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Definition of the concept of psychologism in literature. Psychologism in – literary term, which is traditionally attributed to several authors, primarily to L.N. Tolstoy and M.F. Dostoevsky, then to I. Turgenev with his “secret psychologism.” And, of course, psychologism in the brightest way manifested in the works of A.P. Chekhov.

Psychologism in literature is a complete, detailed and deep depiction of the feelings and emotions, thoughts and experiences of a literary character. Psychologism is an attempt by the author to describe the inner world of the hero using artistic means.

One of the main attractive features of fiction is its ability to reveal the secrets of a person’s inner world, to express emotional movements as accurately and vividly as a person cannot do in everyday, ordinary life. "In psychologism, one of the secrets of long historical life literature of the past: speaking about the soul of a person, it speaks to each reader about himself." Psychologism is a stylistic characteristic of literary works in which the inner world of characters is depicted in detail and deeply, i.e. their sensations, thoughts, feelings and, possibly, a subtle and convincing psychological analysis of mental phenomena and behavior is given.

According to A. B. Esin, psychologism is “a fairly complete, detailed and deep depiction of the feelings, thoughts, experiences of a fictional personality (literary character) using specific means of fiction.” O. N. Osmolovsky noted that Russian literature “in general was characterized by ontological psychologism<.>the final explanation of man in Russian literature and philosophy is not psychological, but ontological - taking into account the divine fundamental principle of existence.” He proposes to supplement the systematization of forms of psychological analysis and the terminology proposed by L. Ya. Ginzburg and A. B. Esin, which is usually used by modern researchers of psychological art: the introduction of the concepts of ethical, dramatic and lyrical psychologism seems logical and justified.

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This topic belongs to the section:

Psychologism in the works of L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov

The second is the no less significant genius of Anton Pavlovich Chekhov. But if Tolstoy is the personification of a showcase Russia, more elite and secular, then Chekhov in.. It would be rash to say that the psychologism of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy.. That’s exactly what a comprehensive study of the features of psychologism in the works of A. P. Chekhov and L. N. Tolstoy is...

What psychologism is, the concept will not give a complete idea. Examples from works of art should be given. But, in short, psychologism in literature is the depiction of the hero’s inner world using various means. The author uses systems that allow him to reveal deeply and in detail state of mind character.

Concept

Psychologism in literature is the author’s transmission to the reader of the inner world of his characters. Other forms of art also have the ability to convey sensations and feelings. But literature, thanks to its imagery, has the ability to depict a person’s state of mind down to the smallest detail. The author, trying to describe the hero, gives details of his appearance and the interior of the room. Often in literature, a technique such as landscape is used to convey the psychological state of characters.

Poetry

Psychologism in literature is the disclosure of the inner world of heroes, which can have a different character. In poetry, it usually has an expressive quality. The lyrical hero conveys his feelings or carries out psychological introspection. Objective knowledge of a person’s inner world in a poetic work is almost impossible. conveyed quite subjectively. The same can be said about dramatic works, where the hero’s inner experiences are conveyed through monologues.

A striking example of psychologism in poetry is Yesenin’s poem “The Black Man.” In this work, although the author conveys his own feelings and thoughts, he does so somewhat detached, as if observing himself from the outside. The lyrical hero in the poem is having a conversation with a certain person. But at the end of the work it turns out that there is no interlocutor. The black man symbolizes a sick consciousness, pangs of conscience, the oppression of mistakes made.

Prose

The psychologism of fiction received special development in the nineteenth century. Prose has a wide range of possibilities for revealing the inner world of a person. Psychologism in Russian literature has become the subject of study by domestic and Western researchers. The techniques that Russian writers of the nineteenth century used were borrowed by later authors in their work.

The systems of images that can be found in the novels of Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky have become an example to be followed by writers all over the world. But you should know that psychologism in literature is a feature that can only be present if the human personality is a great value. He is unable to develop in a culture characterized by authoritarianism. In literature, which serves to impose any ideas, there is not and cannot be an image of the psychological state of an individual.

Psychologism of Dostoevsky

How does the artist reveal the inner world of his hero? In the novel “Crime and Punishment,” the reader gets to know Raskolnikov’s emotions and feelings through the description of his appearance, the interior of the room, and even the image of the city. In order to reveal everything that happens in the soul of the main character, Dostoevsky does not limit himself to presenting his thoughts and statements.

The author shows the situation in which Raskolnikov finds himself. A small closet, reminiscent of a closet, symbolizes the failure of his idea. Sonya's room, on the contrary, is spacious and bright. But most importantly, Dostoevsky Special attention pays attention to the eyes. In Raskolnikov they are deep and dark. Sonya's are meek and blue. And, for example, nothing is said about Svidrigailov’s eyes. Not because the author forgot to describe the appearance of this hero. Rather, the point is that, according to Dostoevsky, people like Svidrigailov have no soul at all.

Tolstoy's psychologism

Each hero in the novels “War and Peace” and “Anna Karenina” is an example of how subtle a master artistic word can convey not only the torment and experiences of the hero, but also the life that he led before the events described. Techniques of psychologism in literature can be found in the works of German, American, and French authors. But Leo Tolstoy's novels are based on a system of complex images, each of which is revealed through dialogues, thoughts, and details. What is psychologism in literature? Examples are scenes from the novel Anna Karenina. The most famous of them is the horse racing scene. Using the example of the death of a horse, the author reveals Vronsky’s selfishness, which subsequently leads to the death of the heroine.

Anna Karenina’s thoughts after her trip to Moscow are quite complex and ambiguous. Having met her husband, she suddenly notices the irregular shape of his ears - a detail that she had not paid attention to before. Of course, it is not this feature of Karenin’s appearance that repels his wife. But with the help of a small detail, the reader learns how painful family life becomes for the heroine, filled with hypocrisy and devoid of mutual understanding.

Chekhov's psychologism

The psychologism of Russian literature of the 19th century is so pronounced that in the works of some authors of this period the plot fades into the background. This feature can be observed in the stories of Anton Chekhov. Events in these works do not play a major role.

Forms of psychological image

Psychologism in the literature of the 19th century is expressed using various All of them can have both direct meaning and indirect meaning. If the text says that the hero blushed and lowered his head, then we are talking about a direct form of psychological image. But in works of classical literature there are often more complex artistic details. In order to understand and analyze the indirect form of psychological depiction, the reader must have a sufficiently developed imagination.

In Bunin's story "Mr. from San Francisco" the hero's inner world is conveyed through the depiction of a landscape. The main character in this work says nothing at all. Moreover, he doesn't even have a name. But the reader understands from the first lines what he is and what his way of thinking is.

Psychologism in the prose of foreign authors

Bunin was inspired to write a story about a rich and unhappy man from San Francisco by a novel by Thomas Mann. in one of his short works he depicted the psychological state of a man who, for the sake of passion and lust, dies in a city affected by an epidemic.

The novella is called "Death in Venice." There is no dialogue in it. The hero's thoughts are expressed using direct speech. But the author conveys the internal torment of the main character with the help of many symbols. The hero meets a man in a frightening mask, which seems to warn him of mortal danger. Venice - a beautiful ancient city - is shrouded in stench. And in this case, the landscape symbolizes the destructive power of lustful passion.

"Flying over Cuckoo's Nest"

Wrote a book that became a cult favorite. In a novel about a man who ends up in a psychiatric clinic in order to avoid imprisonment, the main idea is not tragic fate heroes. A hospital for the mentally ill symbolizes a society in which fear and lack of will reign. People are unable to change anything and resign themselves to the authoritarian regime. McMurphy symbolizes strength, determination and fearlessness. This person is capable of, if not changing fate, then at least trying to do it.

The author can convey the psychological state of the characters in just one or two lines. An example of this technique is a fragment from Kesey's novel in which McMurphy makes a bet. Since it seems obvious to others that he will not be able to win the argument, they are happy to place bets. He's losing. Gives money. And then he says the key phrase: “But I still tried, I at least tried.” With this small detail, Ken Kesey conveys not only McMurphy's mindset and character, but also the psychological state of other characters. These people are not able to take a decisive step. It’s easier for them to be in unbearable conditions, but not take risks.

§5.Poetics of psychologism(features of psychological writingin prose of the twentieth century)

Masters of artistic expression are often called psychologists, who depict the inner world of a person with accuracy and depth. In literature they find illustrations or anticipations of scientific and psychological discoveries, they draw material for psychiatric typologies (i.e. they equate literature and life, literature and psychology).

Psychologism has, first of all, artistic and aesthetic value, and is an indicator of the author’s axiology and worldview. The inner world of a person in the focus of literature receives a specific interpretation and assessment. There is a recoding of immaterial material (psyche) into a system of artistic signs (forms, methods, techniques of psychologism). Their “arsenal” is formed in the process of development of literature.

Poetics of psychologism

– derived from the philosophical and scientific ideas of the era about man (this is the basis for the author’s theoretical ideas about the human psyche and ways of knowing him);

– determined by the concept of personality, artistic system, creative method,

Thus, the dynamics of psychologism in literature is the evolution of its forms and techniques from simple to more complex and indirect.

Literary scholars propose to distinguish two main forms of psychological analysis: “from within” (direct form) and “from without” (indirect, external) form. In the formulation of L.Ya. Ginzburg: “Psychological analysis is carried out in the form of direct authorial reflections or in the form of introspection of the characters, or indirectly - in the depiction of their gestures and actions, which must be analytically interpreted by the reader prepared by the author.” I.V. Strakhov divides forms of psychological analysis into depicting characters “from the inside” (“through knowledge of the inner world characters, expressed through internal speech, images of memory and imagination”) and on psychological analysis “from the outside” (“the writer’s interpretation of the expressive features of speech, speech behavior, facial expressions and other means of external manifestation of the psyche”).

In general, agreeing with the typology of I.V. Strakhova, A.B. Esin proposes to supplement it with a third form - “summary-designating”: “a way to inform the reader about the thoughts and feelings of the character - with the help of naming, an extremely brief designation of those processes that take place in the inner world.”

V. Gudonene also talks about three forms of psychological analysis:

It is obvious that when distinguishing psychological forms, the use of spatial designation (from the inside-from the outside) gives rise to confusion associated with the confusion of narrative instances and subject-object relations. These mixtures are especially visible in the graphic version of V. Gudonene (see diagram).

V. Gudonene, along with other researchers (I.V. Strakhov, A.B. Esin), classifies methods of psychological representation within the boundaries of literature of the 19th century. The very definition - “forms of psychological analysis” - necessarily refers to the analytics of psychologism in its realistic modification (explanation of character). In general, the proposed classifications do not fully reflect literary reality. It is no coincidence that O.N. Osmolovsky suggests talking about the “psychological method (manner)” and, taking into account the uniqueness of twentieth-century literature, about its lyrical, dramatic and epic variants.

Traditional techniques of psychological writing are quite fully and illustratively covered in research literature(L.Ya. Ginzburg, A.N. Esin), manuals and materials for students on the psychological analysis of works of art. Techniques of psychological detailing, portraiture, and narrative forms (internal and external speech of the character, dialogue, author’s commentary) have been specially developed.

In the 20th century techniques and methods of psychological depiction that have already been mastered by the literature of the last century are used, but narrative-compositional ones (associated with the movements of the “point of view” and the subject of the narrative) begin to take the lead in their hierarchy.

In the system of objective psychologism, the author depicted the inner world of the characters from the standpoint of omniscience (in prose - through a description of mental movements and feelings, through direct authorial analysis). This type of narration by realists is second half of the 19th century V. was understood as artistic convention(G. Flaubert, L.N. Tolstoy). The dynamics of internal processes began to be represented, on the one hand, by an action, gesture, detail, and on the other – by narrative-compositional techniques associated with the “point of view”. A.V. Karelsky lists some of them (appealing to European novelism of the 1830s - 1860s):

1) a sudden, demonstrative switching of attention by the narrator from the inner world of the character to the external background (the technique of replacing the culminating states of the soul with a description of external actions and facts);

2) playing out details (where the analysis is focused on transitional states, on impulses that are half conscious);

3) special forms of speech characteristics:

– the character’s speech is not equal to his thoughts and feelings, since they are often not controlled by the mind;

– the structure of the dialogue reflects multidirectional impulses and motives;

– a thought is formed in the process of utterance, with which the character tests himself and probes the interlocutor;

– in speech there are significant interjections, exclamations, pauses, silences – subtextual fixation of pulsating feelings.

In the literature of the twentieth century. "point of view" narrator, the correlation of points of view of the subjects of the narrative (storyteller, hero) turn out to be especially significant psychologically . This is a continuation of the tradition of distrust of the authoritarian word and the position of omniscience. The category of “point of view” underlies the main types of psychologism - objective and subjective (corresponding in terms of composition, according to the concept of B.A. Uspensky, external and internal psychological point of view).

External point of view assumes that for the narrator (author, one of the characters) the behavior and inner world of a person is an object of observation and analysis. Formally this position is fixed in the narration from the 3rd person.

Techniques that are built on the basis of this narrative definition: “ central consciousness" And " multiple reflection" Showing the hero through the perception of him by other characters is quite effective and widespread in the literature of the twentieth century. The technique of “central consciousness” (used by I.S. Turgenev, G. James, L. von Sacher-Masoch) involves narration and assessment of the material by a character who is not the center of the novel’s action, but endowed with intellectual-sensual abilities and the ability to analyze what he sees. The technique of “multiple reflection,” on the contrary, is associated with the presence of several points of view aimed at one object. As a result, the image gains versatility (stereoscopic effect) and objectivity.

Internal psychological point of view assumes that the subject and object of psychological observation are fused, which corresponds to the structure of the 1st person narrative. Techniques characteristic of this position: confession, diary entries, internal monologue (without traces of the narrator’s presence), “stream of consciousness.”

Reception " stream of consciousness"is traditionally perceived as a form of internal monologue taken to its limit. This understanding is associated with the idea of ​​consciousness as a river with many currents (thoughts, associations, sensations, memory images), synchronously coexisting (in the interpretation of W. James). In literature, the “stream of consciousness” is associated with the development of this synchronicity into a linear series of narratives. “Stream of consciousness” is the sequential selection of different quality quanta of the conscious-subconscious sphere (emotional-sensory, mental or figurative).

In literature, “stream of consciousness” was used as a separate realistic technique; as “a method of depicting life that claims to be universal.” It functions in the system of neo-psychologism of the twentieth century. (D. Joyce, W. Wolfe, N. Sarraute).

M. Proust, D. Joyce lay the foundation for the tradition of “hermeneutic” research into the inner life of a contemporary. In maximum proximity to the author-creator (M. Proust) or at a greater distance from their own personality (D. Joyce), they shift the artistic optics “inside” the consciousness of their hero. The result is a technique of associations, “stream of consciousness,” “stylistically adequate to the subject of the image.” The extreme subjectivization of such a narrative becomes a way to recreate the atmosphere of universal chaos. The only way to establish contact between the tangible “thingness” of reality and the microcosm is associative connections born through bodily substance (through light, color, smell). In these experiments, psychologism of a subjective type is formed, the study of “consciousness without boundaries.”

S.S. Khoruzhy notes that “in the understanding of this discourse (“stream of consciousness”), a naive view has long been maintained, according to which the goal and essence of the discourse is the most accurate registration of the work of human consciousness.” This artistic technique is not associated with “an attempt to take an encephalogram human brain” and the author’s non-manifestation in discourse: “In ... fragments of texts of the “stream of consciousness” the author is hidden, his function is to anonymously give a verbal form to non-verbal images of consciousness, not mediated by a verbal form in the minds of the characters.” The purpose of the author's anonymous invasion is the verbalization of (1) sensations from the outside world and (2) thought-images from conscious-unconscious spheres.

“The dog’s barking came closer, fell silent, and ran away. My enemy's dog. I stood motionless, silent, pale, haunted. Terribilia meditas. Lemon camisole, the servant of fortune, laughed at my fear. And this attracts you, the dog barking of their applause?..” (“Ulysses”).

The sound is recorded (in the dynamics of its strength and extent), color, associations (external plane: dog barking, internal: my enemy’s dog is a servant of fortune - quotes from Shakespeare’s tragedies). The “stream of consciousness” technique is a dotted line of omissions and fixations of elements of unformed (but purposefully verbalized into discourse) mental matter. Its essence is revealed when comparing (1) logical and (2) associative developments:

(1) “...Stephen, closing his eyes, listened to the crunch of small shells and algae under his feet...”;

(2) “...One way or another, you go through it. I'm walking, step by step. For a small step of time through a small step of space. Five, six: Nacheinander! Absolutely true, and this is an irrevocable modality of what is heard. Open your eyes. No. God! If I fall from the formidable cliff hanging over the sea, I will inevitably fall through Nebeneinander!..”

Joyce individualizes the “stream of consciousness” of the central characters of “Ulysses”: Molly’s “female discourse” moves like an eternal river with an erotic current, poetic and intellectual associative connections mark the stream of thoughts and feelings of Stephen, pragmatic in his attachment to to the outside world Bloom's "stream of consciousness" looks like. Each of them has its own stylistic, rhythmic and even visual design. The function of the “stream of consciousness” is associated not only with the subjective reflection of reality. I.V. Shablovskaya emphasizes that “this technique of representing the world through the perception of a person turns out to be the most productive in order to present this person himself. Because human personality is not in actions, but in<…>the quality of the work of consciousness together with the subconscious, which occurs within us as a continuous process, as a result of which a stream of consciousness arises within us. He is the essence of our individuality, there is our human “I.”

The chaotic perception of life turns into attention to the instinctive, irrational side of human nature, and its artistic comprehension radically changes the architectonics and style of works. The condensation of experiences results in internal monologues, “stream of consciousness” (M. Proust, D. Joyce), from which, as a result, without the voice of an omniscient author, the compositional blocks of the novel are formed (W. Faulkner, G. Bell).

The transition of literature to the 19th – 20th centuries is associated with the tendency of distrust of the author’s authoritarianism and his analytical method of psychological representation. to subjectivization, into the mode of subtextual structuring. Psychological implications– a dialogue between the author and the reader, when the recipient himself must develop the analysis based on the author’s hints in the text. The “lyrical principle of typification” (the term of A.N. Andreev) determines the inclusion of psychological writing in the system means of emotional intonation. Rhythm, poetic figures (default, repetition, gradation, silence) and syntactic figures (repetitions of words, conjunctions, constructions) create the emotional background of the work. Gaining significance "synesthesia"(fixation of color, sound, smell, taste, etc.).

Bringing information into subtext in cases of special psychological stress was inherent in I.S. Turgenev, A.P. Chekhov, however, in the literature of the twentieth century. this technique receives greater development and weight in the system of psychologism (E. Hemingway, V. Wolf, V.V. Nabokov).

The psychological (and in general plot) subtext in W. Woolf’s novel “Mrs. Dalloway” is “a statement of facts, compressed to a hint, in which the lack of information is compensated by the concentration of hidden expressiveness ... enters as an element in the flow of inner speech of one or another hero and has of great importance for understanding his worldview, feelings, actions and their psychological motivations.” Associations (heard story, memory) reveal Clarissa's non-verbalized sensations and feelings. So, for example, in the mind of the heroine, returning to thoughts about the end of the war and the continuation of life, words heard earlier suddenly emerge:

“The war is over, in general, for everyone; True, Mrs. Foxcroft was tormented at the embassy yesterday because that dear boy was killed and the country house would now go to his cousin; and Lady Bexborough opened the market, they say, with a telegram in her hand about the death of John, her favorite; but the war is over; It's over, thank God. June…" .

Feelings and sensations are included in the subtext: “Clarissa painfully perceives the events of the war, the losses that it brought (although the war did not personally affect her in any way); and although life is beautiful and time heals, it is quite obvious that Clarissa is not able to forget and justify these losses.” To reveal the essence of internal processes, V. Wolf uses two registers of narration - external and internal, intellectual and emotional. They find their embodiment in both the rhythmic and compositional structure of the text: simultaneity and musical principles organize a change of voices and points of view (N. Povalyaeva highlights in Woolf’s novels all known species polyphony).

Psychological subtext can be associated with “secret psychologism”, with a hero whose character is realistically motivated (E. Hemingway), or fundamentally “out of character” (V.V. Nabokov).

The first type of subtext can be observed in E. Hemingway’s prose. This is the so-called “secret of the iceberg,” which assumes that from the lines, details, intonations, and the very tone of the narrative, the reader will form an idea of ​​the dynamics psychological states character. The text contains precise signals (repetitions, key phrases, leitmotifs). So, for example, in the story “Cat in the Rain” the leitmotifs of house and rain, the key phrases “I’m tired” / “I like it the way it is now” and others turn a banal family scene with a woman’s whim into a drama of despair (“homelessness”, the meaninglessness of life ). Subtext signals create a clear dotted line of the heroine’s emotional and psychological state. This clarity is associated with Hemingway's program - to put into subtext only obvious points that will be recognized by the reader.

Another case of poetic subtext - “out of character” - dictates the transformation of the narrator into lyrical hero and, accordingly, the lyrical way of presenting the material (rhythm, intonation of phrases, sound writing, metaphorization) and the type of communication with the reader (V.V. Nabokov).

The subjectivization of the narrative led to the reconstruction in it metaphorical“an image of the state of the world, poetically generalized, emotionally rich, expressively expressed.” The principle of metaphorical explanation of man and the world goes back to the techniques associated with the introduction of double characters and dreams into the text.

Reception duality in its psychological quality was discovered by romantic literature. One of the types of dual worlds of the romantics was its psychological model: the reality associated with the “main “I” of the character - the reality in which the “double” / “shadow” lives. Dream, hallucination, mirror, water became markers of the border between these worlds. Functionally, it was the dream that was more acceptable for depicting a double, since it had a double motivation (real and psychological). The double was perceived as a product of the character's subjective world, as the embodiment of his tragic, psychological or psychopathological duality.

Doubles, according to Z. Freud, are “personalities who, due to the sameness of their manifestation (external - O.Z.) are perceived as identical,” duality acts as “an act of identifying oneself with another person, accompanied by doubt in one’s own “I” or substitution someone else’s “I” in place of one’s own, doubling the “I”, dividing the “I”, replacing the “I”. Thus, the appearance of a double is associated with the process of self-identification (and the fear that accompanies it). We find an analogue of this in literature, when the double is separated from the character, perceived as a “stranger,” and endowed with harmful traits; the relationship between the hero and the double is organized as enmity (1) Other implementations of the relationship:

(2) “the hero and his double can be combined, for example, in a mirror. In this case, the double contributes to the assertion of oneself in the image of the hero;

(3) the double can be deeply hidden in the hero’s “I” and be almost merged with him. Restoring the original separation becomes possible only at critical moments. Thus, the double is endowed positive features, and relations with him are organized as reconciliation."

The technique of duality has a special psychological meaning. A double is a visual (materialized) image of the character’s “I”. Vision, as the central category of experience, is a variant of the viewer’s knowledge of his personality without language (it is no coincidence that J. Lacan speaks of the third evolutionary phase in human self-awareness as the “mirror stage”). Mirror, the water surface in this context is important for its ability to reflect. For example, in the novels of G. Hesse they mark climax psychological change of the character (Klein (“Klein and Wagner”), Harry Haller (“Steppenwolf”), etc.). Thus, Siddhartha (“Siddhartha”), peering into the surface of the river, hears voices and distinguishes in the water surface the images of his doubles, and then a string of different human faces until they merge into “integrity, unity” - enlightenment occurs (in the text - “completion”, “perfection”). In the finale, the face of the dead Siddhartha becomes a “magic mirror”, in which his double Govinda sees “nirvana and samsara as a single whole”:

“The face of his friend Siddhartha disappeared; Instead, he saw other faces, hundreds, thousands, a great multitude of faces, merging into a mighty stream... each of them retained the features of Siddhartha. He saw the head of a dying fish... he saw the face of a barely born baby... he saw naked male and female bodies... he saw numb corpses... they saw the gods, he saw Krishna, he saw Agni, he saw all these faces and images in the entirety of relationships, by which they were connected to each other, he saw them helping... loving and hating each other, destroying and giving birth to each other again... and above all this he saw... the smiling face of Siddhartha...".

Let's consider the principle of duality in the novel “Demian” by G. Hesse. Around central character– Sinclair – all other images “revolve”, clarify its essence, “catalyze” the process of its formation. Therefore, characterology is reduced to minimal information content. Starting from this level, the author gradually builds up the symbolic shells of the images.

Sinclair is experiencing disintegration and seeks to get rid of it, looking for a reflection in another person. At the first stage of the “path inside,” he enters into a painful relationship with Franz Kromer (Sinclair’s double-enemy, “The Shadow”). In Cromer's image, the outline of the figure, the manner of speaking and moving, the dominant character, and the feelings he evokes in Sinclair are noted. However, after such characterological details, the turn comes for their “spraying”: comparisons with Satan, the demon, metonymic-hyperbolic transformations are introduced into the narrative (Cromer is not seen as a whole, but only his eyes, hand, mouth), and, finally, as a result of blurring the line between external and internal reality, a new Kromer appears in the protagonist’s visions: “...he became larger and uglier, and his evil eye sparkled demonically” [p. 102]. The torturer, despite his full tangibility (various manifestations of power), begins to be perceived by Sinclair as a force within him, a part of his soul. From this moment on, the image of Cromer (a symbol of the dark world, lies, filth, fear) disappears from sight.

The image of Demian (double-friend) also undergoes a similar growth into a symbol. Its appearance is associated with the second stage of Sinclair's development. This image consists of several layers: Demian is a high school student, a dream image, part of Sinclair’s soul (“a voice that could only come from myself”). Ambivalence is given first by his appearance, then by the feelings that he evokes in Sinclair. New dimensions of the image appear in the meditation scene, fragments-memories of his “strange” face, male and female at the same time, young and mature and at the same time “timeless”, belonging to the “ether” between life and death. The flickering image of the double convinces Sinclair of the failure of his previous project of his “I”. Further symbolic expansion becomes possible thanks to the narrator going beyond the boundaries of real space, transposing the latter into “magical”, semi-mystical coordinates. The second stage of the “path inside” is crowned with integration - in the coming to life portrait, the features of Demian and Sinclair merge.

Thus, the idea of ​​the human soul as a “chaos of forms and states” is recreated by G. Hesse not through the recording of psychological impulses, thoughts and associations, as in Joyce. G. Hesse’s system of neopsychologism is associated with the special status of double characters (and more broadly, with the psychological nature of duality):

1. Hesse “reifies” the complex, dynamic structure of personality, represents it in visual images - symbolic and mythological figures - psychological doubles of the character;

2. Their appearance is associated with “turning points” of the plot - stages of the internal evolution of the central character. As in confession, religious (pietist) biography, the “turning points” in G. Hesse’s novel are “moments of enlightenment leading to the final conversion of the hero”;

3. Doubles are parts of the hero’s soul; they must be identified and symbolically accepted (integrated).

Neopsychological duality is an innovative version of the archaic character model - epic duality. Dual images, according to R. Lachmann, came from the “anthropological myth of man as a dual being.” Thus, mythologism and neopsychologism (and the extra-character character) reveal their close connection in the literature of the twentieth century.

Indicative for the literature of the twentieth century. techniques and methods of psychological depiction are more complex than those that historically preceded them, and determine their analysis within the framework of non-traditional methodologies.

Questions and tasks

1. Consider the table “Means of Revealing the Inner World of Characters” by Vida Gudonene. Explain and evaluate the degree of logic and completeness of its classification. Propose your version of the classification of psychological writing techniques.
2. Consider the techniques and means of psychological analysis in the works of L.Ya. Ginzburg, A.B. Esina, I.V. Strakhov, reference and encyclopedic publications. Include basic concepts in your vocabulary.
3. Select illustrative material for each of the techniques and methods of psychological representation that are included in the dictionary.
4. Independently study the literature on the topic “Features of psychologism in lyric poetry and drama” (L.Ya. Ginzburg, I.V. Kozlik, V.E. Khalizev).

Strakhov, I.V. Psychological analysis in literary creativity: manual. for students / At 5 o’clock / I.V. Strakhov. – Saratov: Publishing house. Sarat. University, 1973–1976.

Ginzburg, L.Ya. About psychological prose / L.Ya. Ginzburg. – M.: INTRADA, 1999. – 415 p.

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Esin, A.B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature: Book. for the teacher / A.B.Esin. – M.: Education, 1988. – P. 51–64.

Khalizev, V.E. Drama as a kind of literature (poetics, genesis, functioning) / V.E.Khalizev. – M.: Publishing house. Moscow Univ., 1986. – P. 83–100.

Kozlik, I.V. In the poetic world of F.I. Tyutcheva / Rep. ed. Corresponding Member of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine N.E. Krutikova / I.V. Kozlik. – Ivano-Frankivsk: Play; Kolomyia: ViK, 1997. – 156 p.

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The distinction between point of view and narrative instances (plane of point of view), considered in narratology (J. Gennette, B.A. Uspensky, V. Schmid) makes it possible to identify inconsistencies in prose texts, including psychological, perceptual, positions of the author and the character.

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PSYCHOLOGISM is a general name to denote a philosophical and methodological movement that can be traced in the history of development logic, philosophy, intellectual culture in general, at least for the last 150 years. The desire to show the special place and significance of psychology in logic, philosophy and methodology of science gave rise to the movement of antipsychologism, which, in turn, entailed the need to sharpen the argumentation to justify each of the emerging sides of the antithesis “psychologism - antipsychologism” as the only correct one, from the point of view representatives of the relevant parties.

At the same time, a critical reconstruction of this dispute allows us to assert that its main ideas can be traced in the history of logic and philosophy over the past four centuries, starting with philosophical reflections J. Locke And R. Descartes. The cycles of declines and rises in disputes around the ideas of P., including modernity, give rise to unique “worlds” of P. and antipsychologism in culture. The concepts of “P.” and “antipsychologism”, representing these worlds, turn out to be fuzzy sets, peculiar open systems that still continue to accumulate their elements.

Attempts to give a strict definition of P. are difficult due to the many negative connotations associated with this concept. Few authors are inclined to characterize their own theories as psychological or themselves as proponents of P. At the same time, many philosophers are willing to characterize other theories as psychological. As Franz Brentano noted, the reaction to the word “P.” many “pious philosophers” have a reaction similar to that of orthodox Catholics to the term “modernism”: “they begin to cross themselves as if the devil himself were in them” (Brentano, p. 306). Simply put, P. is what philosophers are accused of, and what they seek to prove their innocence of.

In all interpretations of P. something common can be identified. This is, firstly, an assertion of the methodological and theoretical superiority of psychology over all other sciences, secondly, a declaration of the need to build other sciences on the basis of psychology, thirdly, the identification decisive role subject in science and culture. According to Nicola Abbagnano, who traces the use of the term "P." in the works of German philosophers of the first half of the 19th century, for the first time this term began to be used to characterize the philosophical movement, which was initially defended by Ya.F. Freese and F.E. Beneke and which was opposed to the Hegelianism that dominated Germany during this period. The first set of P.'s ideas of this period was associated with the defense of the “rights of experience” and the assertion that introspection (or introspection) is the only tool of philosophical research that a thinker can use. The second set of problems is associated with the characterization of the method of establishing truth as a procedure based on the analysis of the subjective elements of introspection. Within this position, psychology turned out to be a fundamental philosophical and scientific discipline, introspection - a good psychological method allowing anyone theoretical research get reliable results. Such postulates led to the conclusion that science and philosophy could simply be reduced to introspective psychology.

Frege's criticism of Husserlev's Philosophy of Arithmetic, published in 1894, represents a kind of watershed in the sluggish debate between P. and antipsychologism. This criticism of P. stimulated Husserl’s “Logical Investigations” and the transformation of the dispute between P. and anti-psychologism into the central philosophical debate of the era. The same criticism outlined ideas that were later philosophical literature received the name “psychologism in logic” and “antipsychologism in logic”. These are the ideas that would be more correctly called, as V.N. rightly notes. Bryushinkin, ideas of P. and antipsychologism in the philosophy of logic. In fact, within the framework of “psychologism-antipsychologism in logic”, issues of substantiating logic, highlighting its subject, and the problem of the relationship between logic and thinking were discussed. These are problems “related to the philosophical interpretation of logic” (Bryushinkin V.N.S. 87). At the same time, philosophical and methodological disputes between philosophy and antipsychologism in the context of logic have become a model for the manifestation and reconstruction of variants of similar disputes in other sciences and fields of knowledge, namely in the theory of knowledge and metaphysics, the history of philosophy, including religious philosophical thought, linguistics, and literary criticism , history, sociology, law, theater studies, etc.

Psychologism in logic. The main premises of logical logic can be presented as follows. Logic is the science of thinking, thinking belongs to the field of psychology, therefore the theoretical foundation of logic lies in psychology, and logic itself is aimed at research scientific knowledge. These ideas were most clearly manifested in the English school in the philosophy of J. St. Mill, and in German - in the philosophy of X. Sigwart. But the fundamental role in this process still belongs to Mill, whom G. Frege called the leader of the logical P. Mill influenced representatives of various fields of knowledge: logic, linguistics, literary criticism, political economy, sociology, history and other sciences. In fact, he offered all of them examples of methods of analysis and reasoning. Largely thanks to him, the conceptual apparatus of psychological logic spread to different areas of culture and knowledge, and this, in turn, contributed to the constitution of the “total world of psychologism.”

Antipsychologism in logic. The main premises of logical antipsychologism are directly related to the tasks of substantiating mathematics. G. Frege considered it important to make a strict distinction between logic and psychology. The task of logic, according to Frege, is the study of the laws of truth, and not of thinking. At the same time, he explicitly formulates the methodological orientation of the tasks of logic: logic examines “only that truth, the knowledge of which is the goal of science” (Frege G.S. 19). Frege understands thought as something that has nothing to do with psychology and to which the concept of truth is applicable. From here follows the most important thesis of Fregean antipsychologism: “Thought is something extrasensory, and all sensory objects must be excluded from the area in which the concept of truth is applicable. Truth is not a property that corresponds to a certain type sensory impressions” (Ibid. p. 22). In the same way, thought, according to Frege, is separated from a specific carrier, because the thought that one person has formulated can be formulated by other people. Frege believed that people are not so much carriers of thoughts as carriers of ideas and sensory impressions. Thought is directly related to truth; therefore, it does not depend on whether a particular person recognizes it or not.

In the process of thinking, according to Frege, there is no production of thoughts, but only their formulation; the scientist does not create, but discovers true thoughts that exist independently of him in the world of ideas. Truths are timeless, eternal and unchanging. They do not depend on who expresses them. This is why thoughts can be true, even if no one has yet formulated them.

The common point characterizing the antipsychological position of Frege and Husserl is the recognition of the existence of truth, independent of the cognizing subject, the recognition of qualitative originality and the irreducibility of logical and real necessity to each other. Both antipsychologists of this period consider it necessary to draw a line between the objective, ideal-logical content of thought and the subjective, real-historical process of thinking. A thought does not belong to the consciousness of an individual. Logical laws cannot be based on the laws of psychology. They do not presuppose anything psychological, no facts of “mental life”, as was the case, for example, in P. Mill and Siegwart. For them, psychological, naturalistic reductionism is unacceptable, according to which ideal, a priori structures, such as, for example, logical laws, are reduced to empirical facts, to problems of everyday life, everyday perception. Both thinkers believe that the disorder and polysemy of logical terminology is the most important reason for the existence of logic. Therefore, they associate the departure from logic and the construction of “pure,” anti-psychological logic with the work of clarifying the basic concepts of logic and streamlining its terminology. What Husserl only declares is for Frege the main content of his works. Frege builds a calculus of concepts, with the help of which he wants to get away from P. and eliminate polysemy and logical imperfection of natural language.

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