INTRODUCTION

Subject diploma work “Features of the spatio-temporal organization of Botho Strauss’s plays.”

Relevance and novelty work is that the German playwright, novelist and essayist Botho Strauss, a representative of the new drama, is practically unknown in Russia. One book has been published with translations of 6 of his plays (“So big and so small”, “Time and Room”, “Ithaca”, “Hypochondriacs”, “Spectators”, “Park”) and an introduction by Vladimir Kolyazin. Also in the dissertation work of I.S. Roganova, Strauss is mentioned as the author with whom German postmodern drama begins. His plays have been staged in Russia only once - by Oleg Rybkin in 1995 in the Red Torch, the play “Time and Room”. Interest in this author began with a note about this performance in one of the Novosibirsk newspapers.

Target- identification and description of the features of the spatio-temporal organization of the author’s plays.

Tasks: analysis of the spatial and temporal organization of each play; identification common features, patterns in the organization.

Object The following plays by Strauss are: “The Hypochondriacs”, “So Big - and So Small”, “Park”, “Time and Room”.

Subject are the features of the spatio-temporal organization of plays.

This work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.

The introduction indicates the topic, relevance, object, subject, goals and objectives of the work.

The first chapter consists of two paragraphs: the concept of artistic time and space, artistic time and artistic space in drama, changes in the reflection of these categories that arose in the twentieth century are considered, and part of the second paragraph is devoted to the influence of cinema on the composition and spatio-temporal organization of the new drama.

The second chapter consists of two paragraphs: the organization of space in plays, the organization of time. The first paragraph identifies such features of the organization as the closedness of space, the relevance of indicators of the boundaries of this closedness, the shift in emphasis from external space to internal space - memory, associations, montage in the organization. The second paragraph reveals following features organization of the category of time: montage, fragmentation associated with the relevance of the motive of recollection, retrospectiveness. Thus, montage becomes the main principle in the spatio-temporal organization of the plays under study.

During the study, we relied on the works of Yu.N. Tynyanova, O.V. Zhurcheva, V. Kolyazina, Yu.M. Lotman, M.M. Bakhtin, P. Pavy.

The volume of work is 60 pages. The list of sources used includes 54 titles.

CATEGORIES OF SPACE AND TIME IN DRAMA

SPACE AND TIME IN A WORK OF ART

Space and time are categories that include ideas, knowledge about the world order, place and human role in it, provide grounds for describing and analyzing the methods of their verbal expression and representation in the fabric of a work of art. Understood in this way, these categories can be considered as means of interpreting a literary text.

IN literary encyclopedia we will find the following definition for these categories, written by I. Rodnyanskaya: “artistic time and artistic space are the most important characteristics of the artistic image, organizing the composition of the work and ensuring its perception as holistic and original artistic reality. <…>Its very content [of the literary and poetic image] necessarily reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world (transmitted by indirect means of storytelling) and, moreover, in its symbolic-ideological aspect” [Rodnyanskaya I. Artistic time and artistic space. http://feb-web.ru/feb/kle/Kle-abc/ke9/ke9-7721.htm].

In the spatio-temporal picture of the world, reproduced by art, including drama, there are images of biographical time (childhood, youth), historical, cosmic (the idea of ​​eternity and universal history), calendar, daily, as well as ideas about movement and immobility, about the relationship between past, present and future. Spatial paintings are represented by images of closed and open space, earthly and cosmic, actually visible and imaginary, ideas about objectivity close and distant. In this case, any, as a rule, indicator, marker of this picture of the world in a work of art acquires a symbolic, symbolic character. According to D.S. Likhachev, from era to era, as the understanding of the changeability of the world becomes wider and deeper, images of time become increasingly important in literature: writers become more and more clearly and intensely aware of the “diversity of forms of movement,” “mastering the world in its time dimensions.”

Artistic space can be point, linear, planar or volumetric. The second and third can also have a horizontal or vertical orientation. Linear space may or may not include the concept of directionality. In the presence of this attribute (the image of a linear directed space, characterized by the relevance of the length attribute and the irrelevance of the width attribute, in art is often a road), linear space becomes convenient artistic language for modeling temporal categories (“life path”, “road” as a means of character development in time). To describe point space we have to turn to the concept of delimitation. Artistic space in a literary work is a continuum in which characters are located and action takes place. Naive perception constantly pushes the reader to identify artistic and physical space.

However, the idea that artistic space is always a model of some natural space is not always justified. Space in a work of art models different connections pictures of the world: temporary, social, ethical, etc. This may happen because in one or another model of the world the category of space is complexly merged with certain concepts that exist in our picture of the world as separate or opposite. However, the reason may be different: in an artistic model of the world, “space” sometimes metaphorically takes on the expression of completely non-spatial relations in the modeling structure of the world.

Thus, artistic space is a model of the world of a given author, expressed in the language of his spatial ideas. At the same time, as often happens in other matters, this language, taken by itself, is much less individual and in to a greater extent belongs to time, era, social and artistic groups, than what the artist speaks in this language, than his individual model of the world.

In particular, artistic space can be the basis for the interpretation of the artistic world, since spatial relationships:

They can determine the nature of the “resistance of the environment of the inner world” (D.S. Likhachev);

They are one of the main ways to realize the worldview of characters, their relationships, degrees of freedom/non-freedom;

They serve as one of the main ways to embody the author’s point of view.

Space and its properties are inseparable from the things that fill it. Therefore, the analysis of artistic space and the artistic world is closely related to the analysis of the features of the material world that fills it.

Time is introduced into the work using a cinematic technique, that is, by dividing it into separate moments of peace. This is a general technique of the fine arts, and none of them can do without it. The reflection of time in the work is fragmentary due to the fact that continuously flowing homogeneous time is not capable of giving rhythm. The latter involves pulsation, condensation and rarefaction, deceleration and acceleration, steps and stops. Consequently, visual means that give rhythm must have a certain dismemberment in them, with some of their elements delaying attention and the eye, while with others, intermediate ones, promoting both from element to another. In other words, the lines that form the main diagram figurative work, must permeate or lower the alternating elements of rest and jump.

But it is not enough to decompose time into moments at rest: it is necessary to connect them into a single series, and this presupposes some internal unity of individual moments, which makes it possible and even the need to move from element to element and in this transition to recognize in the new element something from the element just abandoned . Dismemberment is a condition for facilitated analysis; but a condition for facilitated synthesis is also required.

We can say it another way: the organization of time is always and inevitably achieved by division, that is, by discontinuity. With the activity and synthetic nature of the mind, this discontinuity is given clearly and decisively. Then the synthesis itself, if only it is within the capabilities of the viewer, will be extremely complete and sublime, it will be able to cover great times and be filled with movement.

The simplest and at the same time the most open admission cinematic analysis is achieved by a simple sequence of images, the spaces of which physically have nothing in common, are not coordinated with each other, and are not even connected. In essence, this is the same cinematic tape, but not cut in many places and therefore in no way condoning the passive connection of images with each other.

An important characteristic of any artistic world is statics/dynamics. In its implementation, space plays the most important role. Statics presupposes time stopped, frozen, not unfolding forward, but statically oriented towards the past, that is real life cannot be in a confined space. Movement in a static world has the character of “moving immobility.” Dynamics is living, absorbing the present time into the future. Continuation of life is possible only outside of isolation. And the character is perceived and evaluated in unity with his location; he seems to merge with space into an indivisible whole, becoming a part of it. The dynamics of a character depend on whether he has his own individual space, his own path relative to the world around him, or whether he remains, according to Lotman, the same type of environment around him. Kruglikov V.A. It even seems possible “to use the designations of individuality and personality as an analogue of human space and time.” “Then it is appropriate to present individuality as a semantic image of the unfolding of the “I” in human space. At the same time, individuality denotes and indicates the location of personality in a person. In turn, personality can be represented as a semantic image of the unfolding of the “I” in a person’s time, as that subjective time in which movements, displacements and changes of individuality occur.<…>The absolute fullness of individuality is tragic for a person, just like the absolute fullness of the personality” [Kruglikov V.A. Space and time of the “man of culture” // Culture, man and picture of the world. Ed. Arnoldov A.I., Kruglikov V.A. M., 1987].

V. Rudnev identifies three key parameters for the characteristics of artistic space: closedness/openness, straightness/curvature, largeness/smallness. They are explained in the psychoanalytic terms of Otto Rank's theory of birth trauma: at birth, a painful transition occurs from the closed, small, crooked space of the mother's womb into the huge straight and open space of the outside world. In the pragmatics of space, the most important role is played by the concepts of “here” and “there”: they model the position of the speaker and the listener in relation to each other and in relation to the outside world. Rudnev suggests distinguishing here, there, nowhere with capital and small letters:

“The word “here” with a small letter means a space that is in relation to sensory reachability on the part of the speaker, that is, objects located “here” can be seen, heard or touched.

The word “there” with a small letter means a space “located beyond or on the border of sensory reach on the part of the speaker. A boundary can be considered a state of affairs when an object can be perceived by only one sense organ, for example, it can be seen but not heard (it is there, at the other end of the room) or, conversely, heard but not seen (it is there, beyond partition).

The word "Here" with a capital letter means the space that unites the speaker with the object in question. It could be really very far away. “He is here in America” (the speaker may be in California, and the one in question may be in Florida or Wisconsin).

There is an extremely interesting paradox associated with the pragmatics of space. It is natural to assume that if an object is here, then it is not somewhere there (or nowhere). But if we make this logic modal, that is, assign the “possible” operator to both parts of the statement, then we get the following.

It is possible that the object is here, but it is also possible that it is not here. All plots related to space are built on this paradox. For example, Hamlet in Shakespeare's tragedy kills Polonius by mistake. This error is hidden in the structure of the pragmatic space. Hamlet thinks that there, behind the curtain, is the king, whom he was going to kill. The space there is a place of uncertainty. But even here there can be a place of uncertainty, for example, when a double of the one you are waiting for appears to you, and you think that someone is here, but in fact he is somewhere there or he was completely killed (Nowhere)” [ Rudnev V.P. Dictionary of 20th century culture. - M.: Agraf, 1997. - 384 p.].

The idea of ​​the unity of time and space arose in connection with the advent of Einstein's theory of relativity. This idea is also confirmed by the fact that quite often words with a spatial meaning acquire temporal semantics, or have syncretic semantics, denoting both time and space. Not a single object of reality exists only in space outside of time or only in time outside of space. Time is understood as the fourth dimension, the main difference of which from the first three (space) is that time is irreversible (anisotropic). This is how twentieth-century philosophy of time researcher Hans Reichenbach puts it:

1. The past does not return;

2. The past cannot be changed, but the future can;

3. It is impossible to have a reliable protocol about the future [ibid.].

The term chronotope, introduced by Einstein in his theory of relativity, was used by M.M. Bakhtin when studying the novel [Bakhtin M.M. Epic and novel. St. Petersburg, 2000]. Chronotope (literally - time-space) is a significant interconnection of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature; continuity of space and time, when time acts as the fourth dimension of space. Time becomes denser, becomes artistically visible; space is drawn into the movement of time and plot. Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time. This intersection of rows and merging of signs characterizes the artistic chronotope.

The chronotope determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality. All time-spatial definitions in art and literature are inseparable from each other and are always emotionally and value-laden.

The chronotope is the most important characteristic of an artistic image and at the same time a way of creating artistic reality. MM. Bakhtin writes that “any entry into the sphere of meaning occurs only through the gates of chronotopes.” The chronotope, on the one hand, reflects the worldview of its era, on the other, the measure of development of the author's self-awareness, the process of the emergence of points of view on space and time. As the most general, universal category of culture, artistic space-time is capable of embodying “the worldview of an era, the behavior of people, their consciousness, the rhythm of life, their attitude towards things” (Gurevich). The chronotopic beginning of literary works, writes Khalizev, is capable of giving them a philosophical character, “bringing” the verbal fabric to the image of being as a whole, to the picture of the world [Khalizev V.E. Theory of literature. M., 2005].

In the spatio-temporal organization of works of the twentieth century, as well as modern literature, various, sometimes extreme, trends coexist (and struggle) - extreme expansion or, on the contrary, concentrated compression of the boundaries of artistic reality, a tendency towards increasing conventionality or, conversely, towards emphasizing the documentary nature of chronological and topographical landmarks, closedness and openness, deployment and illegality. Among these trends, the following, the most obvious, can be noted:

The desire for a nameless or fictitious topography: the City, instead of Kyiv, in Bulgakov (this casts a certain legendary light on historically specific events); the unmistakable, but never named Cologne in the prose of G. Böll; the story of Macondo in García Márquez's carnivalized national epic, One Hundred Years of Solitude. It is significant, however, that artistic time-space here requires real historical-geographical identification or at least rapprochement, without which the work cannot be understood at all; The closed artistic time of a fairy tale or parable, excluded from the historical account, is widely used - “The Trial” by F. Kafka, “The Plague” by A. Camus, “Watt” by S. Beckett. The fabulous and parable “once”, “once”, equal to “always” and “whenever” corresponds to the eternal “conditions” human existence”, and is also used with the aim that the familiar modern color does not distract the reader in search of historical correlations, does not raise a “naive” question: “when did this happen?”; topography eludes identification, localization in the real world.

The presence of two different unmerged spaces in one artistic world: the real, that is, physical, surrounding the heroes, and the “romantic”, created by the imagination of the hero himself, caused by the clash of the romantic ideal with the coming era of mercenary, put forward by bourgeois development. Moreover, the emphasis moves from the space of the external world to the internal space of human consciousness. The internal space of events unfolding refers to the character’s memory; the intermittent, backward and forward progression of plot time is motivated not by the author’s initiative, but by the psychology of recollection. Time is “stratified”; in extreme cases (for example, in M. Proust), the narrative “here and now” is left to play the role of a frame or a material reason for stimulating memory, freely flying through space and time in pursuit of the desired moment of experience. In connection with the discovery of the compositional possibilities of “remembering,” the original relationship in importance between moving and “attached to place” characters often changes: if previously the leading characters, going through a serious spiritual path, were, as a rule, mobile, and the extras merged with the everyday background into the motionless whole, now, on the contrary, the “remembering” hero, who belongs to central characters, being endowed with his own subjective sphere, the right to demonstrate his inner world (the position “at the window” of the heroine of the novel by W. Woolf “A Trip to the Lighthouse”). This position makes it possible to compress one’s own time of action to a few days and hours, while the time and space of an entire human life can be projected onto the screen of recollection. The contents of the character's memory here play the same role as the collective knowledge of the legend in relation to ancient epic, - it frees you from exposition, epilogue and, in general, any explanatory moments provided by the proactive intervention of the author-narrator.

The character also begins to be thought of as a kind of space. G. Gachev writes that “Space and Time are not objective categories of existence, but subjective forms of the human mind: a priori forms of our sensuality, that is, orientation outward, outward (Space) and inward (Time)” [Gachev G.D. European images Space and Time//Culture, man and the picture of the world. Ed. Arnoldov A.I., Kruglikov V.A. M., 1987]. Yampolsky writes that “the body forms its own space,” which for clarity he calls “place.” This gathering of spaces into a whole, according to Heidegger, is a property of a thing. A thing embodies a certain collective nature, a collective energy, and it creates a place. Collecting space introduces boundaries into it, boundaries give existence to space. The place becomes a cast of a person, his mask, the boundary in which he himself finds being, moves and changes. “The human body is also a thing. It also deforms the space around it, giving it the identity of the place. The human body needs a localization, a place in which it can place itself and find a refuge in which it can abide. As Edward Cayce noted, “the body as such is an intermediary between my consciousness of place and the place itself, moving me between places and introducing me into the intimate crevices of each given place [Yampolsky M. The Demon and the Labyrinth].

Thanks to the elimination of the author as a narrating person, wide possibilities opened up for montage, a kind of spatio-temporal mosaic, when different “theatres of action”, panoramic and close-ups are juxtaposed without motivation or commentary as a “documentary” face of reality itself.

In the twentieth century there were concepts of multidimensional time. They originated in the mainstream of absolute idealism, British philosophy of the early twentieth century. Twentieth-century culture was influenced by W. John Wilm Dunne's serial concept (The Experiment with Time). Dunn analyzed the well-known phenomenon of prophetic dreams, when on one end of the planet a person dreams of an event that a year later happens in reality on the other end of the planet. Explaining this mysterious phenomenon, Dunn came to the conclusion that time has at least two dimensions for one person. A person lives in one dimension, and in another he observes. And this second dimension is space-like, along it you can move into the past and into the future. This dimension manifests itself in altered states of consciousness, when the intellect does not put pressure on a person, that is, first of all, in a dream.

The phenomenon of neo-mythological consciousness at the beginning of the twentieth century updated the mythological cyclical model of time, in which not a single postulate of Reichenbach works. This cyclical time of the agrarian cult is familiar to everyone. After winter comes spring, nature comes to life, and the cycle repeats. In the literature and philosophy of the twentieth century, the archaic myth of eternal recurrence becomes popular.

In contrast to this, the consciousness of man at the end of the twentieth century, based on the idea of ​​linear time, which presupposes the presence of a certain end, precisely postulates the beginning of this end. And it turns out that time no longer moves in the usual direction; To understand what is happening, a person turns to the past. Baudrillard writes about it this way: “We use the concepts of past, present and future, which are very conventional, when talking about the initial and the final. However, today we find ourselves drawn into a kind of open-ended process that no longer has any ending.

The end is also the final goal, the goal that makes this or that movement purposeful. Our history now has neither purpose nor direction: it has lost them, lost them irrevocably. Being on the other side of truth and error, on the other side of good and evil, we are no longer able to go back. Apparently, for every process there is a specific point of no return, after passing which it forever loses its finitude. If there is no completion, then everything exists only by being dissolved in an endless history, an endless crisis, an endless series of processes.

Having lost sight of the end, we desperately try to capture the beginning, this is our desire to find the origins. But these efforts are in vain: both anthropologists and paleontologists discover that all origins disappear in the depths of time, they are lost in the past, as endless as the future.

We have already passed the point of no return and are completely involved in a non-stop process in which everything is immersed in an endless vacuum and has lost its human dimension and which deprives us of the memory of the past, and the focus on the future, and the ability to integrate this future into the present. From now on, our world is a universe of abstract, ethereal things that continue to live by inertia, becoming simulacra of themselves, but not those who know death: endless existence is guaranteed to them because they are only artificial formations.

And yet we are still in captivity of the illusion that certain processes will necessarily reveal their finitude, and with it their direction, will allow us to retrospectively establish their origins, and as a result we will be able to comprehend the movement that interests us with the help of concepts of cause and consequences.

The absence of an end creates a situation in which it is difficult to escape the impression that all the information we receive contains nothing new, that everything we are told about has already happened. Since there is now no completion or final goal, since humanity has gained immortality, the subject ceases to understand what he is. And this newfound immortality is the last phantasm born of our technologies” [Baudrillard Jean Passwords from fragment to fragment Yekaterinburg, 2006].

It should be added that the past is accessible only in the form of memories and dreams. This is a continuous attempt to embody once again what has already happened, what has already happened once and should not happen again. In the center is the fate of a man who finds himself “at the end of times.” The motif of expectation is often used in works of art: hope for a miracle, or longing for a better life, or expectation of trouble, a premonition of disaster.

In Deja Loer's play "Olga's Room" there is a phrase that well illustrates this tendency to turn to the past: "Only if I manage to reproduce the past with absolute accuracy can I see the future."

The concept of time running backwards comes into contact with the same idea. “Time introduces quite understandable metaphysical confusion: it appears with man, but precedes eternity. Another ambiguity, no less important and no less expressive, prevents us from determining the direction of time. They say that it flows from the past to the future: but the opposite is no less logical, as the Spanish poet Miguel de Unamuno wrote about” (Borges). Unamuno does not mean a simple countdown; time here is a metaphor for man. Dying, a person begins to consistently lose what he managed to do and experience, all his experience, he unwinds like a ball to a state of non-existence.

The concept of the space-time continuum is essential for the philological analysis of a literary text, since both time and space serve as constructive principles for the organization of a literary work. Artistic time is a form of existence of aesthetic reality, a special way of understanding the world.

Features of time modeling in literature are determined by the specifics of this type of art: literature is traditionally viewed as art temporary; unlike painting, it recreates the concreteness of the passage of time. This feature of a literary work is determined by the properties of linguistic means that form its figurative structure: “grammar determines for each language an order that distributes ... space in time,” transforms spatial characteristics into temporal ones.

The problem of artistic time has long occupied literary theorists, art historians, and linguists. So, A.A. Potebnya, emphasizing that the art of words is dynamic, showed the limitless possibilities of organizing artistic time in the text. He considered the text as a dialectical unity of two compositional speech forms: descriptions (“depiction of features, simultaneously existing in space") and narration ("Narration transforms a series of simultaneous signs into a series of sequential perceptions, into an image of the movement of gaze and thought from object to object"). A.A. Potebnya distinguished between real time and artistic time; Having examined the relationship between these categories in works of folklore, he noted the historical variability of artistic time. Ideas by A.A. Potebny received further development in the works of philologists of the late XIX - early - la XX century However, interest in the problems of artistic time especially revived in the last decades of the 20th century, which was associated with the rapid development of science, the evolution of views on space and time, the acceleration of the pace of social life, and, in connection with this, increased attention to the problems of memory, origins, tradition , On the one side; and the future, on the other hand; finally, with the emergence of new forms in art.

“The work,” noted P.A. Florensky - aesthetically forcibly develops... in a certain sequence.” Time in a work of art is the duration, sequence and correlation of its events, based on their cause-and-effect, linear or associative relationship.

Time in the text has clearly defined or rather blurred boundaries (events, for example, can cover tens of years, a year, several days, a day, an hour, etc.), which may or, on the contrary, not be designated in the work in relation to the historical time or time set conditionally by the author (see, for example, E. Zamyatin’s novel “We”).

Artistic time wears systemic character. This is a way of organizing the aesthetic reality of a work, its inner world, and at the same time an image associated with the embodiment of the author’s concept, with a reflection of precisely his picture of the world (remember, for example, M. Bulgakov’s novel “ White Guard"). From time as an immanent property of a work, it is advisable to distinguish the time of the passage of the text, which can be considered as the time of the reader; Thus, when considering a literary text, we are dealing with the antinomy “the time of the work - the time of the reader.” This antinomy in the process of perceiving a work can be resolved in different ways. At the same time, the time of the work is not uniform: for example, as a result of temporary displacements, “omissions”, highlighting close-up central events, the depicted time is compressed, shortened, but when juxtaposing and describing simultaneous events, it, on the contrary, is stretched.

A comparison of real time and artistic time reveals their differences. The topological properties of real time in the macroworld are one-dimensionality, continuity, irreversibility, orderliness. In artistic time, all these properties are transformed. It may be multidimensional. This is due to the very nature of a literary work, which has, firstly, an author and presupposes the presence of a reader, and secondly, boundaries: a beginning and an end. Two time axes appear in the text - the “axis of storytelling” and the “axis of events described”: “the axis of storytelling is one-dimensional, while the axis of events described is multidimensional.” Their relationship destroys the multidimensionality of artistic time, makes temporal shifts possible, and determines the multiplicity of temporal points of view in the structure of the text. Thus, in a prose work, the narrator’s conditional present tense is usually established, which correlates with the narration about the past or future of the characters, with the characteristics of situations in various time dimensions. The action of a work can unfold in different time planes (“The Double” by A. Pogorelsky, “Russian Nights” by V.F. Odoevsky, “The Master and Margarita” by M. Bulgakov, etc.).

Irreversibility (unidirectionality) is also not characteristic of artistic time: the real sequence of events is often disrupted in the text. According to the law of irreversibility, only folklore time moves. In the literature of modern times, temporal displacements, disruption of temporal sequence, and switching of temporal registers play an important role. Retrospection as a manifestation of the reversibility of artistic time is the principle of organization of a number of thematic genres (memoirs and autobiographical works, detective novels). Retrospective in a literary text can also act as a means of revealing its implicit content - subtext.

The multidirectionality and reversibility of artistic time is especially clearly manifested in the literature of the 20th century. If Stern, according to E.M. Forster, “turned the clock upside down,” then “Marcel Proust, even more inventive, swapped the hands... Gertrude Stein, who tried to banish time from the novel, smashed her clock into pieces and scattered its fragments around the world..." It was in the 20th century. a “stream of consciousness” novel arises, a “one day” novel, a sequential time series in which time is destroyed, and time appears only as a component of a person’s psychological existence.

Artistic time is characterized as continuity, so and discreteness.“Remaining essentially continuous in the sequential change of temporal and spatial facts, the continuum in textual reproduction is simultaneously divided into separate episodes.” The selection of these episodes is determined by the author’s aesthetic intentions, hence the possibility of time gaps, “compression” or, conversely, expansion of plot time. - nor, see, for example, the remark of T. Mann: “On have a wonderful holiday narration and reproduction, omissions play an important and indispensable role.”

The possibilities of expanding or compressing time are widely used by writers. So, for example, in the story by I.S. Turgenev's "Spring Waters" highlights Sanin's love story for Gemma in close-up - the most striking event in the hero's life, its emotional peak; At the same time, artistic time slows down, “stretches out,” but the course of the hero’s subsequent life is conveyed in a generalized, summary way: And there - living in Paris and all the humiliation, all the disgusting torments of a slave... Then- return to homeland, poisoned, devastated life, petty fuss, petty troubles...

Artistic time in the text acts as a dialectical unity final And infinite. In the endless flow of time, one event or a chain of events is singled out; their beginning and end are usually fixed. The ending of the work is a signal that the time period presented to the reader has ended, but time continues beyond it. Such a property of real-time works as orderliness is also transformed in a literary text. This may be due to the subjective determination of the reference point or measure of time: for example, in S. Bobrov’s autobiographical story “Boy”, the measure of time for the hero is a holiday:

For a long time I tried to imagine what a year was... and suddenly I saw in front of me a rather long ribbon of grayish-pearly fog, lying horizontally in front of me, like a towel thrown on the floor.<...>Was this towel divided for months?.. No, it was unnoticeable. For seasons?.. It’s also somehow not very clear... It was clearer something else. These were the patterns of the holidays that colored the year.

Artistic time represents unity private And general.“As a manifestation of the private, it has the features of individual time and is characterized by a beginning and an end. As a reflection of the limitless world, it is characterized by infinity; temporary flow." As a unity of discrete and continuous, finite and infinite, and can act. a separate temporary situation in a literary text: “There are seconds, five or six of them pass at a time, and you suddenly feel the presence of eternal harmony, completely achieved... As if you suddenly feel all of nature and suddenly say: yes, this is true.” The plane of the timeless in a literary text is created through the use of - the use of repetitions, maxims and aphorisms, various kinds of reminiscences, symbols and other tropes. In this regard, artistic time can be considered as a complementary phenomenon, to the analysis of which N. Bohr’s principle of complementarity is applicable (opposite means cannot be combined synchronously; to obtain a holistic view, two “experiences” separated in time are needed). The antinomy “finite - infinite” is resolved in a literary text as a result of the use of conjugate, but spaced apart in time and therefore ambiguous means, for example, symbols.

Fundamentally significant for the organization of a work of art are such characteristics of artistic time as duration / brevity the event depicted, homogeneity / heterogeneity situations, the connection of time with subject-event content (its full/unfilled,"emptiness"). According to these parameters, both works and fragments of text in them, forming certain time blocks, can be contrasted.

Artistic time is based on a certain system of linguistic means. This is, first of all, a system of tense forms of the verb, their sequence and opposition, transposition (figurative use) of tense forms, lexical units with temporal semantics, case forms with the meaning of time, chronological marks, syntactic constructions that create a certain time plan (for example, nominative sentences represent in the text there is a plan of the present), names of historical figures, mythological heroes, nominations of historical events.

Of particular importance for artistic time is the functioning of verb forms; the predominance of statics or dynamics in the text, the acceleration or slowdown of time, their sequence determines the transition from one situation to another, and, consequently, the movement of time. Compare, for example, the following fragments of E. Zamyatin’s story “Mamai”: Mamai wandered lost in the unfamiliar Zagorodny. The penguin wings were in the way; his head hung like the faucet of a broken samovar...

And suddenly his head jerked up, his legs began to prance like a twenty-five-year-old...

Forms of time act as signals of various subjective spheres in the structure of the narrative, cf., for example:

Gleb lying on the sand, resting my head in my hands, it was a quiet, sunny morning. He wasn't working on his mezzanine today. It's all over. Tomorrow are leaving, Ellie fits, everything is overdrilled. Helsingfors again...

(B. Zaitsev. Gleb’s Journey )

The functions of types of tense forms in a literary text are largely typified. As noted by V.V. Vinogradov, narrative (“event”) time is determined primarily by the relationship between the dynamic forms of the past tense of the perfect form and the forms of the past imperfect, acting in a procedural-long-term or qualitative-characterizing meaning. The latter forms are correspondingly assigned to the descriptions.

The time of the text as a whole is determined by the interaction of three temporal “axes”:

1) calendar time, displayed mainly by lexical units with the seme “time” and dates;

2) event-based time, organized by the connection of all predicates of the text (primarily verbal forms);

3) perceptual time, expressing the position of the narrator and the character (in this case, different lexical and grammatical means and temporal shifts are used).

Artistic and grammatical tenses are closely related, but they should not be equated. “Grammatical tense and the tense of a verbal work can diverge significantly. The time of action and the author’s and reader’s time are created by a combination of many factors: among them, only partly grammatical time...”

Artistic time is created by all elements of the text, while the means expressing temporal relations interact with the means expressing spatial relations. Let's limit ourselves to one example: for example, change of designs C; predicates of motion (we left the city, drove into the forest, arrived in Nizhneye Gorodishche, drove up to the river etc.) in the story of A.P. Chekhov ) “On the Cart,” on the one hand, determines the temporal sequence of situations and forms the plot time of the text, on the other hand, reflects the character’s movement in space and participates in the creation of artistic space. To create an image of time, spatial metaphors are regularly used in literary texts.

The oldest works are characterized mythological time a sign of which is the idea of ​​cyclical reincarnations, “world periods”. Mythological time, not in the opinion of K. Levi-Strauss, can be defined as the unity of such characteristics as reversibility-irreversibility, synchronicity-diachronicity. The present and the future in mythological time appear only as different temporal hypostases of the past, which is an invariant structure. The cyclical structure of mythological time turned out to be significantly significant for the development of art in different eras. “The exceptionally powerful orientation of mythological thinking towards establishing homo- and isomorphisms, on the one hand, made it scientifically fruitful, and on the other, determined its periodic revival in various historical eras.” The idea of ​​time as a change of cycles, “eternal repetition”, is present in a number of neo-mythological works of the 20th century. So, according to V.V. Ivanov, this concept is close to the image of time in the poetry of V. Khlebnikov, “who deeply felt the ways of science of his time.”

In medieval culture, time was viewed primarily as a reflection of eternity, while the idea of ​​it was predominantly of an eschatological nature: time begins with the act of creation and ends with the “second coming.” The main direction of time becomes orientation towards the future - the future exodus from time to eternity, while the metrization of time itself changes and the role of the present, the dimension of which is connected with the spiritual life of a person, significantly increases: “... for the present of past objects we have memory or memories; for the present of real objects we have a look, an outlook, an intuition; for the present of future objects we have aspiration, hope, hope,” wrote Augustine. Thus, in ancient Russian literature, time, as D.S. notes. Likhachev, not as egocentric as in the literature of modern times. It is characterized by isolation, one-pointedness, strict adherence to the real sequence of events, and a constant appeal to the eternal: “Medieval literature strives for the timeless, for overcoming time in the depiction of the highest manifestations of existence - the divine establishment of the universe.” The achievements of ancient Russian literature in recreating events “from the angle of eternity” in a transformed form were used by writers of subsequent generations, in particular F.M. Dostoevsky, for whom “the temporary was... a form of realization of the eternal.” Let us limit ourselves to one example - the dialogue between Stavrogin and Kirillov in the novel “Demons”:

There are minutes, you get to minutes, and time suddenly stops and will be forever.

Are you hoping to get to that point?

“This is hardly possible in our time,” Nikolai Vsevolodovich responded, also without any irony, slowly and as if thoughtfully. - In the Apocalypse, the angel swears that there will be no more time.

I know. This is very true there; clearly and accurately. When the whole person achieves happiness, there will be no more time, because there is no need.

Since the Renaissance, the evolutionary theory of time has been affirmed in culture and science: spatial events become the basis for the movement of time. Time, thus, is understood as eternity, not opposed to time, but moving and being realized in every instantaneous situation. This is reflected in the literature of modern times, which boldly violates the principle of irreversibility of real time. Finally, the 20th century is a period of particularly bold experimentation with artistic time. The ironic judgment of Zh.P. is indicative. Sartre: “...most of the largest modern writers- Proust, Joyce... Faulkner, Gide, W. Wolf - each in their own way tried to cripple time. Some of them deprived him of his past and future in order to reduce him to the pure intuition of the moment... Proust and Faulkner simply simply “decapitated” him, depriving him of the future, that is, the dimension of action and freedom.”

Consideration of artistic time in its development shows that its evolution (reversibility → irreversibility → reversibility) is a forward movement in which each higher stage negates, removes its lower (preceding) one, contains its richness and again removes itself in the next , third, stage.

Features of modeling artistic time are taken into account when determining the constitutive characteristics of the genus, genre, and movement in literature. So, according to A.A. Potebni, "lyrics" - praesens","epic - perfectum"; the principle of recreating times - can distinguish between genres: aphorisms and maxims, for example, are characterized by a constant present; Reversible artistic time is inherent in memoirs and autobiographical works. The literary direction is also associated with a specific concept of the development of time and the principles of its transmission, while, for example, the measure of adequacy of real time is different. Thus, symbolism is characterized by the implementation of the idea of ​​​​eternal movement-becoming: the world develops according to the laws of the “triad (the unity of the world spirit with the Soul of the world - the rejection of the Soul of the world from unity - the defeat of Chaos).

At the same time, the principles of mastering artistic time are individual, this is a feature of the artist’s idiostyle (thus, artistic time in the novels of L.N. Tolstoy, for example, differs significantly from the model of time in the works of F.M. Dostoevsky).

Taking into account the peculiarities of the embodiment of time in a literary text, considering the concept of time in it and, more broadly, in the writer’s work is a necessary component of the analysis of the work; underestimation of this aspect, absolutization of one of the particular manifestations of artistic time, identification of its properties without taking into account both objective real time and subjective time can lead to erroneous interpretations of the artistic text, making the analysis incomplete and schematic.

The analysis of artistic time includes the following main points:

1) determination of the features of artistic time in the work in question:

Unidimensionality or multidimensionality;

Reversibility or irreversibility;

Linearity or violation of time sequence;

2) highlighting the temporal plans (planes) presented in the work in the temporal structure of the text and considering their interaction;

4) identifying signals that highlight these forms of time;

5) consideration of the entire system of time indicators in the text, identifying not only their direct, but also figurative meanings;

6) determining the relationship between historical and everyday, biographical and historical time;

7) establishing a connection between artistic time and space.

Let us turn to the consideration of individual aspects of the artistic time of the text based on the material of specific works (“The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen and the story “Cold Autumn” by I. A. Bunin).

“The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen: features of temporary organization

In a literary text, a moving, often changeable and multidimensional time perspective arises; the sequence of events in it may not correspond to their real chronology. The author of the work, in accordance with his aesthetic intentions, sometimes expands, sometimes “thickens” time, sometimes slows it down; it speeds up.

A work of art correlates different aspect of artistic time: plot time (the temporal extent of the depicted actions and their reflection in the composition of the work) and plot time (their real sequence), author’s time and the subjective time of the characters. It presents different manifestations(forms) of time (everyday historical time, personal time and social time). The center of attention of a writer or poet can be himself image of time, associated with the motive of movement, development, formation, with the opposition of the transitory and the eternal.

Of particular interest is the analysis of the temporal organization of works in which different time plans are consistently correlated, a broad panorama of the era is given, and a certain philosophy of history is embodied. Such works include the memoir-autobiographical epic “The Past and Thoughts” (1852 - 1868). This is not only the pinnacle of A.I.’s creativity. Herzen, but also a work of “new form” (as defined by L.N. Tolstoy) It combines elements of different genres (autobiography, confession, notes, historical chronicles), combines different forms of presentation and compositional and semantic types of speech, “gravestone and confession, past and thoughts, biography, speculation, events and thoughts, heard and seen, memories and... more memories” (A.I. Herzen). “The best... of the books devoted to a review of one’s own life” (Yu.K. Olesha), “The Past and Thoughts” is the history of the formation of a Russian revolutionary and at the same time the history of social thought of the 30-60s of the 19th century. “There is hardly another work of memoirs so imbued with conscious historicism.”

This is a work characterized by a complex and dynamic temporal organization, involving the interaction of various time plans. Its principles are defined by the author himself, who noted that his work is “and a confession around which, about which, here and there, captured memories from the past, here and there, stopped thoughts and other m" (highlighted by A.I. Herzen. - N.N.). In this author's description, which opens the work, contains an indication of the basic principles of the temporal organization of the text: this is an orientation towards the subjective segmentation of one’s past, the free juxtaposition of different time plans, the constant switching of time registers; The author’s “thoughts” are combined with a retrospective, but devoid of strict chronological sequence. - stories about past events include characteristics of persons, events and facts from different historical eras. The narration of the past is supplemented by stage reproduction of individual situations; the story about the “past” is interrupted by fragments of text that reflect the immediate position of the narrator at the moment of speech or the reconstructed period of time.

This construction of the work “clearly reflected the methodological principle of “The Past and Thoughts”: the constant interaction of the general and the particular, the transitions from the author’s direct reflections to their substantive illustration and back.”

Artistic time in “Bygone...” reversible(the author resurrects past events), multidimensional(the action unfolds in different time planes) and nonlinear(the story about past events is disrupted by self-interruptions, reasoning, comments, assessments). The starting point that determines the change of time plans in the text is mobile and constantly moving.

The plot time of the work is time first of all biographical, The “past”, reconstructed inconsistently, reflects the main stages in the development of the author’s personality.

At the heart of biographical time is the end-to-end image of a path (road), in symbolic form embodying the life path of the narrator, seeking true knowledge and going through a series of tests. This traditional spatial image is realized in a system of expanded metaphors and comparisons, regularly repeated in the text and forming a cross-cutting motif of movement, overcoming oneself, and passing through a series of steps: The path we chose was not easy, we never left it; wounded, broken, we walked, and no one overtook us. I reached... not to the goal, but to the place where the road goes downhill...; ...the June of coming of age, with its painful work, with its rubble on the road, takes a person by surprise.; Like lost knights in fairy tales, we waited at a crossroads. You'll go right- you will lose your horse, but you yourself will be safe; if you go to the left, the horse will be intact, but you yourself will die; if you go forward, everyone will leave you; If you go back, this is no longer possible, the road there is overgrown with grass for us.

These tropical series developing in the text act as a constructive component of the biographical time of the work and form its figurative basis.

Reproducing past events, evaluating them ("Past- not a proof sheet... Not everything can be corrected. It remainsas cast in metal, detailed, unchanging, dark as bronze. People generally forget only what is not worth remembering or what they do not understand") and refracting through his subsequent experience, A.I. Herzen makes maximum use of the expressive capabilities of the tense forms of the verb.

The situations and facts depicted in the past are assessed by the author in different ways: some of them are described extremely briefly, while others (the most important for the author in an emotional, aesthetic or ideological sense), on the contrary, are highlighted “close-up”, while time “stops” or slows down. To achieve this aesthetic effect, imperfective past tense forms or present tense forms are used. If the forms of the past perfect express a chain of successively changing actions, then the forms of the imperfect form convey not the dynamics of the event, but the dynamics of the action itself, presenting it as an unfolding process. Performing in a literary text not only a “reproducing”, but also a “visually pictorial”, “descriptive” function, the forms of the past imperfect stop time. In the text of “Past and Thoughts” they are used as a means of highlighting in “close-up” situations or events that are especially significant for the author (the oath on Vorobyovy Mountain, the death of his father, a meeting with Natalie, leaving Russia, a meeting in Turin, the death of his wife). The choice of forms of the past imperfect as a sign of a certain author’s attitude towards the depicted performs in this case an emotional and expressive function. Wed, for example: The nurse in a sundress and a shower jacket is still watched follow us and cried; Sonnenberg, that funny figure from childhood, waved foulard- All around is an endless steppe of snow.

This function of the forms of the past imperfect is typical of artistic speech; it is associated with the special meaning of the imperfect form, which presupposes the obligatory presence of a moment of observation, a retrospective point of reference. A.I. Herzen also uses the expressive possibilities of the past imperfect form with the meaning of multiple or habitually repeated action: they serve for typification, generalization of empirical details and situations. Thus, to characterize life in his father’s house, Herzen uses the technique of describing one day - a description based on the consistent use of imperfective forms. “Past and Thoughts” is thus characterized by a constant change in the perspective of the image: isolated facts and situations, highlighted in close-up, are combined with the reproduction of long-term processes, periodically repeating phenomena. Interesting in this regard is the portrait of the Chaadaevs, built on the transition from the author’s specific personal observations to a typical characteristic:

I loved to look at him in the midst of this tinsel nobility, flighty senators, gray-haired rakes and honorable nonentity. No matter how dense the crowd, the eye found him immediately; summer did not distort his slender figure, he dressed very carefully, his pale, tender face was completely motionless, when he was silent, as if made of wax or marble, “a forehead like a naked skull”... For ten years he stood with folded arms , somewhere near a column, near a tree on the boulevard, in halls and theaters, in a club and - the embodiment of veto, he looked with lively protest at the whirlwind of faces spinning meaninglessly around him...

The forms of the present tense against the background of the forms of the past can also perform the function of slowing down time, the function of highlighting events and phenomena of the past in close-up, but they, unlike the forms of the past imperfect in the “picturesque” function, recreate, first of all, the immediate time of the author’s experience associated with the moment of lyrical concentrations, or (less often) convey predominantly typical situations, repeatedly repeated in the past and now reconstructed by memory as imaginary:

The peace of the oak forest and the noise of the oak forest, the continuous buzzing of flies, bees, bumblebees... and the smell... this grass-forest smell... which I so greedily sought in Italy, and in England, and in the spring, and in the hot summer, and almost never found it. Sometimes it seems to smell like him, after mown hay, in broad daylight, before a thunderstorm... and I remember a small place in front of the house... on the grass, a three-year-old boy, lying in clover and dandelions, between grasshoppers, all sorts of beetles and ladybugs, and ourselves, and youth, and friends! The sun has set, it’s still very warm, we don’t want to go home, we’re sitting on the grass. The catcher picks mushrooms and scolds me for no reason. What is this, like a bell? to us, or what? Today is Saturday - maybe... The troika rolls through the village, knocking on the bridge.

The forms of the present tense in “The Past...” are associated primarily with the author’s subjective psychological time, his emotional sphere; their use complicates the image of time. The reconstruction of events and facts of the past, again directly experienced by the author, is associated with the use of nominative sentences, and in some cases with the use of forms of the past perfect in the perfect meaning. The chain of forms of the historical present and nominatives not only brings the events of the past as close as possible, but also conveys a subjective sense of time and recreates its rhythm:

My heart was beating strongly when I again saw familiar, dear streets, places, houses that I had not seen for about four years... Kuznetsky Most, Tverskoy Boulevard... here is Ogarev’s house, they stuck some kind of huge coat of arms on him, it’s someone else’s already... here Povarskaya - the spirit is engaged: in the meso- - Nina, in the corner window, a candle is burning, this is her room, she writes to me, she thinks about me, the candle burns so cheerfully, so to me burns.

Thus, the biographical plot time of the work is uneven and discontinuous, it is characterized by a deep but moving perspective; the reconstruction of real biographical facts is combined with the transfer of various aspects of the author’s subjective awareness and measurement of time.

Artistic and grammatical time, as already noted, are closely related, however, “grammar appears as a piece of smalt in the overall mosaic picture of a verbal work.” Artistic time is created by all elements of the text.

Lyrical expression and attention to the “moment” are combined in the prose of A.I. Herzen with constant typification, with a social-analytical approach to what is depicted. Considering that “it is more necessary here than anywhere else to take off masks and portraits,” since “we are terribly falling apart from what has just passed,” the author combines; “thoughts” in the present and a story about the “past” with portraits of contemporaries, while restoring the missing links in the image of the era: “the universal without personality is an empty distraction; but a person only has full reality to the extent that he is in society.”

Portraits of contemporaries in “The Past and Thoughts” are conditionally possible; divided into static and dynamic. Yes, in the chapter III first volume presents a portrait of Nicholas I, it is static and emphatically evaluative, the speech means involved in its creation contain the common semantic feature “cold”: a cropped and shaggy jellyfish with a mustache; His beauty filled him with cold... But the main thing was his eyes, without any warmth, without any mercy, winter eyes.

Otherwise it will be built portrait characteristic Ogarev in Chapter IV of the same volume. A description of his appearance is followed by an introduction; elements of prospection related to the hero’s future. “If a pictorial portrait is always a moment stopped in time, then a verbal portrait characterizes a person in “actions and deeds” relating to different “moments” of his biography.” Creating a portrait of N. Ogarev in adolescence, A.I. Herzen, at the same time, names the traits of a hero in maturity: Early on one could see in him that anointing that not many people receive,- for bad luck or for good luck... but probably so as not to be in the crowd... unaccountable sadness and extreme meekness shone through the big gray eyes, hinting at the future growth of the great spirit; That's how he grew up.

The combination of different time points of view in portraits when describing and characterizing the characters deepens the moving time perspective of the work.

The multiplicity of time points of view presented in the structure of the text is increased by the inclusion of fragments of the diary, letters of other characters, excerpts from literary works, in particular from the poems of N. Ogarev. These elements of the text are correlated with the author's narration or the author's descriptions and are often contrasted with them as genuine, objective - subjective, transformed by time. See for example: The truth of that time, as it was then understood, without the artificial perspective that distance gives, without the cooling of time, without the corrected illumination by rays passing through a series of other events, was preserved in the notebook of that time.

The biographical time of the author is supplemented in the work with elements of the biographical time of other heroes, while A.I. Herzen resorts to extensive comparisons and metaphors that recreate the passage of time: The years of her life abroad passed luxuriantly and noisily, but they went and plucked flower after flower... Like a tree in the middle of winter, she retained the linear outline of her branches, the leaves flew around, the bare branches chilled bonyly, but the majestic growth and bold dimensions were seen all the more clearly. The image of a clock is repeatedly used in “The Past...”, embodying the inexorable power of time: The large English table clock, with its measured*, loud spondee - tick-tock - tick-tock - tick-tock... seemed to be measuring out the last quarter of an hour of her life...; And the spondee of the English clock continued to measure days, hours, minutes... and finally reached the fateful second.

The image of fleeting time in “The Past and Thoughts,” as we see, is associated with an orientation towards the traditional, often general linguistic type of comparisons and metaphors, which, repeated in the text, undergo transformations and affect the surrounding elements of the context; as a result, the stability of tropical characteristics is combined with their constant update.

Thus, biographical time in “My Past and Thoughts” consists of plot time, based on the sequence of events of the author’s past, and elements of the biographical time of other characters, while the subjective perception of time by the narrator, his evaluative attitude to the reconstructed facts are constantly emphasized. “The author is like an editor in cinematography”: he either speeds up the time of the work, then stops it, does not always correlate the events of his life with chronology, emphasizes, on the one hand, the fluidity of time, on the other hand, the duration of individual episodes resurrected by memory.

Biographical time, despite the complex perspective inherent in it, is interpreted in the work of A. Herzen as private time, presupposing subjectivity of measurement, closed, having a beginning and an end (“Everything personal quickly crumbles away... Let “The Past and Thoughts” settle accounts with personal life and be its table of contents”). It is included in the broad flow of time associated with the historical era reflected in the work. Thus, closed biographical time contrasted open historical time. This opposition is reflected in the features of the composition of “Past and Thoughts”: “in the sixth and seventh parts there is no longer lyrical hero; in general, the personal, “private” fate of the author remains outside the boundaries of what is depicted,” the dominant element of the author’s speech becomes “thoughts” that appear in a monologue or dialogized form. One of the leading grammatical forms organizing these contexts is the present tense. If the plot biographical time of “The Past and Thoughts” is characterized by the use of the actual present (“the author’s current ... the result of moving the “observation point” to one of the moments of the past, the plot action”) or the historical present, then for “thoughts” and the author’s digressions, constituting the main layer of historical time, characterized by the present in an expanded or constant meaning, acting in interaction with the forms of the past tense, as well as the present of direct author’s speech: The nationality, like a banner, like a battle cry, is only surrounded by a revolutionary aura when the people fight for independence, when they overthrow the foreign yoke... The War of 1812 greatly developed the feeling national consciousness and love for the homeland, but the patriotism of 1812 did not have an Old Believer-Slavic character. We see him in Karamzin and Pushkin...

““The past and thoughts,” wrote A.I. Herzen, is not a historical monograph, but a reflection of history in a person, accidentally caught on her way."

The life of an individual in “Bydrm and Thoughts” is perceived in connection with a certain historical situation and is motivated by it. A metaphorical image of the background appears in the text, which is then concretized, gaining perspective and dynamics: A thousand times I wanted to convey a series of unique figures, sharp portraits taken from life... There is nothing gregarious in them... one common connection- em them or better yet one general unhappiness; Peering into the dark gray background, you can see soldiers under sticks, serfs under rods... wagons rushing to Siberia, convicts trudged there, shaved foreheads, branded faces, helmets, epaulettes, sultans... in a word, St. Petersburg Russia.. They want to run away from the canvas and cannot.

If the biographical time of a work is characterized by a spatial image of a road, then to represent historical time, in addition to the image of the background, images of the sea (ocean) and elements are regularly used:

Impressive, sincerely young, we were easily caught up in a powerful wave... and early we swam across that line at which whole rows of people stop, fold their arms, walk back or look around for a ford - across the sea!

In history, it is easier for him [man] to be passionately carried away by the flow of events... than to peer into the ebb and flow of the waves that carry him. A man... grows by understanding his position into a helmsman who proudly cuts through the waves with his boat, forcing the bottomless abyss to serve him through communication.

Characterizing the role of the individual in the historical process, A.I. Herzen resorts to a number of metaphorical correspondences that are inextricably linked with each other: a person in history is “at once a boat, a wave and a helmsman,” while everything that exists is connected by “ends and beginnings, causes and actions.” A person’s aspirations “are clothed in words, embodied in images, remain in tradition and are passed on from century to century.” This understanding of the place of man in the historical process led to the author’s appeal to the universal language of culture, the search for certain “formulas” to explain the problems of history and, more broadly, of existence, to classify particular phenomena and situations. Such “formulas” in the text of “Past and Thoughts” are a special type of tropes, characteristic of the style of A.I. Herzen. These are metaphors, comparisons, periphrases, which include the names of historical figures, literary heroes, mythological characters, names of historical events, words denoting historical and cultural concepts. These “point quotes” appear in the text as metonymic replacements for entire situations and plots. The paths of which they are included serve to figuratively characterize phenomena of which Herzen was a contemporary, persons and events of other historical eras. See for example: Student young ladies- Jacobins, Saint-Just in the Amazon - everything is sharp, pure, merciless...;[Moscow] with murmuring and contempt she received into her walls a woman stained with the blood of her husband[Catherine II], this Lady Macbeth without repentance, this Lucretia Borgia without Italian blood...

Phenomena of history and modernity, empirical facts and myths, real persons and literary images are compared, as a result the situations described in the work receive a second plan: through the particular the general appears, through the individual - the repeating, through the transitory - the eternal.

The relationship in the structure of the work of two time layers: private time, biographical time and historical time - leads to a complication of the subjective organization of the text. Copyright I alternates sequentially with We, which in different contexts takes on different meanings: it points either to the author, or to persons close to him, or, with the strengthening of the role of historical time, serves as a means of pointing to the entire generation, national collective, or even, more broadly, to the human race as a whole:

Our historical vocation, our deed lies in this: through our disappointment, through our suffering, we reach the point of humility and submission before the truth and deliver the next generations from these sorrows...

Unity is established in the connection between generations human race, the history of which seems to the author to be a tireless striving forward, a path that has no end, but presupposes, however, the repetition of certain motives. The same repetitions of A.I. Herzen also finds in human life, the course of which, from his point of view, has a peculiar rhythm:

Yes, in life there is an addiction to the returning rhythm, to the repetition of the motive; who doesn’t know how close old age is to childhood? Take a closer look and you will see that on both sides of the full height of life, with its wreaths of flowers and thorns, with its cradles and coffins, eras are often repeated, similar in the main features.

It is historical time that is especially important for the narrative: the formation of the hero of “Past and Thoughts” reflects the formation of the era; biographical time is not only contrasted with historical time, but also acts as one of its manifestations.

Dominant images that characterize both biographical time (the image of the path) and historical time (the image of the sea, the elements) in the text interact, their connection gives rise to the movement of particular end-to-end images associated with the deployment of the dominant: I'm not coming from London. There is nowhere and no reason... It was washed here and thrown by the waves, which so mercilessly broke and twisted me and everything close to me.

The interaction of different time plans in the text, the correlation in the work of biographical and historical time, “the reflection of history in a person” are the distinctive features of the memoir-autobiographical epic of A.I. Herzen. These principles of temporal organization determine the figurative structure of the text and are reflected in the language of the work.

SPECIFICITY OF CREATION OF ARTISTIC TIME AND SPACE IN L. Ulitskaya’s PROSE

P.I. Mamedova

Baku Slavic University (BSU) st. Suleiman Rustama, 25, Baku, Azerbaijan, AZ1014

The specifics of the creation of artistic time and space in L. Ulitskaya’s story “Merry Funeral” are considered. The originality of the topos in the works of L. Ulitskaya is determined by the fact that it is represented by the space of a house (apartment), filled with numerous objects and details. At the same time, the limited enclosed space of the apartment tends to expand by including the expanses of the homeland, which the emigrants “carried away” on “their soles,” and the space of the new country in which they settled and which they “bring” along with their problems into the hero’s house. And then the space narrows to the limits of the person’s inner world. L. Ulitskaya’s works are characterized by an appeal to the character’s memory as an internal space for the temporary unfolding of events. The category of time in works is presented in two aspects: historical time (memory time) and real time.

Key words: artistic time, artistic space, structure of a work of art, women's prose, chronotope.

A literary work is a collection of a large number of elements that are inextricably linked. Sometimes it is enough to analyze one of the elements of the text to understand the characteristic features of the entire work. Such an element can be a composition, a system of images, a detail, a landscape, color scheme etc. But perhaps the most polysemantic, meaning-forming elements of the text are artistic time and artistic space.

In the space-time structures developed by both individual and general cultural historical consciousness, the system of spiritual ideas of man and society, the sum of their spiritual experience, is refracted. As noted by D.S. Likhachev, changes in the system of space-time ideas primarily indicate shifts occurring in culture, in the worldview and worldview of the individual, transformations of social character.

V.E. writes about the objective nature of space and time. Khalizev, specifying that they “are endless.” He points to “the universal properties of time - duration, uniqueness, irreversibility; universal properties of space - extension, unity of discontinuity and continuity." His important remark is the following: “... a person perceives them subjectively, even when he tries to capture their objective reality. Time and space in works of literature are determined by the temporal and spatial ideas of the author himself, therefore these categories appear infinitely diverse and deeply significant.”

Literary texts may contain biographical time (childhood, youth, maturity, old age), historical time (epochs, destinies of generations, major events in social life), cosmic time (eternity and universal history), calendar time (the cycle of seasons, a series of everyday life and holidays), daily (any time within 24 hours). Also important are ideas about movement and immobility, about the correlation between the past, present, and future. Space is usually described through categories such as enclosure and openness. It can appear in reality and appear in the imagination. In addition, phenomena can be removed from the subject or brought closer to it, and a correlation between the earthly and cosmic can arise.

The development of problems of artistic space and time, being a significant part of literary analysis, has acquired new impulses in recent years. So, N.K. Shutaya emphasizes that “one of the productive areas modern literary criticism became the study of spatio-temporal models implemented at various levels of systematicity: within the work of one writer, within a literary movement, within a certain era.” Each author interprets time and space in his own way, endowing them with various characteristics that reflect his worldview and attitude. As a result, the artistic space created by a particular author becomes different from that created by another artist. That's why so much in Lately Studies have appeared devoted to the chronotope in the works of individual authors - A. Chekhov, M. Tsvetaeva, M. Bulgakov, A. Platonov, etc.

Space and time are the main forms of existence; in works of art they are transformed, creating complex intermediate formations, “flowing” into one another. As noted by A.Ya. Esalnek, “space and time do not exist along with other features, but fill and penetrate all the details of the work, making them chronotopic.” Time and space form the basis of the plot, and in the twists and turns of the plot, a picture of the world is born, recreated by the author.

Researchers at the present stage of studying the categories of time and space are beginning to pay more and more attention to the specifics of their disclosure in the works of female writers, i.e. offer a gender approach. Although this type of research has not yet received unconditional support, certain comments and observations undoubtedly deserve attention. The most convincing are the conclusions voiced in N. Gabrielyan’s article “Eve means “life” (the problem of space in modern women’s prose).” The author is convinced that the perception of the problem of artistic space “has to do not so much with a purely physical phenomenon, but with the attitude of consciousness,” i.e. the female author depicts a picture of the world seen from her, female, point of view.

A special complex relationship between the categories of time and space clearly characterizes the specifics of the artistic thinking of one of the brightest representatives of “women's prose” L. Ulitskaya. This specificity will be analyzed using the example of the story “Merry Funeral”.

In the artistic world, the stories intertwine and closely interact between the present and the past, as well as the geographical spaces of Russia and the USA. The work raises problems of family relationships, the meaning of life, the perception of death, art, memory, and understanding of professional duty. These problems are revealed in the images of characters created using nominal, portrait, behavioral, speech characteristics. The writer pays special attention to the sphere of the subconscious (dreams).

The reader is struck by the paradoxical properties of the space created by the writer: it also has a tendency to expand (description of a city, then a country), as a result of which an open space appears before us. However, the action can also be confined within four walls, separating what is happening indoors from the outside world. But at the same time, echoes from the outside penetrate - along with the people who come - there too. Visitors to the apartment-studio where the terminally ill artist, who emigrated from Russia 30 years ago, is living out his last days, bring news, share details of their life, and discuss the events that happened to them. Therefore, the house turns into a “passage yard” where people “crowd” from morning to night and even stay overnight. The author notes: “The premises here were excellent for receptions, but impossible for normal life: a loft, a converted warehouse with the end cut off, into which was driven a tiny kitchen, a toilet with a shower and a narrow bedroom with a piece of window. And a huge, two-light workshop..." . From the first lines of the story, the apartment is perceived as a “small madhouse.” People appear and disappear in it; often unknown visitors appear. This is exactly the kind of apartment that seems to change its shape and size: it was a warehouse - it became a workshop, from which they fenced off a nook for the kitchen, in the bedroom - half a window, from the elevator you get into the living room, etc. - conveys the attitude of people who are deprived of ground under their feet, unsettled.

The impossibility of normal living in such an apartment is emphasized by the original way of communication with the outside world. The entrance to Alik’s workshop is directly from the elevator - after all, to facilitate the movement of goods, warehouses do not have doors. Therefore, it seems that the people here are “suspended” in space. On the other hand, when they come to Alik, they seem to go straight to the top. And since he lives somewhere on the upper floors, his stay here may well be associated with heaven, and his visitors with sinners who are received by a sick person leaving this earth. And it is believed that, although he is burdened with sins, he is no longer capable of committing new ones, and therefore forgives them their past sins, forgives them - and they forgive him and say goodbye to him forever.

“Alik was spread out in a chair, and around him his friends were shouting, laughing and drinking, everyone seemed to be on their own, but everyone was turned to him, and he felt it.” We can say that Alik turns out to be the center of a certain system around which people-planets revolve. And - to some extent, God, since - in the earthly shell - he leaves the earth, but is reborn and in the image of undying universal love (spirit) returns to people. Thus,

we can talk about the “mysteriousness” of the time of the story, when the transformation of the base into the light and sublime takes place.

So, the artistic space of the apartment contains a whole world, and the relatively small living space becomes its projection. And all space-time “threads” are drawn to the image of Alik, who has taken a central position in this space. This hero connects different (geographical, real, metaphysical) spaces, since he was separated from his homeland, found himself in a foreign land (another continent), and now (due to a fatal illness) is parting with it, moving into a “different” space-time dimension. The fates of other characters in the story are inextricably linked with him. These are mainly representatives of the Russian-Jewish emigration of the “third wave”, who experienced the transition from socialism to capitalism. They are characterized by a feeling of complete unreality of what is happening, which at first frees them from ordinary human anxieties. As N.M. rightly notes. Malygina, “the author correctly captures one of the saving and incomprehensible features of the psychology of emigrants - the ability not to notice the drama of the absurd situations in which they happen to find themselves. The lack of housing and means of subsistence, the need to earn a living in the most fantastic ways are perceived by the heroes of the story as something completely natural. Ulitskaya shows that the instinct of self-preservation helps a person to abstract from what is happening.”

The characters in the story are simultaneously in the past (unfulfilled completion), present (unreal) and in the future (hopes), which, no matter what it turned out to be, still seemed better than the past - “... everything was too rotten behind.” All three times are constantly mixed in the minds of visitors and residents of the apartment. The heroes of this work by Ulitskaya are lonely, and only in the space of Alik’s apartment, where he, in fact, “arranged Russia around himself,” do they stop feeling loneliness, bringing their past and dreaming about the future. Thus, in Alik’s apartment and workshop, the disappeared space and bygone time are recreated. And all this together becomes Russia, which they left physically, but which they took with them, as it seems, forever: “And the people here, the former Russians, rejoiced in complete unanimity, and the general joy on this occasion was not expressed in the fact that they drank more usual, but that they sang old Soviet songs.”

Gathered in one place, they ended up here due to different circumstances: “Most emigrated legally, some were defectors, the most daring fled across the border, and it was this new world, in which they found themselves, brought them closer together, so different.” But since “they were united by one decision, one action - that they chose to part with their homeland,” everyone needed one thing: proof of the correctness of the action taken.

But it is not enough for them to rationally convince themselves of this. Dreams in which they are transported to their homeland help emigrants survive and not psychologically degrade. In psychology, this phenomenon is called regression. This is a form of psycho-

logical defense, when a person tries to mentally return to where he felt calm and confident. In a dream, a person is subconsciously transferred from the real world to the fictional world, mutual transitions are obtained, “tunnels” arise between spaces and times (from real space to fictitious space, from objective time to subjective time). And it begins to seem to Ulitskaya’s characters that Russia already exists only in the form of dreams: “everyone had the same dream, but in different versions,” that is, the space that actually exists somewhere in the subjective consciousness turns out to be illusory, variable.

Alik even started a notebook in which he “collected” dreams. Here is one of them: “The structure of this dream was as follows: I get home, to Russia, and there I find myself in a locked room, or in a room without doors, or in a garbage container, or other circumstances arise that do not give me the opportunity to return to America, - for example, loss of documents, imprisonment; and one Jew’s late mother even appeared and tied him with a rope...” Thus, huge Russia is narrowed down to a tiny room (container), which means spiritual mustiness, lack of freedom, from which at one time they fled from their habitable places in search of a better refuge.

Ulitskaya carefully peers into the faces and destinies of those who in one way or another played a significant role in Alik’s life. These are completely different women - Irina, Nina, Valentina. At the beginning of the story, they surround the dying Alik, reminiscent of Moira, cutting off the thread of his fate. Each of these women represents a certain stage in the hero’s life. These women are brought together by their love for the same man and their common emigrant fate.

The strongest character is possessed by Irina, Alik’s ex-wife and the mother of his only daughter, whose existence he learned about shortly before his death. It was the only one that could take place in a foreign country. Having been a circus actress in Russia, she became a fairly successful lawyer in America. Irina, knowing that Alik and his new alcoholic wife Ninka need money, does not leave her ex-husband in trouble, who left her with the child, explaining this by saying that without him Ninka would have disappeared, and Irina, brave and determined, can “and arrange your own life." She tries to help them in America too, suing the gallery for money for Alik’s paintings, and under the guise that she was able to get some of the money, she brings it to him. Alik spends most of the amount on a fur coat for his wife. And although this, of course, hurts Irina, she continues to bring them money and pay their bills. Only after Alik’s death does Irina decide that she no longer has anything in common with the inhabitants of the apartment and that it is time to arrange her own life. Consequently, in the future she will have an “expanded” space, which she “earned” with her nobility.

Alik's wife Ninka is a completely different type of woman: she is feminine, indecisive, and mentally unstable. She perceives America enthusiastically, but cannot adapt to a new life in another country. Only once did Ninka make an independent decision: she decided to baptize Alik, despite the fact that Alik is a Jew and did not give consent to this

rite. But that didn't stop her. She still, albeit in a primitive way, even without a priest, with a soup bowl and a paper icon, baptizes him. And she commits this, essentially, blasphemy, driven by a good goal: she wants their souls to unite there, in another world. She sacrificially loves her husband, completely dissolving in him. Ninka still cannot come to terms with Alik’s death; for her, he continues to live in her dreams and visions, and continues to take care of her just as he did during his life. Thus, her subjective time “absorbs” the objective, “suppresses” it.

Like Nina, another of Alik’s lovers, Valentina, knows how to love sacrificially, forgiving everything. Valentina became Alik's mistress in America, meeting him almost by accident. Their meetings were short-lived and usually took place secretly, at night. She never claimed anything other than the brief moments of intimacy that he gave her, and was grateful to him for opening up a new unknown world for her. After the wake for Alik, we see Valentina in the bathroom with a short-legged, wiry Indian, and this scene seems to mark new stage in Valentina's life. Alik seemed to free her from himself, but she is ready to almost repeat the pattern of past relationships with a new partner, i.e. she does not feel real time, her subjective time is always the same, she does not “create” it, she does not “create” it, it dictates its conditions to her, acquiring the force of law...

Thus, all together these women in a peculiar way “triple” after the death of their lover the space “fixed” in the present time, “vectorally” pushing it apart, now rushing into the future (Irina), now focusing on the present (Valentina), now plunging into the past (Nina).

Many events are happening around Alik; his relatives and acquaintances are followed by a trail of stories that, it would seem, have nothing in common. These stories are not included in the general time system; they unfold (are told) sequentially, one after another, and they are all turned to the past. Their “authors” recall what happened to them there, in Russia. These stories become a bridge between the past and the present. Time, like a pendulum, swings between them, and in these transitions the scale of its reference changes. The time intervals become either short, everyday, or larger, capturing historical time, panoramicly depicting the historical process in Russia in the 70s, which is perceived by almost everyone as a country of denunciation and stu-quality, as well as later stages. Fundamentally important are the “temporary disruptions” that arise at the moment of telling the backstory of the hero’s life and which largely predetermine what is happening to people now. These inserted story-episodes, closed on themselves, embody concentric time, which, interacting with the linear time of the plot, slows it down, at the same time accelerating or lengthening it.

It is also important to emphasize that if time in the story is open, then the apartment where the action takes place is a closed space throughout the entire story. The hero, confined to a wheelchair, never leaves

confines of your home. Only in memories does he find himself outside the apartment. The hero’s personal time slows down in all its aspects and is divided into actual and imaginary. And gradually in the story, time begins to disintegrate into “external” and “internal”, each attached to different spaces in which the hero continues or begins to exist. But a certain border is clearly felt between them - this is the border between life and non-existence, death.

The space of death appears inside the hero, coinciding with “internal” time. It forms a special game world, an imaginary space where Alik imagines himself “as a little boy, squeezed into a thick brown fur coat, wearing a tight hat over a white scarf... his mouth is tightly tied with a woolen scarf, and in the place where his lips are, a scarf wet and warm, but he needs to breathe hard, very hard, because as soon as you stop breathing, the ice crust seals this warm hole, and the scarf immediately freezes, and it becomes impossible to breathe.” Consequently, the time of the past is realized in the space of childhood that is born in the imagination (in its own way coinciding with the space of death as the beginning and the end). But it is significant that already in childhood everything that the adult Alik will feel is programmed: stuffiness, dumbness, lack of freedom. During one equal objective period of time (“external” time) in the space of death (“internal” time), the hero experiences the past and present. They merge, flow into one another, the dead come to life, people who have disappeared from life appear again, those lost in childhood are found as adults, things, without growing old or worn out, reappear in the world around them. Therefore, among the arriving guests, “Alik spotted his school physics teacher, Nikolai Vasilyevich, nicknamed Galosha, in the crowd, and was half-heartedly surprised: had he really emigrated in his old age?.. How old is he now?.. Kolka Zaitsev, a classmate who was hit by a tram, thin, in a ski jacket with pockets, tossing a rag ball with his foot... how sweet that he dragged it with him... A cousin, Musya, who died as a girl from leukemia, walked through the room with a basin in her hands, only not as a girl, but already quite an adult girl. All this was not at all strange, but in the order of things. And there was even a feeling that some long-standing mistakes and irregularities had been corrected.”

This feeling of subjective time is caused precisely by the experience of the space of death, which in turn is closely connected with the awareness of one’s finitude: “He was in oblivion, only wheezing occasionally. At the same time, he heard everything that was said around him, but as if from a terrible distance. At times he even wanted to tell them that everything was okay, but the scarf was tied tightly and he couldn’t untangle it.” But at the same time, in the space of death there is no longer the former heaviness and stuffiness: “he felt light, foggy and completely mobile.”

Death in the space that belongs to it loses its temporal dimension, becoming an entirely spatial category: it is no longer expected here and now, it no longer represents the future, it is entirely determined by space. And to move into this space means ending your life, ending it.

But - and this is surprising - after Alik’s death, which “gathers around him all the people he once loved,” the author destroys the boundary between life and death. The fact is that Alik cheated by “ensuring” himself eternal life here on earth: dying, he secretly recorded on tape an appeal to his friends, where he bequeathed to appreciate life and enjoy it. And at the wake, his voice sounded indicated the destruction of the border between life and death: “in a simple and mechanical way, he destroyed the eternal wall in an instant, threw a light pebble from that shore, covered with an insoluble fog, easily stepped out for a moment from the power of an irresistible law, not resorting neither to violent methods of magic, nor to the help of necromancers and mediums, shaky tables and fidgety saucers... He simply extended his hand to those he loved.”

Thus, the space of death seems to disappear as insignificant, non-existent or existing only temporarily. It is replaced by the space of love. The writer and critic O. Slavnikova precisely defined the ultimate task to which Ulitskaya’s creative logic is subordinated: to express the idea of ​​“death as a part of life, which under no circumstances can be absolutely hostile to man.”

Thus, in the story the main space is the house (apartment), which is an outwardly closed model, but capable of expansion. This is where the preservation and transmission of family and cultural traditions and values ​​(it’s no coincidence that Alik’s paintings, painted in his studio, end up in the museum, as if continuing his interrupted life), here everyone feels protected. Time in the story tends to move from objective to subjective, revealing the inner world of a person, becoming a laboratory of everyday experience. Also time, recreating an important historical era- Russia of the Soviet period - acquires the features of “historically documented”. As N.M. rightly noted. Malygin, the story rather resembles “an artistic embodiment of a documentary-reliable journalistic narrative” about “ paradise lost“, although, in fact, there was very little truly heavenly there.

LITERATURE

Gabrielyan N. Eva - this means “life” (The problem of space in modern Russian

women's prose) // Questions of literature. - 1996. - No. 4.

Likhachev D.S. Poetics of Old Russian Literature. - L., 1967.

Malygina N.M. Here and now: the poetics of disappearance // October. - 2000. - No. 9.

IKY: http://magazines.russ.rU/october/2000/9/malyg.html

Slavnikova O. Shortage indicates the target // Ural. - 1999. - No. 2. ИКБ: http://www.art.uralinfo.ru/LITERAT/Ural/Ural_02_99_09.htm

See: Galkina A.B. Space and time in the works of F.M. Dostoevsky // Questions of literature. - 1996. - No. 1. URL: http://magazines.russ.rU/voplit/1996/1/galkin.html; Feshchenko O.A. The space of the house in the prose of M. Tsvetaeva // Language and culture. - Novosibirsk, 2003. иИБ: http://www.philology.ru/literature2/feshenko-03.htm; Laponina L.V. Hero and time in the prose of A.P. Chekhov // Comparative and general literary studies. - Vol. 3. - M., 2010, etc.

Ulitskaya L. Three stories. - M., 2008.

Khalizev V.E. Theory of literature. - M., 1999.

Shutaya N.K. Typology of artistic time and space in the Russian novel of the 18th-19th centuries: Autotef. diss. ... Dr. Philol. Sci. - M., 2007.

Esalnek A.Ya. Theory of literature: Textbook. allowance. - M., 2010.

SPECIFICITY OF LITERARY TIME AND SPACE PRESENTATION IN L. ULITSKAYA’S PROSE

Baku Slavic University (BSU)

Suleyman Rustam str., 25, Baku, Azerbaijan, AZ10 14

The article observes on the specificity of literary time and space presentation in female prose (on the material of the novel “Funeral party” by L. Ulitskaya. The peculiarity of topos in L. Ulitskaya's work is defined by the representation of the house space ( apartment) filled with the numerous details. With this, the apartment's limited secluded space tends to widening at the expense of inclusion of the homeland"s open spaces, which emigrants had taken away on “their soles” and spaces of the new country, in which they have settled and which they “bring in” along with their problems in the hero's house. And then the space is narrowed to the bounds of the person"s inner world. An approach to the memory of a character as an internal space for the temporal development of the events is typical of L. Ulitskaya works. The category of time in literary works is represented in two aspects: historical time - memory time (reconstructed by means of familiar details) and real time (depiction by means of reliable features ).

Key words: literary time, literary space, structure of artistic work, female prose, topos.

Artistic time and artistic space are the most important characteristics of an artistic image, providing a holistic perception of artistic reality and organizing the composition of the work. The art of words belongs to the group of dynamic, temporary arts (as opposed to plastic, spatial arts). But the literary and poetic image, formally unfolding in time (as a sequence of text), with its content reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world, moreover, in its symbolic-ideological, value aspect. Such traditional spatial landmarks as “house” (the image of a closed space), “open space” (the image of open space), “threshold”, “window”, “door” (the boundary between one and the other), have long been the point of application of meaningful forces in literary and artistic (and, more broadly, cultural) models of the world (the symbolic richness of such spaces and images as the house of Gogol’s “old-world landowners” or Raskolnikov’s coffin-like room in “Crime and Punishment”, 1866, F.M. Dostoevsky, like the steppe is obvious in “Taras Bulba”, 1835, by N.V. Gogol or in the story of the same name by A.P. Chekhov). The artistic chronology is also symbolic (the movement from spring and summer heyday to autumn sadness, characteristic of the world of Turgenev’s prose). In general, ancient types of value situations, realized in spatio-temporal images (chronotope, according to M.M. Bakhtin) - “idyllic time” in the father’s house, “adventurous time” of trials in a foreign land, “mysterious time” of descent into the underworld of disasters - so or otherwise preserved in a reduced form by classical literature of the New Age and modern literature (“station” or “airport” as places of decisive meetings and clearances, choice of path, sudden recognition, etc. correspond to the ancient “crossroads” or roadside inn; “hole” - the former “threshold” as the topos of the ritual transition).

Due to the iconic, spiritual, symbolic nature of the art of words spatial and temporal coordinates of literary reality are not fully specified, discontinuous and conditional (the fundamental non-representability of spaces, images and quantities in mythological, grotesque and fantastic works; the uneven course of plot time, its delays at points of description, retreats, parallel flow in different plot lines). However, here the temporary nature of the literary image, noted by G.E. Lessing in “Laocoon” (1766), makes itself felt - the convention in the transfer of space is felt weaker and is realized only when trying to translate literary works into the language of other arts; Meanwhile, the conventions in the transfer of time, the dialectic of the discrepancy between the time of the narrative and the time of the depicted events, compositional time with the plot are mastered literary process as an obvious and meaningful contradiction.

Archaic, oral and generally early literature is sensitive to the type of temporal timing, orientation in the collective or historical account of time (so in the traditional system literary families lyrics are “present”, and epic is “long past”, qualitatively separated from the life time of the performer and listeners). The time of myth for its keeper and storyteller is not a thing of the past; the mythological narrative ends with the correlation of events with the real structure of the world or its future destiny(the myth of Pandora's Box, of the chained Prometheus who will someday be freed). The time of a fairy tale is a deliberately conventional past, a fictitious time (and space) of non-existence; the ironic ending (“and I was there, drinking honey-beer”) often emphasizes that there is no way out of the time of the fairy tale during its rendering (on this basis we can conclude that the fairy tale has a later origin compared to the myth).

With the collapse of archaic, ritual models of the world, marked by the features of naive realism (observance of the unities of time and place in ancient drama with its cult-mythological origins), in the spatio-temporal ideas that characterize literary consciousness, the measure of convention increases. In an epic or fairy tale, the pace of the narrative could not yet sharply advance the pace of the events depicted; an epic or fabulous action could not unfold simultaneously (“in the meantime”) on two or more sites; it was strictly linear and in this respect remained faithful to empiricism; the epic storyteller did not have a field of vision expanded in comparison with the ordinary human horizon; at each moment he was in one and only one point of the plot space. The “Copernican revolution” produced by the new European novel in spatiotemporal organization of narrative genres, was that the author, along with the right to unconventional and frank fiction, acquired the right to manage the novel’s time as its initiator and creator. When artistic fiction removes the mask of a real event, and the writer openly breaks with the role of rhapsodist or chronicler, then the need for a naive-empirical concept of event time disappears. The temporal scope can now be as wide as desired, the pace of the narrative can be as uneven as desired, parallel “theatres of action,” reversing time and exits into the future known to the narrator are acceptable and functionally important (for the purposes of analysis, explanation, or entertainment). The boundaries between the author’s condensed presentation of events, accelerating the passage of plot time, descriptions, stopping its progress for the sake of an overview of space, and dramatized episodes, the compositional time of which “keeps pace” with plot time, become much sharper and are realized. Accordingly, the difference between the unfixed (“omnipresent”) and spatially localized (“witness”) position of the narrator, characteristic mainly of “dramatic” episodes, is more acutely felt.

If in a short story of a novelistic type (the classic example is “ Queen of Spades", 1833, A.S. Pushkin) these moments of the new artistic time and artistic space are still brought to a balanced unity and are in complete subordination to the author-narrator, talking with the reader as if “on the other side” of the fictional space-time, then in In the “great” novel of the 19th century, such unity noticeably fluctuates under the influence of emerging centrifugal forces. These “forces” are the discovery of chronicle-everyday time and lived-in space (in the novels of O. Balzac, I. S. Turgenev, I. A. Goncharov) in connection with the concept of the social environment that shapes human character, as well as the discovery of multi-subject narration and transferring the center of space-time coordinates to the inner world of the heroes in connection with the development psychological analysis. When long-term organic processes come into the narrator’s field of view, the author risks facing the impossible task of reproducing life “from minute to minute.” The solution was to move the sum of everyday circumstances that repeatedly affect a person beyond the time of action (exposition in “Père Goriot”, 1834-35; “Oblomov’s dream” - a lengthy digression in Goncharov’s novel) or to distribute throughout the entire calendar of the work episodes shrouded in the course of everyday life (in Turgenev’s novels, in the “peaceful” chapters of L.N. Tolstoy’s epic). Such imitation of the “river of life” itself with particular persistence requires the narrator to have a guiding supra-event presence. But, on the other hand, the essentially opposite process of “self-elimination” of the author-narrator is already beginning: space dramatic episodes increasingly organized from the “observational position” of one of the characters, events are described synchronously as they play out before the eyes of the participant. It is also important that chronicle-everyday time, unlike event time (in its origin - adventure time), does not have an unconditional beginning and an unconditional end (“life goes on”).

In an effort to resolve these contradictions, Chekhov, in accordance with his general idea of ​​the course of life (the time of everyday life is the decisive tragic time of human existence), merged event time with everyday time to an indistinguishable unity: episodes that once happened are presented in the grammatical imperfect - as repeatedly repeated scenes of everyday life, filling a whole segment of everyday chronicle. (In this collapsing of a large “piece” of plot time into a single episode, which simultaneously serves as both a summary story about the past stage and an illustration to it, a “test” taken from everyday life, lies one of the main secrets of the famous Chekhov’s brevity.) From the crossroads classic novel of the mid-19th century, the path opposite to Chekhov’s was paved by Dostoevsky, who concentrated the plot within the boundaries of a turning point, crisis time of decisive trials, measured in a few days and hours. The chronicle gradualism here is actually devalued in the name of the decisive revelation of the heroes in their fateful moments. Dostoevsky’s intense turning point time corresponds to the space highlighted in the form of a stage, extremely involved in events, measured by the steps of the heroes - the “threshold” (doors, stairs, corridors, alleys, where you can’t miss each other), the “random shelter” (tavern, compartment), “ meeting hall” - corresponding to situations of crime (transgression), confession, public trial. At the same time, the spiritual coordinates of space and time embrace the human universe in his novels (the ancient golden age, the French revolution, “quadrillions” of cosmic years and versts), and these instantaneous mental snapshots of world existence encourage us to compare Dostoevsky’s world with the world of “ Divine Comedy"(1307-21) Dante and "Faust" (1808-31) I.V. Goethe.

In the spatio-temporal organization of a work of literature of the 20th century, the following trends and features can be noted:

1. The symbolic plan of a realistic space-time panorama is emphasized, which, in particular, is reflected in the attraction to nameless or fictitious topography: the City, instead of Kyiv, in M.A. Bulgakov; Ioknapatawpha County in the southern United States, created by the imagination of W. Faulkner; the generalized “Latin American” country of Macondo in the national epic of the Colombian G. Garcia Marquez “One Hundred Years of Solitude” (1967). However, it is important that artistic time and artistic space in all these cases require real historical and geographical identification or at least rapprochement, without which the work is incomprehensible;
2. The closed artistic time of a fairy tale or parable is often used, excluded from the historical account, which often corresponds to the uncertainty of the place of action (“The Trial”, 1915, F. Kafka; “The Plague”, 1947, A. Camus; “Watt”, 1953, S. Beckett );
3. A remarkable milestone in modern literary development is the appeal to the memory of a character as an internal space for the unfolding of events; the intermittent, reverse and other course of plot time is motivated not by the author’s initiative, but by the psychology of remembering (this occurs not only in M. Proust or W. Woolf, but also in writers of a more traditional realistic plan, for example, in G. Böll, and in modern Russian literature from V.V. Bykov, Yu.V. Trifonov). This formulation of the hero’s consciousness makes it possible to compress the actual time of action to a few days and hours, while the time and space of an entire human life can be projected onto the screen of recollection;
4. Modern literature has not lost a hero moving in the objective expanse of the earth, in the multifaceted epic space of collective historical destinies - what heroes are like “ Quiet Don"(1928-40) M.A. Sholokhov, "The Lives of Klim Samgin", 1927-36, M. Gorky.
5. The “hero” of a monumental narrative can become historical time itself in its decisive “nodes”, subordinating the fate of the heroes as private moments in an avalanche of events (A.I. Solzhenitsyn’s epic “The Red Wheel”, 1969-90).

Analysis of artistic space and time

No work of art exists in a space-time vacuum. Time and space are always present in it in one way or another. It is important to understand that artistic time and space are not abstractions or even physical categories, although modern physics answers the question of what time and space are very ambiguously. Art, on the other hand, deals with a very specific space-time coordinate system. G. Lessing was the first to point out the importance of time and space for art, which we already discussed in the second chapter, and theorists of the last two centuries, especially the twentieth century, proved that artistic time and space are not only significant, but often the determining component of a literary work.

In literature, time and space are the most important properties of the image. Different images require different space-time coordinates. For example, in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment” we encounter with an unusually compressed space. Small rooms, narrow streets. Raskolnikov lives in a room that looks like a coffin. Of course, this is not accidental. The writer is interested in people who find themselves at a dead end in life, and this is emphasized by all means. When Raskolnikov finds faith and love in the epilogue, space opens up.

Each work of modern literature has its own space-time grid, its own coordinate system. At the same time, there are some general patterns of development of artistic space and time. For example, until the 18th century, aesthetic consciousness did not allow the author’s “interference” in the temporal structure of the work. In other words, the author could not begin the story with the death of the hero and then return to his birth. The time of the work was “as if real.” In addition, the author could not disrupt the flow of the story about one hero with an “inserted” story about another. In practice, this led to the so-called “chronological incompatibilities” characteristic of ancient literature. For example, one story ends with the hero returning safely, while another begins with loved ones grieving for his absence. We encounter this, for example, in Homer's Odyssey. In the 18th century, a revolution occurred, and the author received the right to “model” the narrative without observing the logic of life-likeness: a mass of inserted stories and digressions appeared, and chronological “realism” was disrupted. A modern author can build the composition of a work, shuffling episodes at his own discretion.

In addition, there are stable, culturally accepted spatiotemporal models. The outstanding philologist M. M. Bakhtin, who fundamentally developed this problem, called these models chronotopes(chronos + topos, time and space). Chronotopes are initially imbued with meanings; any artist consciously or unconsciously takes this into account. As soon as we say about someone: “He is on the threshold of something...”, we immediately understand that we are talking about something big and important. But why exactly on the threshold? Bakhtin believed that chronotope of the threshold one of the most widespread in culture, and as soon as we “turn it on”, its semantic depth opens up.

Today the term chronotope is universal and simply denotes the existing space-time model. Often in this case, “etiquette” they refer to the authority of M. M. Bakhtin, although Bakhtin himself understood the chronotope more narrowly - namely how sustainable a model that appears from work to work.

In addition to chronotopes, we should also remember the more general models of space and time that underlie entire cultures. These models are historical, that is, one replaces the other, but the paradox of the human psyche is that an “outdated” model does not disappear anywhere, continuing to excite people and give rise to literary texts. There are quite a few variations of such models in different cultures, but several are basic. Firstly, this is a model zero time and space. It is also called motionless, eternal - there are a lot of options here. In this model, time and space become meaningless. It is always the same there, and there is no difference between “here” and “there,” that is, there is no spatial extension. Historically, this is the most archaic model, but it is still very relevant today. Ideas about hell and heaven are based on this model, it is often “turned on” when a person tries to imagine existence after death, etc. The famous chronotope of the “golden age”, which manifests itself in all cultures, is built on this model. If we remember the ending of the novel “The Master and Margarita,” we can easily feel this model. It was in such a world, according to the decision of Yeshua and Woland, that the heroes ultimately found themselves - in a world of eternal good and peace.

Another model - cyclical(circular). This is one of the most powerful space-time models, supported by the eternal change of natural cycles (summer-autumn-winter-spring-summer...). It is based on the idea that everything is returning to normal. Space and time are there, but they are conditional, especially time, since the hero will still return to where he left, and nothing will change. The easiest way illustrate this model with Homer's Odyssey. Odysseus was absent for many years, and suffered the most incredible adventures, but he returned home and found his Penelope still as beautiful and loving. M. M. Bakhtin called such a time adventurous, it exists as if around the heroes, without changing anything either in them or between them. The cyclical model is also very archaic, but its projections are clearly perceptible in modern culture. For example, it is very noticeable in the work of Sergei Yesenin, whose idea of ​​the life cycle, especially in mature years, becomes dominant. Even the well-known dying lines “In this life, dying is not new, / But living, of course, is also, not newer” refer to the ancient tradition, to the famous biblical book of Ecclesiastes, entirely built on a cyclical model.

The culture of realism is mainly associated with linear a model when space seems endlessly open in all directions, and time is associated with a directed arrow - from the past to the future. This model dominates in everyday consciousness modern man and is clearly visible in a huge number literary texts last centuries. Suffice it to recall, for example, the novels of L.N. Tolstoy. In this model, each event is recognized as unique, it can only happen once, and a person is understood as a constantly changing being. The linear model opened psychologism V modern sense, since psychologism presupposes the ability to change, which could not be the case either in the cyclic model (after all, the hero must be the same at the end as at the beginning), and especially in the zero time-space model. In addition, with linear model related principle historicism, that is, man began to be understood as a product of his era. The abstract “man for all times” simply does not exist in this model.

It is important to understand that in the minds of modern man all these models do not exist in isolation; they can interact, giving rise to the most bizarre combinations. Let's say, a person can be emphatically modern, trust the linear model, accept the uniqueness of every moment of life as something unique, but at the same time be a believer and accept the timelessness and spacelessness of existence after death. In the same way, different coordinate systems can be reflected in a literary text. For example, experts have long noticed that in Anna Akhmatova’s work there are, as it were, two parallel dimensions: one is historical, in which every moment and gesture is unique, the other is timeless, in which every movement freezes. The “layering” of these layers is one of the hallmarks of Akhmatova’s style.

Finally, modern aesthetic consciousness is increasingly mastering yet another model. There is no clear name for it, but it would not be wrong to say that this model allows for the existence parallel times and spaces. The point is that we exist differently depending on the coordinate system. But at the same time, these worlds are not completely isolated; they have points of intersection. The literature of the twentieth century actively uses this model. Suffice it to recall M. Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita”. The master and his beloved die in different places and for different reasons: The master is in a madhouse, Margarita is at home from a heart attack, but at the same time they are they die in each other's arms in the Master's closet from Azazello's poison. Different coordinate systems are included here, but they are interconnected - after all, the death of the heroes occurred in any case. This is the projection of the model of parallel worlds. If you carefully read the previous chapter, you will easily understand that the so-called multivariate the plot—a largely twentieth-century invention of literature—is a direct consequence of the establishment of this new space-time grid.