New Economic Policy (NEP). Formation of the USSR and the NEP period (1921–1929)

25.09.2019

The new economic policy is one of the problems that constantly attracts the attention of researchers and people studying the history of Russia. After a 7-year period of wars and revolutions, the new Bolshevik government, which did not yet have experience in governing the country in conditions of peaceful economic construction, was able, during the political crisis of the spring of 1921, to develop an economic policy that made it possible to restore the economy in a short time and begin its further successful development 1 . International situation after the Civil War.

In the autumn of 1918, the First World War ended. Period from 1918 to 1923 characterized in world history by the post-war revolutionary upsurge. Behind him in 1923 - 1929. followed by a temporary partial stabilization of capitalism, followed by

crisis and deepening inter-imperialist contradictions (1929 - 1939), which led to the Second World War.

The First World War did not only lead to the growth of the revolutionary movement. The German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires collapsed, and new states emerged. The situation in the world has changed significantly.

A significant factor in the revolutionary upsurge of 1918-1923. there was a socialist revolution in Russia. Bourgeois-democratic revolutions took place in Germany and Austria-Hungary. In Germany, the revolution had socialist tendencies: Soviet power was proclaimed in a number of cities. In April 1919, the Soviet Republic arose in Bavaria. For more than 4 months of 1919, the Soviet Republic existed in Hungary. In the summer of 1919, a Soviet republic was proclaimed in Slovakia. Other capitalist countries also experienced worker-government clashes as a reaction from working people to the worsening economic situation resulting from an unpopular and difficult war. By 1923, the working class had been defeated in social battles. Capitalism has retained its power and might.

The socialist revolution in Russia influenced not only the growth of revolutionary sentiments in Western countries. Under the influence of the October Revolution and under the direct leadership of the Bolshevik Party, communist and workers' parties were created from left groups in the parties of the Second International. The formation of communist parties was also facilitated by the revolutionary upsurge of 1918 - 1923.

In 1919, the young communist parties united into the Third International (dissolved in 1943 due to the World War).

Standing in the positions of the world socialist revolution, the Bolshevik government considered it necessary to create a single organization to lead the world labor movement. Moscow's position as a world revolutionary center during this period was

exceptionally durable.

How did the situation in the world after the First World War affect development prospects? Soviet Russia?First of all, it should be said that at the end of 1920, the civil war ended on the main territory of the country (military operations continued only in remote areas on Far East and in Central Asia) and the country was faced with the task of transitioning to peaceful economic construction.

The difficult internal economic and political situation of Western countries, the growth of national liberation struggles in India, China, Turkey, Afghanistan and other countries, interest in obtaining raw materials from Russia and in using the Russian market to sell goods dictated to Western countries the need for peaceful coexistence with the Soviet state.

In turn, the Soviet government was interested in receiving Western loans, machinery and equipment, and in using European and American specialists to boost the economy.

Pursuing an active foreign policy, by the end of 1920 the Soviet Republic had concluded peace treaties with a number of countries, primarily with the Baltic republics. In March 1921, a trade agreement was concluded with England, in May with Germany, then with Italy, Norway, etc. At the same time, Western states, and primarily the United States, continued the policy of economic blockade of Soviet Russia, supported counter-revolutionary emigrant forces and anti-Soviet armed forces formations stationed near the borders of Russia carried out political and military provocations.

Foreign policy relations with the countries of the East developed most successfully. Our country has eliminated the unequal enslaving treaties concluded by tsarism; for the first time in history, showing goodwill and friendly feelings, it concluded new equal treaties with Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, etc. This policy of the Soviet state had a positive impact on all of Asia.

Thus, Russia's foreign policy position in international affairs was strengthened, but remained complex. The refusal of Western countries to provide loans, which has accumulated over the years

civil war and interventions, hatred towards each other forced the Soviet state to rely on internal resources. The main task now was to restore the destroyed economy, to lay an economic foundation under Soviet power. 2. The internal situation of the country..

The internal situation of the young republic was extremely difficult. Severe devastation, the result of 7 years of continuous wars, set the country's economy back several decades. Here are a few figures that give an idea of the country's internal situation: the total volume of industrial production fell 7 times. Pig iron production was 2 times less than in 1862. Due to the lack of fuel, most enterprises were inactive. Cotton fabrics were produced 20 times less than in 1913. Devastation also reigned in agriculture. Grain production was halved. The number of livestock has decreased significantly. The country lacked bread, potatoes, meat, butter, sugar, and other necessary food products. The irreparable human losses were enormous: since 1914, 19 million people have died.

The long war and devastation affected the social composition of the country: the size of the working class decreased by 2 times (in Petrograd - by 4.3 times).

The active part of the workers performed management work and held positions in Soviet government bodies; up to 30% of the workers went to the villages to escape hunger. The process of declassification threatened the social base of Soviet power.

At the same time, dissatisfaction with the policies of war communism became increasingly evident in the village. If during the civil war the peasants (and they were 80% of the entire population at that time) put up with surplus appropriation as a forced phenomenon - in return they received land, defense from invaders, freedom from landowners, now in peace the system of military communism has come in conflict with the interests of the peasantry.

People in the city were also dissatisfied with the policy of war communism: the urban population did not like the equal distribution of food, labor conscription, etc. As a result, a crack appeared in the alliance of the working class and the peasantry - the basis of Soviet power. Rebellions broke out with the participation of middle peasants, the most powerful was the Kronstadt rebellion of sailors who came from peasant backgrounds. They were close to the needs and ideology of the village.

The peasantry, who no longer wanted to put up with surplus appropriation, protested more and more loudly, the most acute political form of which was the rebellion against Soviet power in the Tambov province, Siberia, and Ukraine. Lenin considered this spontaneous dissatisfaction with Soviet policy to be the greatest danger to the new system. It testified to the emergence of such antagonism in society, which could not be eliminated by the use of military force.

With the end of the civil war, the policy of "war communism" reached a dead end. The need to change the political course was recognized by the majority of both the leadership and ordinary party members. However, some believed that in order to get out of the crisis it was necessary to improve the old policy and build socialism with its help, while others proposed new ways.

3.New economic policy.

Within the leadership itself there was no unity in understanding the essence of the NEP. The possibilities of the New Economic Policy as a method and as a plan for building socialism were rejected or questioned. Given the critical situation in the country, many party leaders considered it necessary to make a concession to the peasantry. They considered the New Economic Policy mainly from the point of view of tactics, rather than a long-term strategic course, as a kind of respite between the two immediate assaults on capitalism - “war communism” and the beginning of proletarian revolutions in other countries. The duration of the new course was made dependent on the prospects for world revolution in the West. The prevailing opinion was that during the world revolution there would be no need for a new economic policy, that the Soviet system would have the opportunity to truly build socialism.

Describing the essence of the new economic policy, Lenin believed that normal relations should be such that the proletariat holds large-scale industry with its goods in its hands and satisfies the peasantry, not only giving them the means to live, but also easing their situation, making it better than under capitalism.

The NEP implied not only the strengthening of the alliance with the peasantry, but also the temporary admission of capitalist elements, freedom of trade, and freedom of private enterprise.

Main directions. new economic policies were:1. Replacing food surplus with a tax in kind. Instead of food surplus, which was carried out during the war and meant the gratuitous seizure of part of the food from peasants according to the surplus, a fixed food tax of a much smaller size was introduced, which made it possible to have surplus products for sale.2. Introduction of free trade.

Free trade made it possible to have income from the sale of goods, aroused interest in the production of goods, and significantly intensified the development of commodity-money relations and exchange between city and countryside.3. Transfer to private ownership of small and medium enterprises producing consumer goods.

USSR during the NEP period (1921-1929)

Reasons for introducing the New Economic Policy (NEP):

1) the severe economic crisis in Russia after the end of the civil war and foreign intervention;

2) the crisis of Soviet Power caused by the continuation of the policy of “war communism” (manifested in mass peasant uprisings in the Volga region, in the Tambov region (“Antonovschina”) and Western Siberia, workers’ protests in Petrograd and other cities, a sailors’ uprising in Kronstadt in March 1921) ;

3) the presence of a subjective factor - the flexibility of Lenin’s thinking in connection with the changed internal political situation.

The strategic policy of V.I. Lenin in the construction of socialism in the conditions of a capitalist encirclement (the impossibility of a world revolution in the coming years and the development of Marxist theory in the USSR).

In March 1921, at the X Congress of the RCP(b), they adopted two important decisions: on replacing surplus appropriation with a tax in kind and on party unity. These two resolutions reflected the internal contradictions new economic policy, the transition to which was indicated by the decisions of the congress.

NEP is an anti-crisis program, the essence of which was to recreate a multi-structured economy while maintaining the “commanding heights” in the hands of the Bolshevik government.

NEP goals:

-political: relieve social tensions, strengthen the social base of Soviet power in the form of an alliance of workers and peasants;

-economic: prevent devastation, overcome the crisis and restore the economy;

Social: without waiting for the world revolution, to ensure favorable conditions for building a socialist society;

- foreign policy: overcome international isolation and restore political and economic relations with other states.

Thus, tactical goal NEP was the way out of the crisis by strengthening the construction of socialism.

The NEP included a set of economic and socio-political measures that meant a “retreat” from the principles of “war communism” and assumed:

Replacement of surplus appropriation with a tax (until 1925 in kind); which was half as much and was announced in advance, which means it was beneficial to the peasants. Since 1925, it began to be collected in money and amounted to 5-10% of the harvest. Products remaining on the farm after paying the tax in kind were allowed to be sold on the market;

Allowing private trade;

Attracting foreign capital to industrial development;

Leasing by the state of many small enterprises and retaining large and medium-sized industrial enterprises;

Land lease under state control;

Attracting foreign capital to the development of industry (some enterprises were concessioned to foreign capitalists);

Transfer of industry to full self-financing and self-sufficiency.

Instead of central boards - state structures - trusts were created that were responsible for the results of their activities with their property;

Hiring labor;

Abolition of the card system and equal distribution;

Payment for all services;

Replacement of natural wages with cash wages, established depending on the quantity and quality of labor;

Abolition of universal labor conscription, maintenance of labor exchanges.

The NEP was a major achievement in the theory and practice of creating a new society, confirming the natural historical nature and continuity of the stages of development of human civilization as a whole. The departure from the dogmatized understanding of Marxism made it possible to discover the laws governing the construction of a new society in a peasant country and to bring together the interests of the working class and the peasantry.

The new economic policy ensured the stabilization and restoration of the national economy, and the financial situation of people improved.

At the same time, this restoration meant reaching the pre-war level, the fixed assets of Russian industry were worn out, the equipment was outdated, the country became even more agrarian than it was, its industrial development directly depended on the state of agriculture. As recovery progressed, old economic problems returned pre-revolutionary Russia, its structural imbalances and contradictions. During the NEP period, many processes generated by the market also developed - increased unemployment, reduced spending on social needs and education, corruption, and increased crime.

Reasons for canceling the NEP:

1) foreign policy crisis of 1927-28. - the severance of relations with England, the threat of war from the capitalist powers was perceived as real, which is why the time frame for industrialization was adjusted to an ultra-short one; as a result, the NEP could no longer provide sources of funds for industrialization at an ultra-accelerated, accelerated pace.

2) contradictions and crises of the NEP itself (the sales crisis of 1923 and 1924, the grain procurement crises of 1925/26 and 1928/29 - the last of which led to the breakdown of the industrialization plan).

3) the inconsistency of the NEP with the ideology of the ruling party.

4) 1929 - the final abolition of the NEP, the transition to a super-centralized, command-administrative economy.

Education of the USSR.

Basic plans of the merger:

People's Commissar for Nationalities I.V. Stalin proposed an autonomization plan. Its essence was as follows: the Soviet republics of Ukraine, Belarus, the Transcaucasian Federation as part of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan were to become part of the RSFSR with autonomous rights. Stalin's plan was criticized by Lenin as anti-democratic and a return to the imperial past.

Lenin proposed a plan for creating a federation. The Soviet republics created a federation on the principles of equality and preservation of sovereign rights, up to the right of secession. This project was implemented.

December 27, 1922 - signing of the Union Treaty (RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR, ZSFSR) on the formation of the USSR. Issues of defense, foreign policy, state security, border protection, and foreign trade came under the jurisdiction of the Union.

Transport, budget, communications and money circulation. At the same time, the right to freely leave the USSR was declared.

In January 1924, the Constitution of the USSR was adopted.

New Economic Policy- economic policy pursued in Soviet Russia and the USSR in the 20s. It was adopted on March 15, 1921 by the X Congress of the RCP (b), replacing the policy of “war communism” pursued during the Civil War. The New Economic Policy aimed at restoring the national economy and the subsequent transition to socialism. The main content of the NEP is the replacement of surplus appropriation with a tax in kind in the countryside (up to 70% of grain was confiscated during surplus appropriation, and about 30% with the tax in kind), the use of the market and various forms of ownership, attracting foreign capital in the form of concessions, carrying out a monetary reform (1922-1924), in as a result of which the ruble became a convertible currency.

Prerequisites for the transition to NEP

After the end of the civil war, the country found itself in a difficult situation and faced a deep economic and political crisis. As a result of almost seven years of war, Russia lost more than a quarter of its national wealth. Industry suffered particularly heavy damage. The volume of its gross output decreased by 7 times. By 1920, reserves of raw materials and supplies were largely exhausted. Compared to 1913 gross production large industry decreased by almost 13%, and small industry by more than 44%.

Huge destruction was caused to transport. In 1920, the volume of railway transportation was 20% of the pre-war level. The situation in agriculture has worsened. Cultivated areas, yields, gross grain harvests, and production of livestock products have decreased. Agriculture has increasingly acquired a consumer nature, its marketability has fallen by 2.5 times. There was a sharp decline in the living standards and labor of workers. As a result of the closure of many enterprises, the process of declassification of the proletariat continued. Enormous deprivations led to the fact that, from the autumn of 1920, discontent began to intensify among the working class. The situation was complicated by the beginning demobilization of the Red Army. As the fronts of the civil war retreated to the country's borders, the peasantry began to increasingly oppose food appropriation, which was implemented by violent methods with the help of food detachments.

The policy of “war communism” led to the destruction of commodity-money relations. The sale of food and industrial goods was limited; they were distributed by the state in the form of in-kind wages. An equalization system of wages among workers was introduced. This gave them the illusion of social equality. The failure of this policy was manifested in the formation of a “black market” and the flourishing of speculation. In the social sphere, the policy of “war communism” was based on the principle “ He who doesn't work doesn't eat" In 1918, labor conscription was introduced for representatives of the former exploiting classes, and in 1920, universal labor conscription. Forced mobilization of labor resources was carried out with the help of labor armies sent to restore transport, construction work, etc. Naturalization of wages led to the free provision of housing, utilities, transport, postal and telegraph services. During the period of "war communism" in political sphere An undivided dictatorship of the RCP(b) was established, which also subsequently became one of the reasons for the transition to NEP. The Bolshevik Party ceased to be a purely political organization; its apparatus gradually merged with state structures. It determined the political, ideological, economic and cultural situation in the country, even the personal life of citizens. Essentially, it was about the crisis of the policy of “war communism”.

Devastation and hunger, workers' strikes, uprisings of peasants and sailors - everything indicated that a deep economic and social crisis was brewing in the country. In addition, by the spring of 1921, the hope for an early world revolution and material and technical assistance from the European proletariat had been exhausted. Therefore, V.I. Lenin revised the internal political course and recognized that only satisfying the demands of the peasantry could save the power of the Bolsheviks.

The essence of the NEP

The essence of the NEP was not clear to everyone. Disbelief in the NEP and its socialist orientation gave rise to disputes about the ways of developing the country's economy and about the possibility of building socialism. At the very different understanding NEP, many party leaders agreed that at the end of the civil war in Soviet Russia, two main classes of the population remained: workers and peasants, and at the beginning of the 20 years after the NEP, a new bourgeoisie appeared, the bearer of restorationist tendencies. A wide field of activity for the Nepman bourgeoisie consisted of industries serving the basic most important consumer interests of the city and countryside. V.I. Lenin understood the inevitable contradictions and dangers of development along the path of the NEP. He considered it necessary to strengthen the Soviet state to ensure victory over capitalism.

In general, the NEP economy was a complex and unstable market-administrative structure. Moreover, the introduction of market elements into it was of a forced nature, while the preservation of administrative-command elements was fundamental and strategic. Without abandoning the ultimate goal (creation of a non-market economic system) of the NEP, the Bolsheviks resorted to the use of commodity-money relations while simultaneously maintaining the “commanding heights” in the hands of the state: nationalized land and mineral resources, large and most of medium-sized industry, transport, banking, monopoly foreign trade. It was assumed that there would be a relatively long coexistence of socialist and non-socialist (state-capitalist, private capitalist, small-scale commodity, patriarchal) structures with the gradual displacement of the latter from the economic life of the country while relying on “commanding heights” and the use of levers of economic and administrative influence on large and small owners (taxes, loans , pricing policy, legislation, etc.).

From the point of view of V.I. Lenin, the essence of the NEP maneuver was to lay an economic foundation under the “union of the working class and the working peasantry,” in other words, to provide a certain freedom of management that prevailed in the country among small commodity producers in order to relieve their acute dissatisfaction with the authorities and ensure political stability in society. As the Bolshevik leader emphasized more than once, the NEP was a roundabout, indirect path to socialism, the only possible one after the failure of the attempt to directly and quickly break all market structures. The direct path to socialism, however, was not rejected by him in principle: Lenin recognized it as quite suitable for developed capitalist states after the victory of the proletarian revolution there.

NEP in agriculture

The resolution of the X Congress of the RCP (b) on replacing the appropriation tax with a tax in kind, which laid the foundation for the new economic policy, was formalized legislatively by a decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee in March 1921. The tax amount was reduced by almost half compared to the surplus appropriation system, and the main burden fell on wealthy rural peasants. The decree limited the freedom of trade of the products remaining with the peasants after paying the tax “within the limits of local economic turnover.” Already by 1922, there was a noticeable growth in agriculture. The country was fed. In 1925, the sown area reached pre-war levels. The peasants sown almost the same area as in pre-war 1913. The gross grain harvest was 82% compared to 1913. The number of livestock exceeded the pre-war level. 13 million peasant farms were members of agricultural cooperation. There were about 22 thousand collective farms in the country. The implementation of grandiose industrialization required a radical restructuring of the agricultural sector. In Western countries, the agricultural revolution, i.e. the system of improving agricultural production preceded revolutionary industry, and therefore in general it was easier to supply the urban population with food. In the USSR, both of these processes had to be carried out simultaneously. At the same time, the village was considered not only as a source of food, but also as the most important channel for replenishing financial resources for the needs of industrialization.

NEP in industry

Radical changes also took place in industry. The chapters were abolished, and in their place trusts were created - associations of homogeneous or interconnected enterprises that received complete economic and financial independence, up to the right to issue long-term bond issues. By the end of 1922, about 90% of industrial enterprises were united into 421 trusts, with 40% of them being centralized and 60% of local subordination. The trusts themselves decided what to produce and where to sell the products. The enterprises that were part of the trust were withdrawn from state supplies and began purchasing resources on the market. The law provided that “the state treasury is not responsible for the debts of trusts.”

VSNKh, having lost the right to intervene in the current activities of enterprises and trusts, turned into a coordination center. His staff was sharply reduced. It was at that time that economic accounting appeared, in which an enterprise (after mandatory fixed contributions to the state budget) has the right to independently dispose of income from the sale of products, is itself responsible for the results of its economic activities, independently uses profits and covers losses. Under the conditions of the NEP, Lenin wrote, “state enterprises are transferred to the so-called economic accounting, that is, in fact, to a large extent to commercial and capitalist principles.”

The Soviet government tried to combine two principles in the activities of trusts - market and planned. Encouraging the first, the state sought, with the help of trusts, to borrow technology and work methods from the market economy. At the same time, the principle of planning in the activities of trusts was strengthened. The state encouraged the areas of activity of trusts and the creation of a system of concerns by joining the trusts with enterprises producing raw materials and finished products. The concerns were supposed to serve as centers for planned economic management. For these reasons, in 1925, the motivation for “profit” as the goal of their activities was removed from the regulations on trusts and only the mention of “commercial calculation” was left. So, the trust as a form of management combined planned and market elements that the state tried to use to build a socialist planned economy. This was the complexity and contradictory nature of the situation.

Almost simultaneously, syndicates began to be created - associations of trusts for the wholesale distribution of products, lending and regulation of trade operations on the market. By the end of 1922, the syndicates controlled 80% of the industry covered by the trusts. In practice, three types of syndicates have emerged:

with a predominance of trade function (Textile, Wheat, Tobacco);
with a predominance of the regulatory function (Council of Congresses of the Main Chemical Industry);
syndicates created by the state on a compulsory basis (Salt Syndicate, Oil Syndicate, Coal Syndicate, etc.) to maintain control over the most important resources.

Thus, syndicates as a form of management also had a dual character: on the one hand, they combined elements of the market, since they were focused on improving the commercial activities of the trusts that were part of them, on the other hand, they were monopoly organizations in this industry, regulated by higher authorities. government agencies(VSNKh and People's Commissariats).

Financial reform of the NEP

The transition to the NEP required the development of a new financial policy. Experienced pre-revolutionary financiers took part in the reform of the financial and monetary system: N. Kutler, V. Tarnovsky, professors L. Yurovsky, P. Genzel, A. Sokolov, Z. Katsenelenbaum, S. Volkner, N. Shaposhnikov, N. Nekrasov, A. Manuilov, former assistant to minister A. Khrushchev. Great organizational work was carried out by the People's Commissar of Finance G. Sokolnikov, a member of the Narkomfin Board V. Vladimirov, and the Chairman of the Board of the State Bank A. Sheiman. The main directions of the reform were identified: stopping the issue of money, establishing a deficit-free budget, restoring the banking system and savings banks, introducing a unified monetary system, creating a stable currency, and developing an appropriate tax system.

By decree of the Soviet government of October 4, 1921, the State Bank was formed as part of the Narkomfin, savings and loan banks were opened, and payment for transport, cash register and telegraph services was introduced. The system of direct and indirect taxes was restored. To strengthen the budget, all expenses that did not correspond to state revenues were sharply reduced. Further normalization of the financial and banking system required the strengthening of the Soviet ruble.

In accordance with the decree of the Council of People's Commissars, in November 1922 the issue of a parallel Soviet currency, the “chervonets”, began. It was equal to 1 spool - 78.24 shares or 7.74234 g of pure gold, i.e. the amount contained in the pre-revolutionary gold ten. It was forbidden to pay off the budget deficit in chervonets. They were intended to service the credit operations of the State Bank, industry, and wholesale trade.

To maintain the stability of the chervonets, a special part (OS) of the currency department of the People's Commissariat of Finance bought or sold gold, foreign currency and chervonets. Despite the fact that this measure corresponded to the interests of the state, such commercial activities of the OC were regarded by the OGPU as speculation, so in May 1926, arrests and executions of the leaders and employees of the OC began (L. Volin, A.M. Chepelevsky and others, who were only rehabilitated 1996).

The high nominal value of chervonets (10, 25, 50 and 100 rubles) created difficulties in exchanging them. In February 1924, a decision was made to issue state treasury notes in denominations of 1, 3, and 5 rubles. gold, as well as small silver and copper coins.

In 1923 and 1924 two devaluations of the sovznak (the former settlement banknote) were carried out. This gave the monetary reform a confiscatory character. On March 7, 1924, a decision was made to issue Sovznak by the State Bank. For every 500 million rubles handed over to the state. model 1923, their owner received 1 kopeck. Thus, the system of two parallel currencies was eliminated.

In general, the state has achieved some success in carrying out monetary reform. Exchanges began to produce chervonets in Constantinople, the Baltic countries (Riga, Revel), Rome, and some eastern countries. The chervonets exchange rate was 5 dollars. 14 US cents.

The strengthening of the country's financial system was facilitated by the revival of the credit and tax systems, the creation of exchanges and a network of joint-stock banks, the spread of commercial credit, and the development of foreign trade.

However financial system, created on the basis of the NEP, began to destabilize in the second half of the 20s. for several reasons. The state strengthened planning principles in the economy. The control figures for the 1925-26 financial year affirmed the idea of maintaining monetary circulation through increasing emissions. By December 1925, the money supply increased 1.5 times compared to 1924. This led to an imbalance between the size of trade turnover and the money supply. Since the State Bank constantly introduced gold and foreign currency into circulation in order to withdraw cash surpluses and maintain the exchange rate of the chervonets, the state’s foreign exchange reserves were soon depleted. The fight against inflation was lost. Since July 1926, it was prohibited to export chervonets abroad and the purchase of chervonets on the foreign market was stopped. Chervonets turned from a convertible currency into the internal currency of the USSR.

Thus, the monetary reform of 1922-1924 was a comprehensive reform of the sphere of circulation. The monetary system was rebuilt simultaneously with the establishment of wholesale and retail, elimination of the budget deficit, price revision. All these measures helped restore and streamline monetary circulation, overcome emissions, and ensure the formation of a solid budget. At the same time, financial and economic reform helped streamline taxation. Hard currency and a solid state budget were the most important achievements of the financial policy of the Soviet state in those years. In general, monetary reform and financial recovery contributed to the restructuring of the mechanism of operation of the entire national economy on the basis of the NEP.

The role of the private sector during the NEP

During the NEP period, a major role in the restoration of light and food industry The private sector played a role - it produced up to 20% of all industrial output (1923) and predominated in wholesale (15%) and retail (83%) trade.

Private industry took the form of handicraft, rental, joint-stock and cooperative enterprises. Private entrepreneurship has become noticeably widespread in the food, clothing and leather industries, as well as the oil-pressing, flour-grinding and shag industries. About 70% of private enterprises were located on the territory of the RSFSR. In total in 1924-1925 There were 325 thousand private enterprises in the USSR. They employed about 12% of the total workforce, with an average of 2-3 workers per enterprise. Private enterprises produced about 5% of all industrial output (1923). the state constantly limited the activities of private entrepreneurs through the use of tax pressure, depriving entrepreneurs of voting rights, etc.

At the end of the 20s. In connection with the collapse of the NEP, the policy of restricting the private sector was replaced by a course towards its elimination.

Consequences of the NEP

In the second half of the 1920s, the first attempts to curtail the NEP began. Syndicates in industry were liquidated, from which private capital was administratively squeezed out, and a rigid centralized system of economic management was created (economic people's commissariats).

In October 1928, the implementation of the first five-year plan for the development of the national economy began, the country's leadership set a course for accelerated industrialization and collectivization. Although no one officially canceled the NEP, by that time it had already been effectively curtailed.

Legally, the NEP was terminated only on October 11, 1931, when a resolution was adopted to completely ban private trade in the USSR.

The undoubted success of the NEP was the restoration of the destroyed economy, and if we take into account that after the revolution Russia lost highly qualified personnel (economists, managers, production workers), then the success of the new government becomes a “victory over devastation.” At the same time, the lack of those highly qualified personnel became the cause of miscalculations and mistakes.

Significant rates of economic growth, however, were achieved only through the return to operation of pre-war capacities, because Russia only reached the economic indicators of the pre-war years by 1926-1927. The potential for further economic growth turned out to be extremely low. The private sector was not allowed to the “commanding heights of the economy,” foreign investment was not welcomed, and investors themselves were in no particular hurry to come to Russia due to ongoing instability and the threat of nationalization of capital. The state was unable to make long-term capital-intensive investments using its own funds alone.

The situation in the village was also contradictory, where the “kulaks” were clearly oppressed.

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Essence – partial restoration market economy while maintaining command leverage. The strategic goal is to build socialism.

1. Replacement of the surplus appropriation tax with a tax in kind (03/21/1921 - decree), 5% of the harvest, announced on the eve of sowing. There are 13 taxes in total (meat, oil, wool, leather, etc.).

Increased taxation of wealthy peasants.

2. Freedom of trade (09.1921).

3. Land Code (10.1922) – the right to leave the community, land lease, hired labor.

4. Development of cooperation, primarily in agriculture. 04/07/1921 - decree on cooperation, cooperative production in agriculture (efficiency is twice as high) - for marketing products, purchasing equipment, obtaining loans, cultivating land.

Transfer of small and medium-sized industry to private ownership. Enterprises began to transfer to self-financing, cat. provided the opportunity for self-sufficiency, self-financing, self-government. Material incentives for workers. The decree on the nationalization of all small handicraft industries was canceled (7/7/1921). Enterprises were returned to the old owners - the old bourgeoisie, the new bourgeoisie - the Nepmen.

The organization of enterprises with the number of workers no more than 20 is allowed. Later - larger ones.

14 Question. Transition to NEP. Legal basis of NEP. The most important economic reforms.

The state retained control over large factories and factories. Plants and factories were transferred to self-financing.

6. Attracting foreign capital. Some industries are leased to foreigners - concessions (trade, mining, manufacturing).

7. Abolition of universal labor service (1921). It gave me the opportunity to do business, but there were unemployed people.

Financial reform, head. Sokolnikov People's Commissar of Finance, reconstruction of the banking system (1921-1924), sharp reduction in the issue of paper money, denominations (1922-1923), 1922 - introduction of gold chervonets into circulation.

9. The equalization system of wages and the card system have been eliminated.

10. Money emission as the main source of state income has been replaced by a system of direct and indirect taxes.

11. Transition to planning the entire national economy. Planned market economy.

The introduction of the NEP made it possible to restore the country's national economy (especially agriculture).

But there was no single NEP plan, the transformation was inconsistent. Crises of sales of industrial goods and grain procurements. Industrial enterprises set high prices arbitrarily, without taking into account the solvency of the population. Peasants stopped buying industrial goods.

(1923-1924) State intervention. The peasants did not want to trade with the state at artificially low prices. Free trade in grain was prohibited.

The standard of living of workers and peasants remained still low. Unemployment was growing in the country. From the very beginning, the NEP was a temporary concession that could lead the country out of the economic and political crisis.

At the end of the 1920s, the NEP was curtailed, although formally until 1936.

NEP crises 1923,1925,1927

Reasons for the collapse of NEP:

1.Economic crises, low rates economic development.

2. Lack of a clear prospect for the country’s development, the complexity of economic and socio-political problems.

3. The growth of popularity of the ideas of the “political NEP”, the threat of the loss of the VKP9b) monopoly on power.

4.The continuing danger of military aggression.

5. Disbelief in the NEP by a significant part of the communists.

Threat of split of the CPSU(b).

6. Unemployment, wealth stratification of the population.

Date of publication: 2015-02-18; Read: 211 | Page copyright infringement

studopedia.org - Studopedia.Org - 2014-2018 (0.001 s)…

“Seeing Moscow again, I was amazed: after all, I went abroad in the last weeks of war communism. Everything looked different now. The cards disappeared, people were no longer attached.

The staff of various institutions was greatly reduced, and no one drew up grandiose projects... Old workers and engineers had difficulty restoring production. Products have appeared. Peasants began to bring livestock to markets. Muscovites have eaten their fill and become happier. I remember how, upon arriving in Moscow, I froze in front of a grocery store.

The main changes in the agricultural policy of the Soviet government that occurred after the transition to the NEP

What was not there! The most convincing sign was: “Estomak” (stomach). The belly was not only rehabilitated, but exalted. In a cafe on the corner of Petrovka and Stoleshnikov, the inscription made me laugh: “Children visit us to eat the cream.” I didn’t find any children, but there were a lot of visitors, and they seemed to be getting fat before our eyes. Many restaurants opened: here is “Prague”, there is “Hermitage”, then “Lisbon”, “Bar”. Beer houses were noisy on every corner - with a foxtrot, with a Russian choir, with gypsies, with balalaikas, and just with scuffles.

There were reckless drivers standing near the restaurants, waiting for the revelers, and, as in the distant times of my childhood, they said: “Your Excellency, I’ll give you a lift...” Here you could also see beggars and street children; they moaned pitifully: “A pretty penny.” There were no kopecks: there were millions (“lemons”) and brand new chervonets. In the casino, several million were lost overnight: the profits of brokers, speculators or ordinary thieves" (I.

Ehrenburg "People, years, life")

Question 63. New Economic Policy (NEP) 1921 - 1929

1. Periodization of the country’s economic development in 1921 - 1941.

The crisis of the economic policy of “war communism” in 1920-1921.

3. GOELRO plan

4. The beginning of the NEP policy. The first steps of the Soviet government to normalize economic life

5. Soviet trusts, their features. Private capitalist methods in economics

Currency reforms. Chervonets

7. NEP crisis at the end of the 1920s. His reasons

8. Refusal of NEP, transition to industrialization and collectivization

1. In 1921 - 1941

The economy of the RSFSR and the USSR went through two stages of development:

✓ 1921 - 1929 — the NEP period, during which the state temporarily moved away from total administrative-command methods and moved towards partial denationalization of the economy and the admission of small and medium-sized private capitalist activities;

✓ 1929 - 1941 - a period of return to full nationalization of the economy, collectivization and industrialization, and the transition to a planned economy.

A significant change in the country's economic policy in 1921 was caused by the fact that:

✓ the policy of “war communism”, which justified itself at the height of the civil war (1918 - 1920), became ineffective during the country’s transition to peaceful life;

✓ the “militarized” economy did not provide the state with everything necessary, forced unpaid labor was ineffective;

✓ agriculture was in an extremely neglected state; there was an economic and spiritual break between the city and the countryside, the peasants and the Bolsheviks;

✓ Anti-Bolshevik protests by workers and peasants began across the country (the largest: “Antonovschina” - a peasant war against the Bolsheviks in the Tambov province led by Antonov; the Kronstadt rebellion);

✓ the slogans “For councils without communists!”, “All power to the councils, not parties!” became popular in society; “Down with the dictatorship of the proletariat!”

With the continued preservation of “war communism”, labor conscription, non-monetary exchange and distribution of goods by the state, the Bolsheviks risked completely losing the trust of the majority of the masses - workers, peasants and soldiers who supported them during the Civil War.

At the end of 1920 - beginning of 1921.

There is a significant change in the economic policy of the Bolsheviks:

✓ at the end of December 1920, the GOELRO plan was adopted at the VIII Congress of Soviets;

✓ in March 1921, at the X Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, a decision was made to end the policy of “war communism” and begin a new economic policy (NEP);

✓ both decisions, especially on the NEP, were made by the Bolsheviks after fierce discussions, with the active influence of V.I.

3. GOELRO Plan - The State Plan for the Electrification of Russia envisaged carrying out work to electrify the country within 10 years. This plan provided for the construction of power plants and power lines throughout the country; the spread of electrical engineering both in production and in everyday life.

According to V.I. Lenin, electrification was supposed to be the first step to overcome the economic backwardness of Russia. The importance of this task was emphasized by V.I. Lenin’s phrase: “Communism is Soviet power plus electrification of the entire country.” After the adoption of the GOELRO plan, electrification became one of the main directions of the economic policy of the Soviet government.

By the beginning of the 1930s.

In the USSR as a whole, a system of electrical networks was created, the use of electricity was widespread in industry and everyday life, and in 1932 the first large hydroelectric power station, the Dnieper Hydroelectric Power Station, was launched on the Dnieper.

Subsequently, the construction of hydroelectric power stations began throughout the country.

4. The first steps of the NEP were:

✓ replacement of surplus appropriation in the countryside with tax in kind;

✓ abolition of labor service - labor ceased to be a duty (like military service) and became free;

✓ gradual abandonment of distribution and introduction of monetary circulation;

✓ partial denationalization of the economy.

When the Bolsheviks carried out the NEP, exclusively command-administrative methods began to be replaced:

✓ state-capitalist methods in large industry;

✓ using private capitalist methods in small and medium-sized production and the service sector.

In the early 1920s. Trusts were created throughout the country that united many enterprises, sometimes industries, and managed them. The trusts tried to operate as capitalist enterprises (they independently organized production and sales of products based on economic interests; they were self-financing), but at the same time they were owned by the Soviet state, and not by individual capitalists.

Control and evaluation tools for History

Because of this, this stage of the NEP was called state capitalism (as opposed to “war communism”, its management-distribution and private capitalism of the USA and other countries).

The largest trusts of Soviet state capitalism were:

✓ “Donugol”;

✓ Khimugol;

✓ Yugostal;

✓ “State Trust of Machine-Building Plants” (“GOMZA”);

✓ Severles;

✓ "Sakharotrest".

In small and medium-sized production and the service sector, the state agreed to allow private capitalist methods.

The most common areas of application of private capital:

✓ agriculture;

✓ small trade;

✓ handicrafts;

✓ service sector.

Private shops, shops, restaurants, workshops, and private farms in rural areas are being created throughout the country.

The most common form of small-scale private farming was cooperation - the association of several individuals for the purpose of carrying out economic or other activities.

Production, consumer, trade and other types of cooperatives are being created throughout Russia.

6. During the NEP period, reforms were also carried out in the macroeconomic sphere:

✓ the banking system has been revived;

✓ in 1922 - 1924 several monetary reforms were carried out, in particular, two denominations (reducing the denomination of money, “reducing zeros”) and reducing the money supply;

Along with the devalued Soviet money in circulation (“Sovznaki”), another currency was introduced in parallel - the chervonets, a monetary unit equal to 10 pre-revolutionary “tsarist” rubles and backed by gold;

✓ due to the fact that the chervonets (unlike other money) was backed by gold, it quickly gained popularity in Russia and became the international convertible currency of Russia;

✓ throughout the country, the replacement of natural commodity exchange with monetary exchange gradually began;

✓ cash payments and payment of wages began.

If in 1921 workers received 95-100% of their earnings in the form of rations or other goods, then in 1925 80-90% of wages were paid in cash.

The NEP policy led to some economic recovery:

✓ the bulk of the population no longer experienced hunger, although the standard of living continued to remain very low;

✓ the market has become saturated with basic necessities that were in short supply during the civil war (bread, clothing, salt, matches, soap, etc.);

✓ the overall economic situation began to improve (an increase in production, while production was at the level of 50 - 70% of the pre-war level);

✓ development of domestic trade, banking activities;

✓ tension between city and countryside decreased - peasants began to produce products and earn money; some peasants became wealthy rural entrepreneurs; Peasant riots stopped throughout the country, since their social basis(surplus appropriation and complete poverty).

Thus, the NEP helped to exit the regime of “war communism”, transition to peaceful life, and satisfied the basic needs of the population.

At the same time, the NEP did not solve the main strategic problems - Russia’s lag behind the developed capitalist states continued, Russia, 10 years after the revolution, remained an economically weak agrarian state.

In 1926 - 1929

The NEP crisis began, which was expressed in:

✓ the collapse of the chervonets - by 1926, the bulk of the country's enterprises and citizens began to strive to make payments in chervonets, while the state could not provide the growing mass of money with gold, as a result of which the chervonets began to depreciate in value, and soon the state stopped providing it with gold; the chervonets, like the rest of the USSR currency ("Sovznaki"), ceased to be convertible - this was a strong blow to both internal economic development and the international prestige of the USSR;

✓ sales crisis - the majority of the population and small businesses did not have enough convertible money to buy goods, as a result, entire industries could not sell their goods.

The causes of the NEP crisis were predetermined by its very half-hearted nature - it was impossible to build a hybrid of capitalism and socialism without the main means - capital.

Capital in Soviet Russia in the 1920s. there was clearly not enough, there were no conditions for its free circulation (free market), Russia was completely cut off from the world economy and foreign investment, which also contributed to financial starvation.

In addition, the NEP did not solve the problem of accelerating industrial development, contributed to the revival of bourgeois relations in the countryside, and, in the long term, undermined the power of the Bolsheviks.

Due to these circumstances, by the end of the 1920s. NEP had exhausted itself and was doomed.

8. In 1928 - 1929 The Bolshevik leadership abandoned the NEP. The economy was again nationalized.

The country moved to a planned economy. Industrialization and collectivization began.

USSR during the NEP period (1921-1929)

Reasons for introducing the New Economic Policy (NEP):

1) the severe economic crisis in Russia after the end of the civil war and foreign intervention;

3) the presence of a subjective factor - the flexibility of Lenin’s thinking in connection with the changed internal political situation.

In March 1921

at the X Congress of the RCP(b) were adopted two important decisions: on replacing surplus appropriation with a tax in kind and on party unity. These two resolutions reflected the internal contradictions new economic policy, the transition to which was indicated by the decisions of the congress.

NEP is an anti-crisis program, the essence of which was to recreate a multi-structured economy while maintaining the “commanding heights” in the hands of the Bolshevik government.

NEP goals:

-political: relieve social tensions, strengthen the social base of Soviet power in the form of an alliance of workers and peasants;

—economic: prevent devastation, overcome the crisis and restore the economy;

Social: without waiting for the world revolution, to ensure favorable conditions for building a socialist society;

- foreign policy: overcome international isolation and restore political and economic relations with other states.

Thus, tactical goal NEP was the way out of the crisis by strengthening the construction of socialism.

The NEP included a set of economic and socio-political measures that meant a “retreat” from the principles of “war communism” and assumed:

- replacement of surplus appropriation with a tax (until 1925

in kind); which was half as much and was announced in advance, which means it was beneficial to the peasants. Since 1925, it began to be collected in money and amounted to 5-10% of the harvest. Products remaining on the farm after paying the tax in kind were allowed to be sold on the market;

— permission to private trade;

— attracting foreign capital to industrial development;

- leasing by the state of many small enterprises and retaining large and medium-sized industrial enterprises;

— land lease under state control;

- attracting foreign capital to the development of industry (some enterprises were concessioned to foreign capitalists);

— transfer of industry to full self-financing and self-sufficiency.

Instead of central boards - state structures - trusts were created that were responsible for the results of their activities with their property;

— hiring labor;

— abolition of the card system and equal distribution;

— payment for all services;

- replacement of natural wages with cash wages, established depending on the quantity and quality of labor;

- abolition of universal labor conscription, maintenance of labor exchanges.

The departure from the dogmatized understanding of Marxism made it possible to discover the laws governing the construction of a new society in a peasant country and to bring together the interests of the working class and the peasantry.

The new economic policy ensured the stabilization and restoration of the national economy, and the financial situation of people improved.

As the restoration proceeded, the old problems of the economy of pre-revolutionary Russia, its structural imbalances and contradictions, returned. During the NEP period, many processes generated by the market also developed - increased unemployment, reduced spending on social needs and education, corruption, and increased crime.

Reasons for canceling the NEP:

1) foreign policy crisis of 1927-28.

- the severance of relations with England, the threat of war from the capitalist powers was perceived as real, which is why the time frame for industrialization was adjusted to an ultra-short one, as a result, the NEP could no longer provide sources of funds for industrialization at an ultra-accelerated, accelerated pace.

2) contradictions and crises of the NEP itself (the sales crisis of 1923 and 1924, the grain procurement crises of 1925/26 and 1928/29.

-the last of which led to the failure of the industrialization plan).

3) the inconsistency of the NEP with the ideology of the ruling party.

4) 1929 - the final abolition of the NEP, the transition to a super-centralized, command-administrative economy.

Education of the USSR.

Basic plans of the merger:

Stalin's plan was criticized by Lenin as anti-democratic and a return to the imperial past.

December 27, 1922 - signing of the Union Treaty (RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR, ZSFSR) on the formation of the USSR.

Issues of defense, foreign policy, state security, border protection, and foreign trade came under the jurisdiction of the Union.

Transport, budget, communications and monetary circulation.

New Economic Policy

At the same time, the right to freely leave the USSR was declared.

In January 1924

The Constitution of the USSR was adopted.

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Concession(from Latin concessio - permission, assignment) - a form of agreement on the transfer for use of a set of exclusive rights belonging to the copyright holder. The concession is carried out on a reimbursable basis for a specified period or without specifying a period. The object of the agreement may be the transfer of rights to exploit natural resources, enterprises, equipment and other rights, including the use brand name and (or) commercial designation, protected commercial information, trademarks, service marks, etc.

Payment of remuneration can be carried out in the form of one-time (lump sum) or periodic (royalty) payments, percentage of revenue, markups at the wholesale price of goods or in another form established by the contract.

Concession, concession agreement- a form of public-private partnership, the involvement of the private sector in the effective management of state property or in the provision of services usually provided by the state on mutually beneficial terms.

1 Concept
2 History
3 Types of concession agreements
4 Concession agreements in Russia
- 4.1 History
  - 4.1.1 New Economic Policy (1920s)
- 4.2 Legislative regulation
5 Interesting facts
6 Notes
7 Literature
8 See

Concept

A concession implies that the grantor (the state) transfers to the concessionaire the right to exploit natural resources, infrastructure, enterprises, and equipment. In return, the grantor receives remuneration in the form of one-time (lump sum) or periodic (royalty) payments.

Concession agreements are implemented on the basis of public property, including using budget funds. In the absence of involvement of a public property resource in the partnership, the private partner is vested with the right to conduct a certain business, the exclusive or monopoly rights to conduct which belong to a public legal entity, for example, conducting parking activities, etc.

The role of concessions in the global economy is increasing. If throughout the 20th century concessions were used primarily in subsoil use, then in the 1990s numerous other state-owned objects began to be transferred to concessions.

The objects of the concession agreement are primarily socially significant objects that cannot be privatized, such as airfields, railways, housing and communal services facilities and other infrastructure facilities, as well as public transport systems, healthcare, education, culture and sports facilities.

Story

A concession can be considered as a form of public-private partnership agreement.

With this approach, it can be placed on a par with “feeding,” which was formed in the 12th century and existed until the reforms of Peter I, and “farming,” which was the transfer by the state of the right to collect taxes and other state revenues to private individuals (farmers) for a certain fee. .

Feeding

Main article: Feeding

Feeding is a type of grant from the great and appanage princes to their officials, according to which the princely administration was supported at the expense of the local population during the period of service.

Initially, feeding was sporadic.

In accordance with the norms of Russian Pravda, fine collectors (virs), city builders and some other categories received a certain allowance in kind from the population. In the XII-XIV centuries, feeding played a significant role in the formation of the local government system.

The princes sent boyars to cities and volosts as governors and volostels, and other service people as tiuns. The population was obliged to support them (“feed”) during the entire period of service. The feeding system reached its greatest development in the XIV-XV centuries.

Farming

Main article: Farming

Farming- transfer by the state for a certain fee under certain conditions of the right to collect taxes and other state revenues.

The tax farming system is essentially a prototype of concessions, a form of agreement between the state and entrepreneurs.

Initially, farming was used in conditions subsistence farming, underdevelopment of credit, financial difficulties of the state, weak communications.

Farming first became widespread in Ancient Iran (VI century BC), in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome(IV century BC).

In the Middle Ages, tax farming became one of the important sources of initial capital accumulation.

Types of concession agreements

In international practice, the following types of concession agreements are distinguished:

BOT (Build - Operate - Transfer) - “Construction - management - transfer”.
The concessionaire carries out construction and operation (mainly on the right of ownership) for a specified period, after which the facility is transferred to the state;
BTO (Build - Transfer - Operate) - “Construction - Transfer - Management”. The concessionaire builds an object, which is transferred to the state (concessor) in ownership immediately after completion of construction, after which it is transferred to the operation of the concessionaire;
SBI (Build - Own - Operate) - “Construction - Ownership - Management”.
Answers to the history test 2 options 100 questions

The concessionaire builds the facility and carries out subsequent operation, owning it on the right of ownership, the validity of which is not limited;
BOOT (Build - Own - Operate - Transfer) - “Construction - ownership - management - transfer” - ownership and use of a constructed object on the right of private ownership is carried out for a certain period, after which the object becomes the property of the state;
BBO (Buy - Build - Operate) - “Purchase - Build - Operate” is a form of sale that involves the restoration or expansion of an existing facility.
The state sells the property to the private sector, which makes the necessary improvements for effective management.

Concession agreements in Russia

Story

New Economic Policy (1920s)

Main article: Foreign concessions in the USSR

During the NEP era, concessions became widespread in the RSFSR. In April 1921, in a speech “On concessions and the development of capitalism,” V. I. Lenin stated:

Isn’t it dangerous to invite capitalists? Doesn’t this mean developing capitalism?

Yes, this means developing capitalism, but this is not dangerous, because power remains in the hands of workers and peasants, and the property of landowners and capitalists is not restored. A concession is a kind of lease agreement. The capitalist becomes a tenant of a part of state property, under an agreement, for a certain period, but does not become the owner. Property remains with the state.

Before the Hague Conference of 1922, L. B. Krasin proposed returning up to 90% of nationalized property to foreigners, former owners of enterprises, but only in the form of long-term concessions.

Many foreign concessionaires agreed, but the idea met with strong domestic resistance.

In 1922-1927. The country received more than 2,000 concession proposals, of which almost 10% were implemented.

Legislative regulation

In accordance with the Law “On Concession Agreements”, under a concession agreement, one party (the concessionaire) undertakes, at its own expense, to create and (or) reconstruct the real estate determined by this agreement, the ownership of which belongs or will belong to the other party (the grantor), and to implement activities using the object of the concession agreement.

In turn, the grantor undertakes to provide the concessionaire with the rights to own and use the object of the agreement for the period established by this agreement.

The grantor is the Russian Federation, or a subject of the federation, or a municipal entity. A concessionaire - an individual entrepreneur or a legal entity - by investing in a project under a concession agreement, receives the object of the agreement for management and the majority of the profit.

The state, for its part, can assume part of the costs and guarantee the safety of the invested capital.

Thus, of the listed types of concession agreements, the law “On Concession Agreements” provides only for the first type - BOT (“Construction - Management - Transfer”). In fact, the second type is used - BTO (Build-Transfer-Operate).

However, not all agreements between the state and business, which are actually concession agreements, are regulated by this law. For example, a special case of a concession agreement is the Life Cycle Contract.

From January 1, 2014, information on open tenders for the right to conclude concession agreements must be posted on the official website Russian Federation to post information about bidding - www.torgi.gov.ru.

Ilf and Petrov, authors of the novel “The Twelve Chairs” (1928), often call its main characters “concessionaires.”
Before marrying Gritsatsueva, Ostap Bender says: “What can’t you do for the benefit of the concession!” The corresponding terminology was very widespread at that time.
Having received a long-term concession to manage the South Container Terminal in the port of Constanta (Romania), the Jebel Ali Directorate from the UAE was able to achieve an increase in cargo turnover by more than 400% and reach 500,000 TEU on November 23, 2005, while in 2004 this figure was 100,000 TEU.

Notes

Concession // Economic Dictionary.
State and market: concessions as a form of interaction
Research project “Risks of participants in public-private partnerships” (inaccessible link - history) (2006).
Lenin V.I.
About concessions and the development of capitalism. Retrieved August 7, 2008. Archived from the original on February 8, 2012.
Mechanic Alexander New forms of good neighborliness // Expert. - 2004. - No. 39 (439).
Samarina Natalya, Karpov Sergey Market technologies: Concessions in process // Vedomosti. - 2006. - No. 47 (1574).
Federal Law of the Russian Federation of July 21, 2005
N 115-FZ “On concession agreements”

Literature

Mikhail Subbotin Return of the concession // Russian Business Newspaper. - 2004. - No. 452.
Kashin Sergey Not into friendship, but into the civil service // The secret of the company. - 2005. - No. 30(117).
Popov Alexander Unnecessary concessions // Finance. - 2006. - No. 21.

Concession Information about

Concession
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Concession what, Concession who, Concession explanation

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In the autumn of 1920, the social and economic crisis intensified in the country. Peasant farms, devastated by war and crop failure, were in a difficult situation. Hunger began. Workers, dissatisfied with food shortages, unemployment, and equal pay, began strikes. A wave of peasant uprisings swept across the country, covering Ukraine, the Don, Kuban, Siberia, and the Volga region. The largest peasant uprising, which lasted from the summer of 1920 to the summer of 1921, took place in the Tambov province under the leadership of the Socialist Revolutionary A.S. Antonov. The unrest of workers and peasants was supported by the military. On February 28, 1921, the sailors of Kronstadt rebelled. The rebel sailors demanded respect for the rights and freedoms proclaimed in October 1917. Neither the peasants, nor the workers, nor the sailors made a call for the overthrow of the Soviet power. There was dissatisfaction only with the omnipotence of one party - the Bolshevik party.

A split was brewing in the party itself. The issue of democratization, the development of collegiality in management and the weakening of the dictates of the center became more and more pressing on the agenda. Urgent measures were needed to get the country out of the crisis and restore the destroyed economy.

13.1. New Economic Policy

In March 1921, a decision was made to transition to the New Economic Policy (NEP). The essence of the new economic policy was to build socialism using various forms of ownership, to create a multi-structured economy while maintaining the regulatory role of the state.

The goals of the NEP were the following: to relieve social tension, strengthen the social base of Soviet power, provide favorable conditions for building a socialist society, overcome international isolation and restore political and economic relations with other states.

The transition to the NEP was legislatively formalized by the decrees of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Council of People's Commissars and the decisions of the VIII All-Russian Congress of Soviets. During the implementation of the NEP program, surplus appropriation was replaced by a food tax, which was established before the start of spring sowing and could not be changed during the year. In addition, the tax in kind was half the size of the surplus appropriation system. Poor and collective farms were exempt from the tax in kind and received certain benefits. Private trade, the use of hired labor, and leasing of land were allowed. The private sector has strengthened. State-owned enterprises were transferred to self-financing, workers received the right to move from one enterprise to another, private enterprises were allowed to be created, enterprises with up to 21 employees were denationalized, universal labor conscription was abolished, and labor exchanges were introduced. In December 1921, the state began returning enterprises with no more than 10 workers to private owners.

The implementation of the NEP led to an improvement in the situation in the national economy. By 1925, the cultivated area and gross output of large-scale industry had almost reached pre-war levels. Electricity production exceeded the pre-war level by 1.5 times. A planned principle was introduced in the economy.

In 1920, the State Electrification Plan of Russia (GOELRO) was adopted. This was the first long-term plan development of the national economy. Subsequently, planned economy became characteristic feature state management of the economy.

Market principles operated in the economy during the NEP period. Commodity-money relations have become the main link between in separate parts economic mechanism. In 1922, the production of a new monetary unit, the chervonets, began. On the foreign exchange market, both domestically and abroad, chervonets were freely exchanged for gold and major foreign currencies at the pre-war exchange rate of the Tsar's ruble (1 American dollar was equal to 1.94 rubles).

In 1921, the State Bank was recreated, lending to industry and trade on a commercial basis. In addition, it was created a whole series specialized banks. On October 1, 1923, there were 17 independent banks operating in the country, and by October 1926 their number increased to 61.

The most important result of the NEP was that impressive economic successes were achieved on the basis of fundamentally new, unknown to the history of social relations. In industry key positions occupied by state trusts, in the credit and financial sphere - by state and cooperative banks, in agriculture - by small peasant farms covered by the simplest types of cooperation.

Under the conditions of the NEP, the economic functions state: if earlier, under the conditions of “war communism,” the center directly established natural, technological proportions of reproduction by order, now it has moved on to regulating prices, trying to ensure balanced growth using economic methods.

13.2. Changes in the state apparatus under the NEP

There have been changes in the state apparatus. The Council of Workers' and Peasants' Defense was reorganized into the Council of Labor and Defense. The chapters were abolished, and in their place trusts were created - associations of homogeneous or interconnected enterprises that received complete economic and financial independence, up to the right to issue long-term bond issues. By the end of 1922, about 90% of industrial enterprises were united into 421 trusts. The enterprises that were part of the trust were withdrawn from state supplies. The state treasury was not responsible for the debts of the trusts. Trusts began to unite into syndicates on the basis of cooperation. The board of syndicates was elected at a meeting of representatives of the trusts. The sale of finished products, the purchase of raw materials, materials and equipment were carried out on the wholesale market, and therefore a wide network arose trading enterprises, fairs, commodity exchanges. The functions of domestic trade were transferred to the People's Commissariat of Domestic Trade with broad rights in the field of price regulation.

VSNKh, having lost the right to intervene in the current activities of enterprises, turned into a coordination center.

In December 1921, the Cheka was reorganized. Instead, the State Political Directorate (GPU) was created under the NKVD. With the formation of the USSR, the GPU was reorganized into the United State Political Administration (OGPU) under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. Political departments were created locally. Within the GPU and political departments, special departments were created that fought crimes in the army and navy, and transport departments that fought counter-revolution in transport. The activities of the OGPU focused on solving political and state crimes.

A new principle of organization was introduced in the army. Its number was reduced to 600 thousand people. Along with personnel units, territorial ones began to be created. The armed forces began to be divided into land, sea, air and special forces, the OGPU and convoy guards. Compulsory military service was introduced for men aged 19 to 40 years. In 1924, the period of service in the army was established as two years, in the navy as four.

13.3. Education USSR

The Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918 enshrined the principle of national-territorial federation as a form of government. From 1918 to 1920, more than 20 national autonomous entities (republics and regions) arose on the territory of the RSFSR. The resulting Soviet national republics - Ukrainian, Belarusian and others were grouped around the RSFSR due to economic, military and other necessity.

The form of unification that emerged between the republics was called a contractual federation. The republics entered into financial agreements among themselves, formed common production plans, and pooled raw materials and commodity funds. The following were created: a unified command of military formations, Councils of the National Economy, Railway Transport, Finance, and Labor Commissariats. With the multi-party system that existed, the leading role was recognized and belonged to the Communist Party. The socialist idea acted as a guarantor of the unity of the new state formation.

In March 1922, the union of the republics of Transcaucasia was formed - the Transcaucasian SFSR, which united Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia. There was a need for internal and international reasons unification of independent Soviet republic states into a common state.

In August 1922, a commission was formed to develop a project for a future federal state. Were offered various options: a confederation of republics with the preservation of their own currency and army, autonomy, i.e. education Soviet republics, which are part of the RSFSR with the rights of autonomy, and a federation of equal republics. The third option was accepted. In the fall of 1922, the project was discussed at the congresses of the Soviets of Transcaucasia, Belarus, Ukraine, and on December 30, 1922 the 1st All-Union Congress The Soviets of the USSR approved the Declaration and Treaty on the Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and elected a Central Executive Committee (CEC) with four chairmen, one from each republic: M.I. Kalinin (RSFSR), G.I. Petrovsky (Ukrainian SSR), A.G. Chervyakov (BSSR), N.N. Narimanov (ZSFSR).

In 1925, the Uzbek SSR and the Turkmen SSR joined the USSR. In 1929, the Tajik ASSR as part of the Uzbek SSR was transformed into a Union Republic and accepted into the USSR. In 1936, the USSR already consisted of 11 subjects. It included the Kazakh and Kyrgyz union republics. The formation of the USSR contributed to the strengthening of the country's military and economic power. The Russian Empire, which collapsed as a result of the revolution, was revived again, on the basis of voluntary unification. The unification of the republics ensured their independence and made it possible to more successfully solve foreign policy problems, both defense and diplomatic.

The All-Union Congress of Soviets became the highest legislative body of the new state. Congresses were to meet annually, and extraordinary congresses were allowed. In the period between the Congresses of the Soviets, the supreme authority was the Central Executive Committee of the Union, which consisted of two chambers - the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities. The Central Executive Committee of the USSR formed the first union government - the Council of People's Commissars, headed by V.I. Lenin. After his death, A.I. became the chairman of the Council of People's Commissars. Rykov (until 1930).

The Council of People's Commissars of the USSR supervised the activities of the all-Union People's Commissariats: foreign, military and maritime affairs, foreign trade, communications, posts and telegraphs, the State Bank and the State Planning Committee.

The Central Executive Committee of the USSR was given the right to issue decrees and resolutions binding on all union republics. Between sessions of the Central Election Commission, all legislative and executive powers were transferred to its presidium.

The territorial and administrative division of the country changed: provinces, districts, and volosts were transformed into regions, territories, and districts. National districts and districts were created.

13.4. Codification of Soviet law

During the period under review, the codification of Soviet law was carried out. The RSFSR adopted: Criminal, Civil, Criminal Procedure Codes, Code of Labor Laws and Code of Laws on Marriage, Family and Guardianship. In 1922, judicial reform was carried out and the prosecutor's office of the RSFSR was created.

Constitutional law. The Constitution of 1918 was in force in the RSFSR, and with the adoption by the Second Congress of Soviets of the USSR on January 31, 1924 of the Basic Law of the USSR - the Constitution of the USSR, which consisted of two sections - the Declaration on the Formation of the USSR and the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR - the need arose to adopt a new Constitution, which and was done in 1925. Moscow became the capital of the USSR and the RSFSR.

The Constitution of the USSR established a new state association of republics - the federation and established a system higher authorities authorities of the USSR and union republics: Congress of Soviets, Central Executive Committee, Presidium of the Central Executive Committee, Council of People's Commissars of the USSR.

The Union's jurisdiction included foreign relations and foreign trade, resolving issues of war and peace, organizing and directing the armed forces, general management and planning of the economy and budget, and developing the foundations of legislation. The Constitution provided for the creation of the Supreme Court under the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the USSR.

On May 11, 1925, a new Constitution of the RSFSR was adopted, which established the RSFSR as a federal state with autonomous entities. The Constitution states: “The RSFSR is a socialist state of workers and peasants, built on the basis of a federation of national Soviet republics,” in which all power belongs to the Soviets of workers, peasants, Cossacks and Red Army deputies. The Constitution of the RSFSR defined the powers of the state authorities of the republic, the structure of which corresponded to the structure of similar bodies of the USSR. In terms of content, the Constitution of the USSR of 1924 and the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1925 complemented each other. Part of the powers of the RSFSR was transferred to the jurisdiction of the allied authorities and administration. The Constitution of the RSFSR also introduced new authorities - the presidiums of the executive committees of local Soviets. The presidiums were elected by the executive committees. The powers of Councils at all levels and the procedure for their elections were discussed in some detail. The previous norms of representation, establishing the advantages of workers over peasants, were preserved. The Constitution of the RSFSR enshrined the provision that land, factories, factories, water and air transport were the property of the state. The Constitution of the RSFSR consisted of 6 sections, 8 chapters and 89 articles.

Civil law. Each union republic had its own civil code. The Civil Code of the RSFSR of 1922, in force until 1964, consisted of the General Part, property law, obligations and inheritance law.

The General Part, which consisted of several articles, characterized the operation of the Civil Code throughout the territory of the RSFSR, noting that civil rights are protected by law, except in cases where they conflict with the social and economic purpose. All citizens of the RSFSR were recognized as subjects of law. Gender, race, nationality, religion, origin had no influence on civil legal capacity, which began at the age of 18.

Legal entities were recognized as associations of persons, institutions or organizations that could acquire rights to property, enter into obligations, seek and answer in court.

Transactions, i.e. actions aimed at establishing, changing or terminating civil legal relations could be unilateral and mutual. They could be done orally or in writing. Written documents were divided into simple and notarized. Transactions made in violation of the law were considered invalid. The limitation period was set at three years.

The Civil Code distinguished between state, cooperative and private property. Land, mineral resources, forests, waters, railways and their rolling stock were declared the exclusive property of the state. The subject of private property could be non-municipalized buildings, industrial enterprises that had hired workers in the number provided by law (up to 20 people), tools and means of production, money, securities and any property that was not withdrawn from circulation. Cooperative organizations could own all kinds of property on an equal basis with private individuals. Cooperative industrial enterprises were not limited in the number of workers they hired. The disposal of state property was carried out by state bodies. State property was not subject to alienation into the ownership of private individuals and legal entities. It could not be the subject of a pledge.

Agreements for the provision of city plots for development were concluded by municipal departments with individuals and legal entities for the following terms: for stone and reinforced concrete buildings - up to 65 years, for mixed buildings - up to 60 years, for wooden buildings - up to 50 years.

Property that was not withdrawn from circulation could be the subject of a pledge. The mortgagor must be the owner of the property. The pledge agreement for the building and the right of development was certified by a notary. The mortgaged property, except for the building and the right of development, was transferred to the mortgagee.

Law of obligations. The Civil Code provides for the grounds for the emergence and termination of agreements on obligations. The agreement was considered concluded when the parties agreed with each other on all its points. An agreement for an amount over 500 rubles must be made in writing. A gift agreement for an amount over 1000 rubles was certified by a notary. Interest under the loan agreement was determined at 6% per annum of the debt amount. If the contract was declared invalid due to a violation of the law, then the parties were obliged to return to each other everything received under the contract.

Property lease agreements are common. The term of employment must not exceed 12 years. The period of employment by state and cooperative organizations of state-owned enterprises should not exceed 24 years.

Living space in houses owned by state enterprises was rented out under contracts for a certain period.

The subject of purchase and sale could only be non-municipalized and demunicipalized residential buildings, subject to the purchase of only one building per family. One property could be sold within three years. The purchase and sale agreement for a building must be certified by a notary.

Agreements of barter, loan, contract, guarantee, commission, partnership, and insurance were practiced.

A loan agreement for an amount over 50 rubles must be concluded in writing. The lender could demand interest only if it was provided for in the contract. Interest was accrued only on the principal amount of the debt.

Under a work contract, one party (contractor) was obliged to perform certain work, and the other party (customer) was obliged to pay the agreed remuneration for all the work or in parts.

According to the partnership agreement, there was an obligation to combine contributions to achieve economic purpose. A partnership was recognized as full when the participants were responsible for the obligations of the partnership with all their property as joint and several debtors. A limited partnership consisted of unlimitedly responsible partners and investors. In an LLP, all participants were equally liable for the obligations of the partnership, not only with the contributions made, but also with personal property.

Inheritance law. The Civil Code allowed inheritance by law and will. According to the law, children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren, the surviving spouse and persons who were dependent on the deceased for at least one year before his death were recognized as heirs. Children born after the death of the testator could also be heirs. The testator had the right to bequeath property to the state or its individual institutions and enterprises, party, trade union and other public organizations. It was impossible to deprive minor children of inheritance rights.

When inheriting by law, all property was divided into equal parts among all heirs. The inheritance was considered escheated if the heirs did not register the right to inheritance with a notary within six months after the death of the testator.

Civil procedural law. In July 1923, at the 2nd session of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Civil Procedure Code of the RSFSR was adopted (valid until 1964), which set out the rules for conducting legal proceedings in civil cases. The basis for starting the process was a statement from the interested party. The participation of a prosecutor was provided for, who, by court decision, could intervene in the case at any stage of the process. Legal proceedings were conducted in the language of the majority of the population of the area. If the parties or witnesses did not speak the language in which the proceedings were conducted, the court was obliged to invite translators. The parties could conduct the case in court in person or through their representatives. The process was based on the principles of transparency and publicity. All cases arising from civil relations, both between private individuals and between state, cooperative and other public organizations, as well as disputes between collective farms, were subject to the jurisdiction of the people's court. All civil cases were considered by a court composed of a presiding judge and two lay judges. A fee was collected from each statement of claim. Procedural deadlines have been determined: cases on labor disputes were considered within 5 days, alimony cases - from 10 to 20 days. In cases of alimony collection, measures were taken to secure the claim in the form of seizure of a share of earnings and an inventory of property. Cases were heard publicly and orally. Minutes were kept at each court hearing.

The main types of evidence were witness testimony, written evidence, and examination. The decision was made by a majority vote; the judge could add his own dissenting opinion to the case. The decision of the people's court could be appealed to the regional or Supreme Court within 10 days.

Family law. In 1926, the second Code of Laws on Marriage, Family and Guardianship of the RSFSR was adopted. A uniform minimum age for marriage was established - 18 years. Those getting married could leave their premarital surnames. In exceptional cases, local executive committees of the Soviets were given the right to lower the marriageable age for women, but not by more than one year. The actual marriage was legalized. The conditions for recognition of a de facto marriage were living together, maintaining a common household and raising children. The Code gave the court the right to deprive parents of parental rights and transfer children to guardianship authorities. Guardianship was established over children under the age of 14, over the mentally ill and the mentally ill. The possibility of adoption of minor children was established. Adoptive parents, at their request, could be recorded in the birth register as parents, with the adopted child assigned the adoptive parent's surname and patronymic.

Marriages between persons, one of whom was in another marriage, were not subject to registration; between the mentally ill and the mentally ill; between close relatives.

The couple enjoyed complete freedom to choose their occupations and professions. The procedure for running a common household was established by mutual agreement. Property owned by spouses before marriage remained separate. Property acquired during the marriage was considered common. A change of residence by one spouse did not oblige the other to follow him. Spouses could enter into all property and contractual relations permitted by law. The disabled spouse had the right to receive maintenance from the other spouse.

The marriage ended with the death of one of the spouses. During the life of the spouses, the marriage could be terminated by divorce through the courts. The People's Court was obliged to establish the reasons for the divorce and take measures to reconcile the spouses. The decision on divorce was made by the regional, regional, district, city or Supreme Court.

The father and mother of the child were recorded in the birth register. When a child was born to an unmarried mother, the child was registered using the mother's surname with a patronymic assigned at her direction. Illegitimate children were given equal rights to those born during marriage. Alimony was set at judicial procedure. For the maintenance of one child, one quarter of the salary received was recovered, for the maintenance of two children - one third, and for the maintenance of three or more children - half of the defendant's salary.

The children's surname and citizenship were determined by agreement between the parents. Parents were obliged to take care of minor children, they were given the right to send their children for upbringing and education. Children are obliged to support their needy and disabled parents.

Labor law. In November 1922, the second Labor Code of the RSFSR was adopted. The Labor Code applied to all persons who worked for hire, to all organizations and individuals who used hired labor. Particular attention was paid to the regulation of labor relations in the private sector. Sanctions were provided for violators of labor discipline. A number of articles protected the interests of workers from the arbitrariness of private entrepreneurs. Social insurance was introduced, which covered all types of payments: illness, pregnancy, disability, survivor's pension. All payments were made from the funds of the enterprise or the employer. Labor disputes were considered in labor sessions of the courts.

Universal labor conscription was abolished. The principle of free hiring of labor was established. Employment contracts were concluded on the principle of voluntariness for a definite (no more than one year) and for an indefinite period. The employment contract could be terminated by agreement of the parties, at the request of the employer and at the request of the employee, who must notify the employer 7 days in advance (in case of a contract for an indefinite period). Terms employment contract determined by agreement of the parties. In exceptional cases, the Code also allowed for universal labor conscription. The Code introduced the institution of collective agreements concluded by trade unions with the enterprise. Instead of social security, social insurance was introduced, which extended to employees. Insurance premiums were contributed by enterprises and all users of hired labor, without the right of deduction from the insured’s salary. Social insurance provided not only for the provision of temporary disability benefits, but also for the provision of medical care, as well as the issuance of additional benefits, unemployment benefits, disability benefits, and in the event of the death of the breadwinner. The transition from an 8-hour working day to a 7-hour day began. This transition was carried out in 1928 - 1932. without salary reduction.

Mandatory intermediation of stock exchanges in the hiring of workers and employees has been abolished.

Financial law. The tax system has been streamlined. The natural tax was replaced by a monetary one. In addition to direct taxes, indirect taxes were introduced. A number of decisions were made on the transfer of part of the agricultural tax to the volost budget, on the transfer of enterprises and property (mills and forges) to the volosts. The idea of transforming the volost “into a financial and economic unit” was implemented. In 1921 - 1923, banknotes were exchanged: first, 1 ruble was exchanged for 10,000 rubles, and then again for 100 rubles. Savings banks were created. Along with state banks, commercial, cooperative, communal banks, agricultural credit institutions, and agricultural credit partnerships were created. The credit system was restored and internal government loans were introduced. A unified monetary and credit system was established for all union republics. A unified budget of the USSR was established. All union republics, except the RSFSR, received subsidies from the all-Union budget. The Union republics, with the permission of the Union, could introduce additional taxes and fees that went to their budgets.

Land law. In May 1922, the Law on Labor Land Use was adopted, and in December - the Land Code of the RSFSR. The Code consolidated the abolition of private ownership of land, mineral resources, water and forests. Particular attention was paid to agricultural lands. The Land Code consisted of the Basic Provisions and three parts: on labor land use, on urban lands and state land properties, on land management and resettlement. All citizens of the RSFSR who wished to cultivate it with their own labor had the right to use land for farming. This right was unlimited. The purchase and sale, will, donation and pledge of land were prohibited. Labor leases and the use of hired labor were allowed in compliance with all labor law standards. Peasants were given freedom to choose forms of land use: artels, communes, TOZs, district (cut, farm), communal with equalized redistributions. Preference was given to collective forms of labor.

On December 15, 1928, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the USSR adopted General beginnings land use and land management of the USSR and union republics, which regulated relations related to land use and land management.

Criminal law. The Criminal Code of the RSFSR was adopted on May 26, 1922 and was in force until 1961. The Criminal Code set the task of strengthening the legal protection of the state for workers from crimes and from socially dangerous elements. Protection was carried out by applying penalties or other measures to violators of the revolutionary legal order social protection.

The Criminal Code consisted of two parts: General and Special. The Code applied to all crimes committed within the RSFSR by both its citizens and foreigners. Any action or inaction directed against the Soviet system or violating the rule of law established by the workers' and peasants' government "for the period of time transitional to the communist system" was considered a crime. Criminal liability began at the age of 14. Medical and pedagogical measures were applied to adolescents from 14 to 16 years of age. Article 20 of the Criminal Code provided for exemption from liability in the event of harm caused in the conditions of necessary defense.

Crime system. In the first place were state crimes: counter-revolutionary, aimed at overthrowing Soviet power; armed uprisings to seize territory; espionage; propaganda and agitation, expressed in a call for the overthrow of Soviet power; production and storage of literature of a counter-revolutionary nature; inventing and spreading false rumors for counter-revolutionary purposes.

Crimes against the order of government included: participation in mass riots, organization and participation in gangs (armed gangs), aiding and concealing gangs, tax evasion, evasion of military service, forgery of documents, resistance to authority, forgery of banknotes and documents, concealment collections and ancient monuments.

Official crimes were recognized as abuse of power, inaction of power, negligent attitude towards service, official forgery, taking a bribe, and disclosing secret information.

The Criminal Code included crimes that violated the rules on the separation of church and state: using the religious prejudices of the masses to overthrow the government; committing deceptive acts with the aim of inciting superstition among the masses; teaching religious doctrines to children and minors; collection of fees in favor of church and religious organizations; assignment of administrative or judicial functions by religious or church organizations.

Economic crimes included labor desertion, production of substandard products, failure to fulfill contractual obligations, violation of the Labor Code by the employer, obstruction of the legitimate activities of trade unions, eviction of workers and government employees from apartments and charging rents above those established by the Council of People's Commissars, and others.

A large group consisted of crimes against life, health, freedom and dignity of the individual: intentional murder, negligent homicide, assisting or inciting the suicide of a minor, artificial termination of pregnancy not in medical institutions, intentional bodily harm resulting in a danger to life and health, exceeding the limits necessary defense, unlawful deprivation of liberty and others.

An important place in the Criminal Code was occupied by property crimes: theft of other people's property, purchase of stolen goods, theft of livestock, damage and destruction of property belonging to private individuals, misappropriation or waste of property by an official, fraud, forgery of official papers and receipts, sale of unusable seed material, deliberate destruction of property by arson or drowning.

Military crimes included insult by subordinate military personnel of their superior, unauthorized leaving of service, failure to appear on time without good reason to the place of duty from a business trip, failure to comply with military regulations, evasion of military service, abuse of power, looting.

The Criminal Code included crimes that constituted violations of rules protecting public health, public safety and public order, as well as crimes that constituted remnants of tribal life.

As measures of social protection of a judicial-correctional nature, the following were used: declaration of an enemy of the people with deprivation of citizenship of the union republic and mandatory expulsion from the republic, imprisonment in forced labor camps, imprisonment in places of detention, forced labor without imprisonment, defeat in political rights, dismissal from office, public censure, confiscation of property, fine, imposition of obligations to make amends for the harm caused, warning.

Imprisonment in cases of espionage, sabotage, sabotage is set for up to 10 years. Imprisonment for a term of up to three years was served in places of detention, over three years - in forced labor camps.

Medical and pedagogical measures were applied to minors and the mentally ill.

In cases pending before revolutionary tribunals, execution was used.

Criminal trial. In May 1922, the first Criminal Procedure Code of the RSFSR was adopted, which was in force until 1960. The Code defines the principles of criminal proceedings: transparency, publicity of meetings, conducting the process in the language of the majority of the population of the area. The court was not limited by any formal obligations; the process completely depended on it. An oath was not allowed as evidence. The procedure for inquiry and investigation was regulated in detail. When passing a verdict, all issues were decided by a majority vote. The judge, who remained in the minority, had the right to express his dissenting opinion in writing, which was attached to the verdict, but was not subject to publication. The appeal was cancelled. A cassation procedure for appealing verdicts was established. The Code also contained standards for the execution of sentences.

To regulate relations in connection with the execution of sentences, the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars "On the use of labor of prisoners in places of deprivation of liberty and those serving forced labor without imprisonment" was adopted in 1921. Labor was put in first place in the re-education of convicts.

In 1924, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee approved the Correctional Labor Code of the RSFSR (ITC). The Code set the goals of punishing and re-educating criminals and isolating them from society. The Code stated that detention in correctional institutions should be expedient and should not be intended to cause physical suffering or humiliation of human dignity. Instead of prisons there should be labor colonies. The regime of detention of prisoners varied depending on class affiliation. Control over places of detention was carried out through public commissions, and oversight of legality was carried out by prosecutors.

At the XV Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in 1927, the work of the justice authorities was seriously criticized. The congress pointed out the need to improve the activities of the judiciary in the fight against bureaucracy, and to bring to justice administrative and business workers guilty of criminal mismanagement. There was a need for better leadership of the judiciary by higher courts. In 1929, a provision was adopted on the Supreme Court of the USSR, which was given the right to give directives to the Supreme Courts of the Union republics and check the quality of their work. The supervisory functions of the Supreme Court of the USSR have expanded significantly.

New Economic Policy (NEP). Formation of the USSR and the NEP period (1921–1929)

USSR during the NEP period (1921-1929)

Prerequisites for the transition to NEP

The essence of the NEP

NEP in agriculture

NEP in industry

Financial reform of the NEP

The role of the private sector during the NEP

Consequences of the NEP

14 Question. Transition to NEP. Legal basis of NEP. The most important economic reforms.

The main changes in the agricultural policy of the Soviet government that occurred after the transition to the NEP

Question 63. New Economic Policy (NEP) 1921 - 1929

Control and evaluation tools for History

USSR during the NEP period (1921-1929)

New Economic Policy

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