climate – have not undergone global changes. This is especially true for terrain. Some local changes in it are associated with ongoing mining and educational processes. Coastal areas were subject to certain fluctuations Crimean peninsula and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, as a result of which some of the ancient cities located in this region ended up on the seabed. Quite significant changes have occurred and are occurring with the northern shores of the Caspian Sea, which are known as transgression and regression of the Caspian Sea, but they are more related to climate change. In general, minor elements of the physical-geographical landscape changed - the outlines and position of coastlines, river flows, sand boundaries, etc.
The climate is subject to some periodic fluctuations, which, however, do not lead to major shifts in the physical geography and distribution of vegetation. Thus, at the beginning of the Iron Age (the turn of the 2nd–1st millennia BC) and later, the climate was general outline almost the same as now, but cooler and wetter. Forest areas along the river valleys of the south of the Russian Plain descended to the shores of the Black and Azov Seas. The flood plains of the lower Dnieper were covered with thick forest on both banks of the river. To date, these forests have been destroyed by humans, and have not disappeared due to any catastrophic climate change.
The early Middle Ages (end of the 1st – beginning of the 2nd millennium AD) saw a “small climatic optimum” - a period of significant warming in Western Europe and North Atlantic. It is no coincidence that this time is considered the “Viking Age”: warming made it possible in the 9th–11th centuries. long voyages across the North Atlantic and the discovery of Iceland, Greenland and North America. However, already from the 14th century. In Western Europe, cooling begins in the 15th–19th centuries. often defined as the “Little Ice Age” - this is the time of the onset of mountain glaciers, cooling of waters, and severe winters. A new period of warming began at the end of the 19th century, and in the 20th century. it has become large-scale.
The Russian Plain is one of the largest plains on the planet. It is located in the eastern part of Europe, which is why its second name is the East European Plain. Since most of it is located on the territory of the Russian Federation, it is also called the Russian Plain. Its length from north to south is more than 2.5 thousand kilometers.
Relief of the Russian Plain
This plain is dominated by gently sloping terrain. There are many natural resources of Russia here. Hilly areas on the Russian Plain arose as a result of faults. The height of some hills reaches 1000 meters.
The height of the Russian Plain is approximately 170 meters above sea level, but there are some areas that are 30 meters below sea level. As a result of the passage of the glacier, many lakes and valleys arose in this area, and some tectonic depressions expanded.
Rivers
The rivers flowing along the East European Plain belong to the basins of two oceans: the Arctic and the Atlantic, while others flow into the Caspian Sea and are not connected with the world ocean. The longest river, the Volga, flows through this plain.
Natural areas
On the Russian Plain there are all types of natural zones as in Russia. There are no earthquakes or volcanic eruptions in this area. Tremors are quite possible, but they do not cause harm.
The most dangerous natural phenomena on the East European Plain are tornadoes and floods. The main environmental problem is soil and atmosphere pollution due to industrial waste. There are many industrial enterprises in this area.
Flora and fauna of the Russian Plain
On the Russian Plain there are three main groups of animals: arctic, forest and steppe. Forest animals are more common. Eastern species - lemmings (tundra); chipmunk (taiga); marmots and gophers (steppes); saiga antelope (Caspian deserts and semi-deserts). Western species - pine marten, mink, forest cat, wild boar, garden dormouse, forest dormouse, hazel dormouse, black polecat (mixed and broad-leaved forests).
The fauna of the East European Plain is greater than that of any other part of Russia. Due to hunting and changes in the habitat of animals, many fur-bearing animals suffered for their valuable fur, and ungulates for their meat. River beaver and squirrel were trade items among the Eastern Slavs.
Almost until the 19th century, the wild forest horse, the tarpan, lived in mixed and deciduous forests. Bison are protected in the Belovezhskaya Pushcha Nature Reserve. Beavers have begun to be successfully bred in the Voronezh Nature Reserve. The Askania-Nova steppe reserve is home to a variety of animals from Africa, Asia and Australia.
In the Voronezh regions, an elk appeared and the previously exterminated wild boar was restored. The Astrakhan Nature Reserve was created in the Volga delta to protect waterfowl. Despite bad influence people, the fauna of the Russian Plain is still great.