Reasons for perestroika

The command economy was unable to further modernize, i.e. deep transformations covering all aspects of social life, it turned out to be unable, in radically changed conditions, to ensure the proper development of the productive forces, protect human rights, and maintain the international authority of the country. The USSR, with its gigantic reserves of raw materials, hardworking and selfless population, was increasingly lagging behind the West. The Soviet economy was unable to cope with the increasing demands for variety and quality of consumer goods.

Industrial enterprises not interested in scientific and technological progress rejected up to 80% of new technical solutions and inventions. The growing inefficiency of the economy had a negative impact on the country's defense capability. In the early 1980s, the USSR began to lose competitiveness in the only industry in which it successfully competed with the West, military technology.

The country's economic base no longer corresponded to its position as a great world power and was in urgent need of renewal. At the same time, the enormous growth in education and awareness of the population during the post-war period, the emergence of a generation that did not know hunger and repression, formed a higher level of material and spiritual needs of people, called into question the very principles underlying the Soviet totalitarian system. The very idea of ​​a planned economy collapsed. Increasingly, state plans were not implemented and were constantly being redrawn, and the proportions in the sectors of the national economy were violated. Achievements in the field of health, education, and culture were lost.

The spontaneous degeneration of the system changed the entire way of life of Soviet society: the rights of managers and enterprises were redistributed, departmentalism and social inequality increased.

The nature of production relations within enterprises changed, labor discipline began to decline, apathy and indifference, theft, disrespect for honest work, and envy of those who earn more became widespread. At the same time, non-economic coercion to work remained in the country. Soviet man, alienated from the distribution of the produced product, turned into a performer working not out of conscience, but out of compulsion. The ideological motivation for work developed in the post-revolutionary years weakened along with the belief in the imminent triumph of communist ideals.

In the early 80s all layers of Soviet society, without exception, experienced psychological discomfort. An understanding of the need for profound changes was maturing in the public consciousness, but interest in them varied. As the Soviet intelligentsia grew in numbers and became more informed, it became increasingly difficult to accept the suppression of the free development of culture and the isolation of the country from the outside civilized world. She acutely felt the harmfulness of nuclear confrontation with the West and the consequences of the Afghan war. The intelligentsia wanted true democracy and individual freedom.

The nature of the reform of the Soviet system was determined by the economic interests of the nomenklatura - the Soviet ruling class. The nomenklatura is burdened by communist conventions, the dependence of personal well-being on official position. In order to protect herself and legitimize her dominance, she seeks to change the social system in her own interests. This step split the unified ruling class. On one side of the “barricades” were the so-called “partocrats”, accustomed to viewing government positions as just a feeding trough and not being responsible for anything. The other, large part of the ruling class, objectively acting in the interests of the whole society, unconsciously supported the radical opposition forces that demanded renewal and reform. Thus, by the beginning of the 80s, the Soviet totalitarian system actually lost the support of a significant part of society.

The country's top leaders were clearly aware that the economy needed reform, but none of the conservative majority of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee wanted to take responsibility for implementing these changes. Even the most urgent problems were not resolved in a timely manner. Every day it became obvious: for change it is necessary to update the country's leadership.

In March 1985 after the death of K.U. Chernenko, at the extraordinary Plenum of the Central Committee Secretary General The CPSU elected the youngest member of the political leadership M.S. Gorbachev. He did not seek to change the socio-political system, believing that socialism had not exhausted its possibilities. At the April plenum of 1985, Gorbachev proclaimed a course to accelerate social economic development countries.

The restructuring can be divided into three stages:

First stage(March 1985 - January 1987). This period was characterized by the recognition of some shortcomings of the existing political-economic system of the USSR and attempts to correct them by several large administrative companies - anti-alcohol campaign, “the fight against unearned income”, the introduction of state acceptance, a demonstration of the fight against corruption.

No radical steps had yet been taken during this period; outwardly, almost everything remained the same. At the same time, in 1985-86, the bulk of the old Brezhnev conscription cadres were replaced with new team managers. It was then that A. N. Yakovlev, E. K. Ligachev, N. I. Ryzhkov, B. N. Yeltsin, A. I. Lukyanov and other active participants in future events were introduced into the leadership of the country. Thus, First stage Perestroika can be regarded as a kind of “calm before the storm.”

Second phase(January 1987 - June 1989). An attempt to reform socialism in the spirit of democratic socialism. Characterized by the beginning of large-scale reforms in all spheres of life of Soviet society. In public life it is proclaimed openness policy- easing censorship in the media and lifting bans on what were previously considered taboos. In the economy, private entrepreneurship in the form of cooperatives is being legitimized, and joint ventures with foreign companies are beginning to be actively created.

In international politics, the main doctrine is “New Thinking” - a course towards abandoning the class approach in diplomacy and improving relations with the West. Part of the population is overwhelmed by euphoria from the long-awaited changes and freedom unprecedented by Soviet standards. At the same time, during this period, general instability began to gradually increase in the country: the economic situation worsened, separatist sentiments appeared on the national outskirts, and the first interethnic clashes broke out.

Third stage(June 1989 -- 1991). The final stage, during this period, there is a sharp destabilization of the political situation in the country: after the Congress, the confrontation between the communist regime and the new political forces that emerged as a result of the democratization of society begins. Difficulties in the economy are developing into a full-scale crisis. The chronic shortage of goods reaches its apogee: empty store shelves become a symbol of the turn of the 1980-1990s. Perestroika euphoria in society is replaced by disappointment, uncertainty in tomorrow and mass anti-communist sentiments.

Since 1990, the main idea is no longer “improving socialism”, but building democracy and a market economy of the capitalist type. “New thinking” in the international arena boils down to endless unilateral concessions to the West, as a result of which the USSR loses many of its positions and status as a superpower. In Russia and other republics of the Union, separatist-minded forces come to power and a “parade of sovereignties” begins. The logical result of this development of events was the liquidation of the power of the CPSU and the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Results of perestroika

The laws adopted by the union leadership expanded the rights of enterprises, allowed small private and cooperative entrepreneurship, but did not affect the fundamental foundations of the command-distribution economy. The paralysis of the central government and, as a consequence, the weakening of state control over the national economy, the progressive disintegration of production ties between enterprises of different union republics, the increased autocracy of directors, short-sighted policies - all this led to an increase during 1990-1991. economic crisis in the country. The destruction of the old economic system was not accompanied by the emergence of a new one in its place.

The country already had real freedom of speech, which grew out of the “glasnost” policy, a multi-party system was taking shape, elections were held on an alternative basis (from several candidates), and a formally independent press appeared. But the predominant position of one party remained - the CPSU, which actually merged with the state apparatus. By the end of 1991, the USSR economy found itself in a catastrophic situation. The decline in production accelerated. The increase in the money supply in the country threatened the loss of state control over financial system and hyperinflation, that is, inflation of over 50% per month, which could paralyze the entire economy.

The accelerated growth of wages and benefits, which began in 1989, increased pent-up demand; by the end of the year, most goods disappeared from state trade, but were sold at exorbitant prices in commercial stores and on the black market. During the period from 1985 to 1991, retail prices almost tripled; government price controls could not stop inflation. Unexpected interruptions in the supply of various consumer goods to the population caused “crises” (tobacco, sugar, vodka) and huge queues. A standardized distribution of many products (based on coupons) was introduced. People were afraid of possible famine.

Serious doubts arose among Western creditors about the solvency of the USSR. The total external debt of the Soviet Union by the end of 1991 was more than $100 billion. Until 1989, 25-30% of the amount of Soviet exports in convertible currency was spent on servicing external debt (repaying interest, etc.), but then, due to a sharp drop in oil exports, the Soviet Union had to sell gold reserves to purchase the missing currency. By the end of 1991, the USSR could no longer fulfill its international obligations to service its external debt.

• Subject and method of history of the Russian state and law
  • Subject of the history of the Russian state and law
  • Method of history of the domestic state and law
  • Periodization of the history of the Russian state and law
• Old Russian state and law (IX - beginning of XII V.)
  • Formation of the Old Russian State
    • Historical factors in the formation of the Old Russian state
  • Social order Old Russian state
    • Feudal-dependent population: sources of education and classification
  • Political system of the Old Russian state
  • System of law in the Old Russian state
    • Property rights in the Old Russian state
    • Law of obligations in the Old Russian state
    • Marriage, family and inheritance law in the Old Russian state
    • Criminal law and judicial process in the Old Russian state
• State and law of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation (beginning of the XII-XIV centuries)
  • Feudal fragmentation in Rus'
  • Features of the socio-political system of the Galicia-Volyn principality
  • Socio-political system of the Vladimir-Suzdal land
  • Socio-political system and law of Novgorod and Pskov
  • State and law of the Golden Horde
• Formation of the Russian centralized state
  • Prerequisites for the formation of the Russian centralized state
  • Social system in the Russian centralized state
  • Political system in the Russian centralized state
  • Development of law in the Russian centralized state
• Estate-representative monarchy in Russia (mid-16th - mid-17th centuries)
  • Social system during the period of the estate-representative monarchy
  • The political system during the period of the estate-representative monarchy
    • Police and prisons in mid. XVI - mid. XVII century
  • Development of law during the period of estate-representative monarchy
    • Civil law in mid. XVI - mid. XVII century
    • Criminal law in the Code of 1649
    • Legal proceedings in the Code of 1649
• Education and development absolute monarchy in Russia (second half of the 17th-18th centuries)
  • Historical background for the emergence of absolute monarchy in Russia
  • Social system of the period of absolute monarchy in Russia
  • The political system of the period of absolute monarchy in Russia
    • Police in absolutist Russia
    • Prisons, exile and hard labor in the 17th-18th centuries.
    • Reforms of the era of palace coups
    • Reforms during the reign of Catherine II
  • Development of law under Peter I
    • Criminal law under Peter I
    • Civil law under Peter I
    • Family and inheritance law in the XVII-XVIII centuries.
    • The emergence of environmental legislation
• State and law of Russia during the period of decomposition serfdom and the growth of capitalist relations (first half of the 19th century)
  • Social system during the period of decomposition of the serfdom system
  • The political system of Russia in the nineteenth century
    • State reform of authorities
    • His Imperial Majesty's Own Office
    • The police system in the first half of the 19th century.
    • The Russian prison system in the nineteenth century
  • Development of a form of state unity
    • Status of Finland within the Russian Empire
    • Incorporation of Poland into the Russian Empire
  • Systematization of the legislation of the Russian Empire
• State and law of Russia during the period of establishment of capitalism (second half of the 19th century)
  • Abolition of serfdom
  • Zemstvo and city reforms
  • Local government in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Judicial reform in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Military reform in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Reform of the police and prison system in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Financial reform in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Educational and censorship reforms
  • The Church in the system of government of Tsarist Russia
  • Counter-reforms of the 1880-1890s.
  • Development of Russian law in the second half of the 19th century.
    • Civil law of Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
    • Family and inheritance law in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
• State and law of Russia during the period of the first Russian revolution and before the outbreak of the First World War (1900-1914)
  • Prerequisites and course of the first Russian revolution
  • Changes in the social system of Russia
    • Agrarian reform P.A. Stolypin
    • Formation of political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
  • Changes in the Russian government system
    • Reform of government bodies
    • Establishment State Duma
    • Punitive measures P.A. Stolypin
    • The fight against crime at the beginning of the 20th century.
  • Changes in law in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
• State and law of Russia during the First World War
  • Changes in the government apparatus
  • Changes in law during the First World War
• State and law of Russia during the period of the February bourgeois-democratic republic (February - October 1917)
  • February Revolution of 1917
  • Dual power in Russia
    • Resolving the issue of state unity of the country
    • Reform of the prison system in February - October 1917
    • Changes in the government apparatus
  • Activities of the Soviets
  • Legal activities of the Provisional Government
• Creation of the Soviet state and law (October 1917 - 1918)
  • All-Russian Congress of Soviets and its decrees
  • Fundamental changes in the social order
  • The destruction of the bourgeois and the creation of a new Soviet state apparatus
    • Powers and activities of the Councils
    • Military revolutionary committees
    • Soviet armed forces
    • Workers' militia
    • Changes in the judicial and penitentiary systems after the October Revolution
  • Nation-state building
  • Constitution of the RSFSR 1918
  • Creation of the foundations of Soviet law
• Soviet state and law during the Civil War and intervention (1918-1920)
  • Civil war and intervention
  • Soviet state apparatus
  • Armed forces and law enforcement agencies
    • Reorganization of the police in 1918-1920.
    • Activities of the Cheka during civil war
    • Judicial system during the civil war
  • Military alliance Soviet republics
  • Development of law during the Civil War
• The Soviet state and law during the period of the New Economic Policy (1921-1929)
  • Nation-state building. Education USSR
    • Declaration and Treaty on the Formation of the USSR
  • Development of the state apparatus of the RSFSR
    • Restoration of the national economy after the civil war
    • Judicial bodies during the NEP period
    • Creation of the Soviet prosecutor's office
    • USSR police during the NEP period
    • Correctional labor institutions of the USSR during the NEP period
    • Codification of law during the NEP period
• The Soviet state and law during the period of radical change in social relations (1930-1941)
  • State economic management
    • Collective farm construction
    • National economic planning and reorganization of government bodies
  • State management of socio-cultural processes
  • Law enforcement reforms in the 1930s.
  • Reorganization of the armed forces in the 1930s.
  • Constitution of the USSR 1936
  • Development of the USSR as a union state
  • Development of law in 1930-1941.
• The Soviet state and law during the Great Patriotic War
  • The Great Patriotic War and the restructuring of the work of the Soviet state apparatus
  • Changes in the organization of state unity
  • Development of Soviet law during the Great Patriotic War
• The Soviet state and law in the post-war years of restoration of the national economy (1945-1953)
  • The internal political situation and foreign policy of the USSR in the first post-war years
  • Development of the state apparatus in the post-war years
    • The system of correctional labor institutions in the post-war years
  • Development of Soviet law in the post-war years
• The Soviet state and law during the period of liberalization of social relations (mid-1950s - mid-1960s)
  • Development of external functions of the Soviet state
  • Development of a form of state unity in the mid-1950s.
  • Restructuring of the USSR state apparatus in the mid-1950s.
  • Development of Soviet law in the mid-1950s - mid-1960s.
• The Soviet state and law during the period of slowdown in social development (mid-1960s - mid-1980s)
  • Development of external functions of the state
  • Constitution of the USSR 1977
  • Form of state unity according to the 1977 USSR Constitution.
    • Development of the state apparatus
    • Law enforcement in the mid-1960s - mid-1980s.
    • USSR judicial authorities in the 1980s.
  • Development of law in the middle. 1960s - mid. 1900s
  • Correctional labor institutions in the middle. 1960s - mid. 1900s
• Formation of the state and law of the Russian Federation. Collapse of the USSR (mid 1980s - 1990s)
  • The policy of “perestroika” and its main content
  • Main directions of development political regime and government system
  • Collapse of the USSR
  • External consequences of the collapse of the USSR for Russia. Commonwealth of Independent States
  • Formation of the state apparatus new Russia
  • Development of the form of state unity of the Russian Federation
  • Development of law during the collapse of the USSR and the formation of the Russian Federation

The policy of “perestroika” and its main content

In March 1985, there was a change in party leadership in the USSR. New leader M.S. In his assessment of the situation in the country, Gorbachev combined optimism with elements of criticism. The latter was quite appropriate. Unfavorable trends have emerged in economic development. Over the previous ten years, the pace of economic development has decreased markedly. Growth in the national economy occurred mainly through extensive methods. The production apparatus was old and needed significant updating. The country was increasingly lagging behind Western countries technologically. The situation in the agricultural sector was not easy.

Supplying the population with food was accompanied by considerable difficulties. The needs of citizens for industrial goods were not fully satisfied. Since the early 1980s. Statistics showed stagnation of incomes of the population. Stagnation phenomena were discovered in economic and social relations. There was an expectation of change in society, although there were no signs of a revolutionary situation. Social and economic reforms are overdue. But what were they supposed to be? There was no clarity or unanimity on this issue in the country. New strategies: acceleration and restructuring. The decisive choice was made by the plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, held in April 1985. The plenum proposed a diverse and ambitious program aimed at achieving a new qualitative state of society. It included the highest world level of labor productivity, improvement of social relations, improvement of people's lives, activation of the entire system of political and social institutions, deepening of socialist democracy, and self-government of the people. However, in the report of M.S. Gorbachev at the plenum of the Central Committee, the achievement of a new qualitative state of society was not correlated with such traditional tasks as improving developed socialism or building communism.

It was clear that the announced approach of a new stage of social development would require much effort and a long time. For these reasons, the plenum of the Central Committee concentrated its attention on more immediate and specific economic problems. Of the various possible ways to resolve them, this party body chose a significant acceleration of the development of the national economy on the basis of economic intensification, scientific and technological progress, restructuring of structural and investment policies, and increased organization. At the same time, mechanical engineering was chosen as the key means of achieving the expected results, the rate of development of which was supposed to be increased by 1.5-2 times over the upcoming 12th five-year plan.

The 27th Congress of the CPSU, held in February-March 1986, confirmed the directions of transformation chosen by the April plenum of the Central Committee, while simultaneously expanding and concretizing many of its guidelines. In particular, the congress emphasized the need to open up space for the initiative and creativity of the masses, the further development of democracy, self-government of the people, strengthening the rule of law, expanding publicity, and the psychological restructuring of personnel. In principle, the planned measures fit into the usual Soviet standards for improving society and did not contain any new recipes for taking the economy to new levels.

Since June 1986, the acceleration strategy was unexpectedly reoriented towards the policy of “perestroika”. The new term reflected the need for versatile transformations that served the purpose of eliminating inhibitory factors of a subjective and objective nature on the path to accelerating socio-economic development. M.S. Gorbachev began to intensively introduce into the public consciousness the idea that perestroika is a revolution “from above”, and its vanguard is the CPSU. At the same time, criticism began of the existing social order, which was often called “barracks socialism.” The ideas of “popular socialism”, “socialism with human face", "more socialism", the use of the ideas of the NEP in modern conditions, the "mixed economy", the "Swedish" model of socialism.

The first year and a half of perestroika led to some increase in the rate of industrial production, but these were far from the expected results. Moreover, the country's financial situation has worsened. The anti-alcohol campaign and the fall in world oil prices have reduced budget revenues. The budget deficit was covered by loans and unsecured emissions. Wage growth outpaced the increase in labor productivity. Contributions to the accumulation and development fund were reduced.

An analysis of the current situation led the party leadership to the conclusion that the implementation of the tasks of perestroika was hampered by the inertia and bureaucracy of the state and party apparatus.

In January 1987, the plenum of the CPSU Central Committee adopted an important resolution, which emphasized the decisive dependence of the success of perestroika on personnel policy, on how quickly and deeply the party apparatus became aware of the need for revolutionary changes in society. Taking into account the inertia of the party and state apparatus, it was proposed to use a significant expansion of democracy, accountability of elected officials, openness, criticism (especially from below) and self-criticism, ensuring the rights of citizens, increasing the role of the court and the independence of judges, the influx of new forces into the leadership corps, and intensifying the work of the Soviets. This plenum of the CPSU Central Committee gave impetus to a decisive renewal of the average and senior management leading cadres of party and Soviet bodies. A number of prominent leaders were removed from the Politburo and the Central Committee. In 1986-1989 82% of the first secretaries of district committees and 91% of the first secretaries of regional committees were replaced.

The lack of desired economic results was the result not so much of the influence of a subjective factor (the inertia of management personnel), but of the influence of many objective circumstances. The June 1987 plenum of the Central Committee dealt with the issues of their elimination. He decided to decentralize planning, sharply expand the boundaries of enterprise independence, transfer them to full economic accounting and self-financing, achieve widespread use of collective contracting, introduce self-government of the workforce, and establish a direct dependence of the level of its income on work efficiency. These measures were designed to promote the development of enterprises in accordance with the laws of economics. In turn, planning and economic departments were obliged to manage the economy on the basis of economic methods.

In April 1989, the restructuring of economic relations and management in the agro-industrial complex began on the same principles.

Economic results in 1987 were worse than in the previous year. Inflationary processes have begun. The state budget deficit has increased. There was a hidden increase in prices under the guise of improving the quality of goods. The cost of many types of goods turned out to be higher than their value.

In 1988-1989 The financial and economic situation in the USSR continued to remain difficult. In 1989, the promised turn for the better in the national economy did not happen: 30% industrial enterprises did not fulfill the production plan. The emerging private sector of the economy exploited the socialist sector due to the difference between free and state prices. Economic processes went against “perestroika”.

In the period between these two economic reforms, the implementation of a grandiose political reform. It was approved by the XIX All-Union Conference of the CPSU in the summer of 1988. The modernization of the political structure was supposed to give a new impetus to economic development. But even on the eve of the party conference M.S. Gorbachev announced “new political thinking,” the core of which was the priority of “universal human values.”

The party conference spoke in favor of the full revival of internal party democracy, a clear delineation of the functions of state and party bodies, leaving latest decisions only the tasks of political leadership. Measures were outlined to democratize Soviet society and its political system, a radical increase in the role of the Soviets, the fight against bureaucracy, the modernization of national relations, the development of openness and legal reform. The party conference set the task of building a legal state in the USSR.

First political reform. It was implemented over a period of approximately one and a half years from the end of 1988. It expanded democracy and significantly increased the role of the Soviets in managing public affairs. Based on the elections, new representative bodies of the USSR and union republics were created, and one of them - the Supreme Council of the USSR - became a permanent state body. And although the majority of seats in it belonged to members of the ruling party, the leading role of the CPSU was greatly weakened. Within its composition, a very influential and well-organized interregional deputy group was created, which took an oppositional position in relation to the CPSU, although it also included communists. It had its own program, which included such provisions as a market economy, multi-party system, freedom to secede from the USSR, and freedom of the press.

The democratization of the regime changed the course of socio-political processes. “Perestroika” as a revolution “from above” carried out central government, ceased to be such. The development of events began to take on an increasingly spontaneous character, largely beyond the control of the authorities. Party committees after the 19th All-Union Party Conference were at a loss and practically stopped their work. The new management mechanism did not take shape, since the Soviets, especially in the union republics, behaved inertly in the political niche vacated for them. On the contrary, anti-socialist and nationalist forces sharply intensified and the initiative began to gradually shift to them. Glasnost as a means of “perestroika” turned into a tool for criticizing socialism. Since 1989, the latter has acquired a frontal and intense character and contributed to the penetration of bourgeois ideals into the public consciousness. The governing bodies of the CPSU did not wage any fight against these phenomena.

Second political reform. At the beginning of 1990, protests took place in the country demanding further democratization. The Democrats called them " February revolution» 1990 The authorities were forced to carry out a second political reform: eliminate the leadership role of the CPSU, constitutionally consolidate private property, and introduce the post of President of the USSR.

A significant success of the anti-socialist forces and an indicator of their influence was their independent demonstration on May 1, 1990 on Red Square in Moscow under anti-socialist and anti-Soviet slogans. The CPSU itself was in crisis. M.S. Gorbachev was able to convince the party to revise the fundamental provisions of the current CPSU Program, which actually meant a rejection of the previous socialist doctrine. The policy statement of the XXVIII Congress (July 1990) “Towards a humane, democratic socialism” included such guidelines as a multi-structure economy, a variety of forms of ownership, a regulated market, civil society, and separation of powers. The goals of the CPSU were stated very vaguely. It was declared a party of “socialist choice and communist perspective,” which implied a continuation of the search for this path and very wide freedom of maneuver.

The recognition of private property and the planned privatization of the people's wealth no longer left any doubt about the bourgeois orientation of Russia's social development. The unsuccessful putsch of August 19-21, 1991, carried out by a number of senior officials of the Union leadership, caused the “August Revolution” in Russia, which led to the leadership of bourgeois-oriented leaders and became the direct cause of the collapse of the USSR.

In addition to solving domestic political problems, perestroika also included international aspects. Moreover, improvement international situation The USSR was seen as a necessary condition for the implementation of the plan of perestroika. Therefore, since 1986, the foreign policy activity of the Soviet state, aimed at bringing international detente closer, has sharply increased. An understanding was reached with the United States and other leading Western countries. An agreement was signed between the USSR and the USA on the elimination of medium- and shorter-range missiles. The Paris Treaty with the participation of the USSR stopped the conventional arms race. Soviet Union stopped the incomprehensible and ruinous war in Afghanistan and withdrew his troops from there. The USSR agreed in 1990 to the liquidation of the GDR and the inclusion of its population and territory into the Federal Republic of Germany. The Cold War ended with the defeat of the USSR by the end of perestroika.

The policy of perestroika in the USSR was the impetus for carrying out similar transformations in the socialist states of Europe. The processes of social transformation went quickly and the communist regimes in this region soon collapsed. Pro-bourgeois forces came to power. The Warsaw Pact and CMEA were dissolved in the summer of 1991.

The policy of “perestroika” as a way to improve socialism ended in complete failure. Its ending led to the revival of capitalism. Such an unexpected result requires an assessment of the “perestroika” policy and an analysis of the reasons that led to this particular result.

Assessment of perestroika processes. In the political literature, the assessment of the “perestroika” policy is characterized by a wide range of opinions, including those with directly opposite views on the problem. Between these polar points of view there are many intermediate positions.

Supporters of the bourgeois path of development of Russia give “perestroika” a high rating and consider it a “great revolution.” Politicians and scientists of a socialist orientation, as well as some other authors, declare perestroika “the greatest tragedy”, “catastrophe”, “catastrophe”, “treason”. “The Architect of Perestroika” M.S. Some call Gorbachev “an outstanding world leader”, “the best German”, “man of the decade”, others see him as “Manilov”, “a would-be reformer” and even a “traitor”, “Judas”, “Herostratus”.

In order to understand this kaleidoscope of opinions, one should find out the indisputably positive and indisputably negative results of this policy, and then compare them with each other and strike a balance.

"Perestroika" caused such positive changes, such as the democratization of the political system and political regime, pluralism, openness, the elimination of the remnants of totalitarianism, the reality of most constitutional rights, and above all individual freedom, wide access of imported goods to the domestic market. It demilitarized the country, helped eliminate the threat of world war, and more fully involve Russia in the world market.

Negative points There are many more “perestroikas”, and they are most often larger-scale than many of its advantages. Perestroika caused a great crisis that had been tormenting Russia for about 15 years. The economy collapsed and social sphere countries, a repeated decline in the living standards of the population, a decrease in social security of citizens, an increase in unemployment and social tension due to the formation of antagonistic classes, increased crime and moral degradation, bloody conflicts on the territory of the USSR and its collapse. There is a decline in Russia's role in international relations and an increase in its economic dependence on developed Western countries. “Perestroika” did not bring closer the solution to the most pressing economic problems - the structural restructuring of the national economy and the modernization of the country's technology park.

As you can see, the overall result is not in favor of a positive assessment of “perestroika” 1 V.V. Putin, the President of the Russian Federation, in his message to the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation called the incident a “real drama” for Russian people(see: Rossiyskaya Gazeta. 2005. April 26)..

Now let's analyze the reasons that led perestroika to the ending that actually took place. The starting point for further considerations should be the idea that this policy was not sufficiently scientifically substantiated, although, given the enormous scale of the proposed or real changes, appropriate developments were absolutely necessary. It did not have a clear plan, was superficial and at certain moments resembled hasty improvisations. The difficulties that arose during its implementation were not always assessed correctly and the proposed means of overcoming were erroneous or controversial.

Let's start by stating the main socio-economic problems of Soviet society in the mid-1980s. There are several of them: a reduction in the growth of the gross domestic product, an economy burdened by military expenses, stagnation in the living standards of the population, and an incorrect pricing policy. All of them are closely interconnected and interdependent. The decrease in GDP growth was the result of insufficient implementation of new technologies. This problem could be solved through structural reform of the national economy, especially industry.

Funds for these purposes could be obtained by reducing military spending. GDP growth and a greater focus of the economy on the production of consumer goods would cause an increase in living standards. But the primary measure was price reform, since the existing pricing policy created imbalance, distortions and was the cause of a number of economic absurdities. However, all of the problems mentioned could be solved within the existing economy and did not require a formational shift.

M.S. Gorbachev decided to change the socio-economic situation in the USSR through the accelerated development of mechanical engineering, directing huge investments into this sector. The choice of this vector of change is controversial and ill-founded. Indeed, why was it necessary to start not with agriculture, as China did? Or why not with the development of high-tech technologies, which have led to the effective development of the economy in a number of advanced Western countries? Moreover, they were widely represented in the military sector of the economy. And in general, why make a responsible decision about the ways of further development of society just a month after coming to power? I think there are signs of haste.

Despite large injections into the economy under the conditions of maintaining the old price parity, successes turned out to be insignificant. Hopes were not justified, since manufacturers did not have strong incentives. Moreover, the more production volumes increased, the more losses grew for many enterprises. Analysis of the situation by M.S. Gorbachev in January 1987 at the plenum of the Central Committee, turned out to be wrong: mainly the leading cadres were blamed for the lack of proper results. M.S. Gorbachev overestimated the inhibitory influence of leaders on the course of social processes and did not see any mistakes in the sequence of his actions to carry out “perestroika.” A three-year personnel reshuffle began, leading to a complete renewal of the leadership core. Workers who did not have sufficient training and experience gained access to power.

Then, without proper preparation and subsequent adjustment, a responsible decision is made on full translation industrial and agricultural enterprises for economic calculation and self-sufficiency. This step was wrong and contributed to the collapse of the economy. Many enterprises have become debtors due to lack of working capital.

Since the end of 1989, the authorities announced the entry of the USSR economy into the “socialist market”. Even if all the other necessary conditions were present, a normal market could not arise, since in the conditions of leaving the planned economy there was no mechanism of competition. In addition, government orders that replaced planned targets were practically no different from the latter. The creation of a market economy at this stage was more a declarative than a real step.

However, the state has lost control of growth wages and prices. This caused inflation, led to a decline in the role of the ruble, an exacerbation of the deficit and the rampant speculative capital. Since 1990, a noticeable decline in production volumes began. Ill-considered actions of M.S. Gorbachev unleashed an economic crisis in the country.

The CPSU and its leader M.S. Gorbachev began “perestroika” in conditions of enthusiasm and full support of the ideas of renewal by the population. At the same time, society was determined to achieve quick results, as promised by M.S. Gorbachev. However, they did not appear; moreover, the economic situation worsened. Therefore, the policy of “perestroika” began to cause disappointment and mistrust. The social base of this course was sharply reduced. In such a situation, in order to maintain his rating M.S. Gorbachev decided to carry out radical political reform, enshrined in the decisions of the 19th All-Union Conference of the CPSU.

It was necessary for the creation of a democratic political regime, but it began to be implemented untimely, in conditions of a growing economic crisis and at a rapid pace. In addition, the “new thinking” assumed softer methods of government leadership. As a result, the government lost the necessary control over economic and political processes, the degree of state leadership of society fell sharply, development began to acquire a spontaneous character, which largely determined the collapse of “perestroika.”

M.S. Gorbachev spent a lot of energy fighting his opponents within the party and the state apparatus, “dismantling the braking mechanism,” and suppressing the resistance of the counter-perestroika forces. However, he did not pay due attention to the real danger from the forces of bourgeois revenge, which through their actions caused the tragic ending of the “perestroika” policy.

These forces are heterogeneous in their sources, but they are the following:

1. the shadow economy and criminal capital that surfaced at the end of perestroika in connection with the liberalization of the regime;
2. international pressure (“world behind the scenes”);
3. bourgeois degeneration of part of the CPSU, primarily within its leadership core (the CPSU Central Committee objectively contributed greatly to the restoration of capitalism in Russia).

However, the most important reason for the collapse of perestroika is associated with such a subjective fact as the personality of M.S. Gorbachev. He, by his own admission, made in a speech at a seminar at the American University in Turkey, had the goal of his whole life “to destroy communism, an unbearable dictatorship over people.” However, for the time being he hid this way of thinking from members of the CPSU and citizens of the country, but at the same time remained in the post of leader of the party, which set as its goal the building of communism.

To achieve his goal, he “had to replace the entire leadership of the CPSU and the USSR, as well as the leadership in all socialist countries.” His ideal at that time “was the path of the social democratic countries.” In the light of this recognition, the meaning of those personnel changes that began with the January 1987 plenum of the CPSU Central Committee becomes clearer. And is it any wonder that perestroika was defeated.

1. Prerequisites for reforms

1.1. Economic. By the mid-80s. crisis phenomena developed in the socio-economic system of the USSR. The Soviet economy finally lost its dynamism. There was a decline in growth rates in industry and labor productivity. A crisis situation has developed in the consumer market and finance (including due to the decline in world oil prices in the early 80s). In recent decades, the USSR and Russia within it have fallen sharply behind in global indicators of agricultural productivity. The residual principle of financing the social sphere, science and culture was practiced.

Stagnation in the economy was combined with a large share of military expenditures in the budget (45% of funds were spent on the military-industrial complex) and a drop in living standards, which caused an objective need for radical changes.

1.2. Political situation. In 1965 -1985. The formation of the main institutions of the Soviet bureaucratic system was completed. At the same time, its inefficiency and depravity became more and more clearly evident as a result of such features as corruption, protectionism, etc. There was a degradation of the ruling elite of society - the nomenklatura, which was the stronghold of conservatism. Society is faced with the phenomenon gerontocracy, when aging, sick leaders were in power.

Yu.V. Andropov, who took the post after Brezhnev's death (November 1982) Secretary General The Central Committee of the CPSU tried to launch a fight against corruption, to update the system by cleansing it of the decayed elements of the nomenklatura and strengthening discipline in society. But these undertakings took on the character of a traditional Soviet campaign, and after Andropov’s death, in February 1984, they were completely curtailed. The highest post in the state was occupied by a close associate of Brezhnev, 73 years old. K.U. Chernenko, died in March 1985

Nevertheless, the need for change was recognized by the country's leadership. Yu.V. Andropov and, to some extent, K.U. Chernenko tried to carry out certain urgent reforms (limiting general planning, changing the pricing system, etc.), but these attempts ended in vain. The young party leaders who came to power in April 1985 - M.S. Gorbachev, E.K. Ligachev and others combined their commitment to the communist idea and methods of management and the desire to transform a socialist society.

1.3. Social. A crisis has emerged in the social sphere. Real income per capita in the early 80s. (compared to 1966-1970) decreased by 2.8 times. Gradually, despite the development of science and technology, the quality of healthcare deteriorated - the USSR ranked 50th in the world in terms of infant mortality.

The persistent egalitarian and scarce distribution system at the bottom of the social pyramid came into conflict with the protected system of privileges of the managerial layer. Alienation from political power, the means of production, and in fact from civil rights led to social apathy in society, a deformation of morality, and a decline in morality.

Tightening ideological control and persecution of dissidents resulted in the development of a dissident movement, despite its small numbers, which received wide resonance abroad.

1.4. Foreign policy. The Cold War dealt a blow to the idea of ​​natural allies, bringing to the fore the concept of an evil empire in the United States, and the thesis of bloody imperialism in the USSR. The Cold War, the established bipolar system led by the USSR and the USA, resulted in rivalry between the two countries and a continuous, exhausting arms race.

By the mid-80s. the economic untenability of the great power claims of the Soviet Union became obvious. His allies were mainly underdeveloped third world states.

The impotence of Soviet military power was also demonstrated by the stalled Afghan adventure. All this happened against the backdrop of the growing economic and technological lag of the USSR from developed countries, which by that time were undergoing a transition to an information (post-industrial) society, i.e. to resource-saving technologies and knowledge-intensive industries (microelectronics, computer science, robotics).

2. Reform of the political system

2.1. The tasks of perestroika. The entry of the USSR into the era radical transformations dates back to April 1985 and is associated with the name of the new General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M.S. Gorbachev (elected to this post at the March Plenum of the Central Committee).

The new course proposed by Gorbachev involved the modernization of the Soviet system, deposit structural and organizational changes in economic, social, political and ideological mechanisms.

In the new strategy, personnel policy acquired particular importance, which was expressed, on the one hand, in the fight against negative phenomena in the party-state apparatus (corruption, bribery, etc.), on the other hand, in eliminating political opponents of Gorbachev and his course (in the Moscow and Leningrad party organizations, in the Central Committee of the Communist Parties of the Union Republics).

2.2. Ideology of reforms. Initially (since 1985), the strategy was set to improve socialism and accelerate socialist development. At the January 1987 Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, and then at the XIX All-Union Party Conference (summer 1988) M.S. Gorbachev outlined a new ideology and strategy for reform. For the first time, the presence of deformations in the political system was recognized and the task of creating a new model was set - socialism with a human face.

The ideology of perestroika included some liberal democratic principles(separation of powers, representative democracy (parliamentarism), protection of civil and political human rights). At the 19th Party Conference, the goal of creating in the USSR was first proclaimed civil (legal) society.

2.3. Democratization and openness became essential expressions of the new concept of socialism. Democratization affected the political system, but it was also seen as the basis for radical economic reforms.

2.3.1. At this stage of perestroika, widespread development publicity, criticism of the deformations of socialism in economics, politics, and the spiritual sphere. Many works of both theorists and practitioners of Bolshevism, who were once declared enemies of the people, and figures of the Russian emigration of various generations became available to the Soviet people.

2.3.2. Democratization of the political system. As part of democratization, the design took place political pluralism. In 1990, Article 6 of the Constitution, which secured the monopoly position of the CPSU in society, was abolished, which opened up the possibility for the formation of a legal multi-party system in the USSR. Its legal basis is reflected in the Law on Public Associations (1990).

In 1989-1991 were the main political parties and blocs were formed. The crisis of the CPSU led to an ideological split in the party and the formation of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) ( N.A.Andreeva), Russian Communist Workers' Party ( V.A. Tyulkin), the Labor Russia movement ( V.I.Anpilov), Communist Party of the RSFSR (I. Polozkov, then G. A. Zyuganov ) and etc . Social democratic parties: Social Democratic Party of Russia ( O. Rumyantsev, V. Sheinis), Socialist Working People's Party ( L.S. Vartazarova), People's Party of Free Russia ( A.V.Rutskoy) and etc. Liberal the spectrum of political forces was represented by the Democratic Russia movement ( E.T. Gaidar), Democratic Party of Russia ( N.I.Travkin), Republican Party of the Russian Federation ( V.N.Lysenko) and etc. Right-wing and conservative: Christian Democratic Party of Russia ( A. Chuev), Monarchist Party, Peasant Party of Russia, etc. National-patriotic: Russian National Cathedral (general A.N.Sterligov), Russian All-People's Union ( S.N. Baburin), Liberal Democratic Party ( V.V. Zhirinovsky) and etc. Radical-nationalist: National Patriotic Front Memory ( D.D.Vasiliev), All-Russian public patriotic movement Russian National Unity ( A.P.Barkashov), National Republican Party ( N.N.Lysenko) and etc.

2.4. Changes in the government system. To determine legislative policy in the country, they again returned to the tradition of convening Congresses of People's Deputies as the highest legislative body of the country. The Congress formed the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (actually a parliament). Based on the law on changing the electoral system of 1988, the principle of alternative elections of people's deputies of the USSR was introduced. The first alternative elections were held in the spring of 1989. After this, the First Congress of People's Deputies took place in May-June 1989, at which he was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev. Became Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR B.N. Yeltsin.

In 1990, the institution of presidency was introduced in the USSR. The III Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in March 1990 elected M.S. Gorbachev as President of the USSR. IN December 1991 Presidential elections were held in most union republics. On June 12, 1991, B.N. was elected president of the RSFSR. Yeltsin.

2.5. Results of democratization. Due to the results of political reforms and the ambiguity of assessments of their results in society, a struggle developed over the content, pace and methods of reforms, accompanied by an increasingly intense struggle for power.

In the fall of 1988, a radical wing emerged in the camp of reformers, in which the role of leaders belonged to HELL. Sakharov, B.N. Yeltsin and others. Radicals challenged Gorbachev’s power and demanded the dismantling of the unitary state. After the spring elections of 1990, forces in opposition to the leadership of the CPSU - representatives of the movement - also came to power in local councils and party committees in Moscow and Leningrad Democratic Russia(leader- E.T. Gaidar). 1989-1990 became a period of increased activity of informal movements and the organization of opposition parties.

Gorbachev and his supporters tried to limit the activities of radicals. Yeltsin was expelled from leadership. But, having created the opportunity to eliminate the hegemony of the CPSU, Gorbachev and his associates did not realize the impossibility of returning to the old ways. By the beginning of 1991, Gorbachev's centrist policies increasingly coincided with the position of the conservatives.

3. Economic reforms

3.1. Acceleration strategy and methods for its implementation. The key concept in M.S. Gorbachev’s reform strategy was acceleration production of means of production, social sphere, scientific and technological progress. The priority task of economic reforms was recognized as the accelerated development of mechanical engineering as the basis for the re-equipment of the entire national economy. At the same time, the emphasis was on strengthening production and performance discipline (measures to combat drunkenness and alcoholism); control over product quality (Law on State Acceptance).

3.2. Economic reform of 1987 Economic reform, which was developed by famous economists - L. Abalkin, A. Aganbegyan, P. Bunich etc., was carried out in accordance with the concept self-supporting socialism.

Reform Project provided:

Expanding the independence of enterprises on the principles of self-financing and self-financing;

Gradual revival of the private sector of the economy, primarily through the development of the cooperative movement;

Refusal of the monopoly of foreign trade;

Deep integration into the global market;

Reducing the number of line ministries and departments between which partnerships were supposed to be established;

Recognition of equality in rural areas of the five main forms of management (collective farms, state farms, agricultural complexes, rental cooperatives, farms).

3.3. Carrying out reform characterized by inconsistency and half-heartedness. During the transformation, there was no reform of the credit, pricing policy, or centralized supply system.

3.3.1. However, despite this, the reform contributed formation of the private sector in the economy. In 1988 they adopted Law on Cooperation And Law on self-employment(ETC). The new laws opened up the possibility for private activity in more than 30 types of production of goods and services. By the spring of 1991, more than 7 million people were employed in the cooperative sector and another 1 million people were self-employed. The downside of this process was the legalization of the shadow economy.

3.3.2. Industrial democratization. In 1987, the Law on State Enterprise (Association) was adopted. Enterprises were transferred to self-sufficiency and self-supporting, receiving the right to foreign economic activity and the creation of joint ventures. At the same time, most of the manufactured products were still included in government orders and, therefore, were withdrawn from free sale.

According to the Law on Labor Collectives, a system for electing heads of enterprises and institutions was introduced.

3.3.3. Reforming agriculture. Changes in agriculture began with the reform of state and collective farms. In May 1988, it was announced that it would be advisable to switch to rental contracts in rural areas (under a land lease agreement for 50 years with the right to dispose of the products received). By the summer of 1991, only 2% of the land was cultivated under lease conditions and 3% of the livestock was kept. In general, it was not possible to achieve significant changes in agricultural policy. One of the main reasons was the nature of government food policy. For many years, prices for basic food products were maintained at a low level with low growth rates in agricultural production, which was facilitated by subsidies for both the producer (up to 80%) and the consumer (1/3 of the Russian budget) of food. The deficit budget could not cope with such a load. No law was adopted on the transfer of land to private ownership and the increase in household plots.

3.3.4. Economic results showed the inconsistency of the ongoing reforms. Remaining within the framework of the socialist economic system - universal planning, distribution of resources, state ownership of the means of production, etc. - the national economy of the country, at the same time, lost administrative and command levers and coercion from the party. However, no market mechanisms were created.

After some initial successes associated with the enthusiasm for renewal, the economic downturn began. Since 1988, there has been a general decline in agricultural production. As a result, the population faced a shortage food products, even in Moscow their normalized distribution was introduced. Since 1990, a general decline in industrial production began.

3.4. 500 days program. In the summer of 1990, instead of acceleration, a policy of transition to a market economy was proclaimed, scheduled for 1991, that is, by the end of the 12th Five-Year Plan (1985-1990). However, in contrast to the plans of the official leadership for a gradual (over several years) introduction of the market, a plan (known as the 500 days program) was developed aimed at a rapid breakthrough in market relations, supported by the Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR, B.N., who was in opposition to Gorbachev. Yeltsin.

The authors of the next project were a group of economists, Academician S. Shatalin, G. Yavlinsky, B. Fedorov and others. During the first half of the term, it was planned: the transfer of enterprises to forced rent, large-scale privatization and decentralization of the economy, the introduction of anti-monopoly legislation. During the second half, it was assumed that government price controls would be removed, allowing for a decline in basic sectors of the economy, regulated unemployment and inflation in order to sharply restructure the economy.

This project created a real basis for the economic union of the republics, but contained significant elements of utopianism and could lead to unpredictable social consequences. Under pressure from conservatives, Gorbachev withdrew support for this program.

4. The final stage of perestroika

collapse of the USSR and the communist system

4.1. The beginning of the disintegration process on the territory of the USSR. 4.1.1. National direction This movement was represented by the Popular Fronts of the union republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Armenia, Georgia). During 1989 - 1990 The Baltic, and after them other republics of the USSR, including Russia, adopted declarations of national sovereignty.

4.1.2. Simultaneously with the growth of opposition to the union power structures, crisis of communist ideology followed by the process of collapse of the CPSU, lost the function of the mechanism that held together the indestructible union of free republics. During 1989-1990 The Communist Parties of the Baltic republics left the CPSU. In 1990, the Communist Party of the RSFSR was created.

4.1.3. In conditions of an unstable situation and strengthening of centrifugal forces, one of the most important tasks of M.S. Gorbachev became problem of reforming the USSR and the conclusion of a new treaty between the republics. Before this, attempts were made to maintain federal power through force (in April 1989 in Tbilisi, in January 1990 in Baku, in January 1991 in Vilnius and Riga).

During 1988-1990 party resolutions were adopted on interethnic relations, on the fundamentals of economic relations of the USSR, union and autonomous republics, as well as On the procedure for resolving issues related to the withdrawal of a union republic from the USSR. In December 1990, the IV Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR adopted a resolution on the general concept of the Union Treaty, which was signed in Novo-Ogarevo in April 1991 (known as the 9+1 agreement). This agreement, as well as the subsequent draft agreement on the creation of the Union of Soviet Sovereign Republics, provided for the granting of significant rights to the republics and transformed the center from a manager to a coordinating one. On March 17, 1991, a referendum was held in the USSR, during which the absolute majority of citizens (76.4%) spoke in favor of maintaining the union state in an updated form.

4.2. August political crisis of 1991 The signing of the new union treaty was scheduled for August 20. The day before, on August 19, in order to disrupt the conclusion of the agreement and restore the power of the center and the CPSU, the conservative wing of the USSR leadership - G.I.Yanaev(Vice President), V.S. Pavlov(Prime Minister who replaced N.I. Ryzhkov), Marshal D.T. Yazov(Minister of Defense of the USSR), V.A. Kryuchkov(Chairman of the KGB of the USSR), B.K.Pugo(Minister of Internal Affairs) and others announced the creation State Committee on State of Emergency (GKChP)) and tried to remove Gorbachev from power through a conspiracy (August 19-21, 1991).

However, the decisive rejection of the putschists by wide circles of the public and the firm position of the Russian leadership led by B.N. Yeltsin led to the defeat of the putschists. The leaders of most of the union republics also took a position of condemnation or non-recognition, due to which centrifugal tendencies subsequently accelerated significantly. The bulk of the leadership of the army, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the KGB also did not support the State Emergency Committee.

4.3. The end of the communist system. On August 23, 1991, after the suppression of the putsch in Moscow, a decree was signed to dissolve the CPSU. M.S. Gorbachev resigned from the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee. The Union Cabinet of Ministers was also dissolved, and in September the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR were dissolved. In November 1991, a ban on the Communist Party was introduced on the territory of the RSFSR.

4.4. Collapse of the USSR.

4.4.1. The collapse of the communist regime caused a process separatist tendencies on the territory of the USSR. Immediately after the suppression of the August putsch, three Baltic republics announced their secession from the Union. Other republics also passed laws proclaiming sovereignty, which made them virtually independent of Moscow. Real power in the republics was concentrated in the hands of national presidents.

4.4.2. Belovezhskaya agreement. Education CIS. On December 8, 1991, at the Belarusian meeting of the leaders of the three sovereign republics of Russia (B.N. Yeltsin), Ukraine ( L.N. Kravchuk) and Belarus ( S. Shushkevich), without the participation of M.S. Gorbachev, it was announced that the USSR would cease to exist and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) would be formed. On December 21, in Almaty, eleven former Soviet republics supported the Belovezhskaya Agreement. On December 25, USSR President M.S. Gorbachev resigned.

4.4.3. Reasons for the collapse of the USSR. Historically, the USSR repeated the fate of multinational empires, which naturally came to their collapse. The collapse of the USSR was also the result of objective and subjective reasons.

Among the first group of prerequisites

The accumulating national contradictions of the Soviet period;

Failures of economic reforms carried out during the Gorbachev period;

The crisis of communist ideology and the weakening of the role of the CPSU with the subsequent liquidation of its party-political monopoly, which formed the basis of the USSR;

The movement for national self-determination of the republics, which began during perestroika.

Played a certain role in the destruction of the USSR subjective factor: mistakes M.S. Gorbachev, his inconsistency in carrying out reforms, the lack of a developed national policy; political choice of the leaders of the three Slavic republics. Representatives of local political elites and leaders of national movements also set as one of their main goals the task of gaining republican independence and real sovereignty.

4.4.4. Consequences of the collapse of the USSR were of a difficult nature for the peoples of all former Soviet republics.

Political and economic ties between the republics, which had centuries-old historical and cultural traditions, were disrupted. Most of the difficulties should be attributed to the breakdown of cooperative ties.

Another consequence of the collapse of the multinational state was the aggravation of interethnic relations on the territory of the post-Soviet republics, which led to the emergence of territorial conflicts in many regions of the former USSR (between Azerbaijan and Armenia; Georgia and South Ossetia, later Abkhazia, Ingushetia and North Ossetia, etc.) . The ethnic conflict in Tajikistan has escalated into a civil war. The problem of refugees has arisen.

New acute problem became the position of the Russian-speaking population in the national republics.

5. Conclusions

5.1. During the period of perestroika (1985-1991), Soviet society was completely Soviet communist system destroyed. Society became open to the outside world.

On the wave of democratization in the USSR political pluralism and multi-party system took shape, began to emerge civil society, be carried out principle of separation of powers.

5.2. At the same time, the expansion and deepening of transformations were not initially envisaged by the reformers in power. But, having started from above, perestroika was picked up and developed from below, which was a guarantee of maintaining and expanding the political course for reforms, which had become, to some extent, uncontrollable.

Policy publicity, aimed at emancipating the consciousness of tens of millions of people in the USSR, largely determined irreversible nature of change in society and ultimately led to the defeat of conservative forces in August 1991.

5.3. However, the experience of transformations has shown that a democratized socialist socio-economic system cannot exist outside of the administrative-command system, which is incompatible with new political realities. Therefore, half-hearted but accelerated economic reforms of the era of M.S. Gorbachev failed, and by the end of the 80s. Communist reformers have finally exhausted their creative potential.

5.4. As a result, following the cleansing of socialism from deformations was followed by the collapse of the socialist system itself.

5.5. Perestroika ended with the collapse of the USSR and the collapse of the communist system.

November 1982-February 1984– Yu.V. becomes the leader of the country and the party. Andropov.

February 1984– Death of Yu.V. Andropova.

February 1984 - March 10, 1985– K.U. Chernenko becomes the leader of the party and the country.

11th of March 1985 – Extraordinary Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee. Election of M. S. Gorbachev as General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee.

23 April 1985- Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee. Proclamation of a course for restructuring and accelerating the socio-economic development of the country.

June–December 1985– A. A. Gromyko was elected to the post of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

– E. A. Shevardnadze was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs of the KSR.

– N.I. Ryzhkov was appointed Chairman of the Council Ministers of the USSR.

– Election of B. N. Yeltsin as the first secretary of the Moscow City Committee of the CPSU.

25 February-March, 6 1986– Adoption by the XXVII Congress of the CPSU of a new edition of the Party Program and Party Charter.

December 161986– Permission for Academician A.D. Sakharov to return from Gorky, where he was in forced exile, being one of the leaders of the dissident movement.

January 1987– The plenum of the CPSU Central Committee proclaimed the policy of “glasnost”.

June 1987– Adoption by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of the Law on nationwide discussion of important issues of state life.

July 6 1987– Demonstration in Moscow on Red Square of Crimean Tatars demanding the restoration of their autonomy.

October 21 1987- B. N. Yeltsin at the plenum of the CPSU Central Committee. announced his resignation from the post of First Secretary of the Moscow City Committee of the CPSU and a candidate member of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee.

November 2 1987– Speech by M. S. Gorbachev with a report at a ceremonial meeting in honor of the 70th anniversary of the October Revolution, in which many assessments of Soviet history were revised and sharp criticism of Stalinism was renewed.

11 November 1987– The plenum of the Moscow City Committee of the CPSU removed B. N. Yeltsin from the post of first secretary of the Moscow City Committee of the CPSU.

12 February 1988– Start of rallies for reunification with Armenia in Nagorno-Karabakh.

February 27-29 1988– Pogroms and massacres of Armenians in Sumgait (Azerbaijan). The beginning of open interethnic conflicts on the territory of the USSR.

13 Martha 1988– Publication in the newspaper “Soviet Russia” of N. Andreeva’s article “I Can’t Give Up Principles,” which became a kind of ideological manifesto of opponents of democratization and glasnost and essentially defended the ideology of Stalinism.

5th of April 1988– N. Andreeva’s rebuke in the newspaper “Pravda” about the unchanged course towards perestroika.

February-June1988– Rehabilitation by the Supreme Court of the USSR of illegally convicted leaders of the Bolshevik Party: N. I. Bukharin, A. I. Rykov, Kh. G. Rakovsky, G. E. Zinoviev, L. B. Kamenev, Yu. I. Pyatakov, K. B. Radek.

June 28 - July 1 1988– XIX All-Union Conference of the CPSU, decisions were made on the reform of the political system, on the democratization of Soviet society, on the fight against bureaucracy, on interethnic relations, on openness and legal reform.

October 1 1988– Election of M. S. Gorbachev at a meeting of the Supreme Council as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

December 1 1988– The Supreme Soviet of the USSR approved amendments to the Constitution and new law about elections. This marked the beginning of reform of the political system.

26 March-April 9 1989– The first alternative elections of people's deputies of the USSR on the basis of a new democratic electoral system.

April 4-9 1989– A rally at the Government House in Tbilisi demanding the elimination of autonomies within Georgia and its withdrawal from the USSR. Dispersal of protesters by troops. Civilian casualties (19 dead, hundreds wounded).

May 24 - July 9 1989– I Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. Election of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR from among the deputies of the congress and its transformation into a permanent parliament. Election of M. S. Gorbachev as Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

July 301989– Formation of the Interregional Deputy Group consisting of 338 deputies of the USSR. They advocated accelerating the reform process in the country. Leaders - Yu. N. Afanasyev, B. N. Yeltsin, A. D. Sakharov, G. X. Popov.

19-20 September1989– Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee on national problems.

January 2, 1990– The beginning of hostilities between Azerbaijan and Armenia in Nagorno-Karabakh.

11 March 1990– The Parliament of Lithuania decides to restore the independence of the republic.

March 12-15, 1990– III Extraordinary Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. A decision was made to abolish Article 6 of the USSR Constitution, which established the leading and guiding role of the CPSU in Soviet society. In accordance with the amendments to the Constitution, the post of President of the USSR was established, to which M. S. Gorbachev was elected on March 14. A.I. Lukyanov becomes the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

March 30, 1990– The Estonian parliament votes to restore the independence of the republic.

4 May 1990– The Latvian parliament decides on the independence of the republic.

May 14, 1990– Decree of the President of the USSR on invalidating the declarations of independence of the Baltic republics.

16 May 1990– I Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR.

12 June 1990– Election of B.N. Yeltsin as Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR. Adoption of the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.

June 20-23 1990– Founding Congress of the Communist Party of the RSFSR. Its leader was I.K. Polozkov.

July 2-13 1990– XXVIII Congress of the CPSU. Creation of factions while maintaining the principle of democratic centralism. M. S. Gorbachev was again elected General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee.

16 July 1990– Proclamation of the sovereignty of Ukraine by the Supreme Council of the Republic.

17 November 1990– Reorganization of the highest bodies of state power. Formation of the Federation Council consisting of the leaders of the union republics.

December 17-27 1990– IV Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. Deepening the reform of the political system. Reorganization of the executive branch. Formation of the Cabinet of Ministers under the President of the USSR. Introduction of the post of vice president.

March 17 1991– The first referendum in the history of the country on the issue of preserving the USSR.

April 23 1991– Novo-Ogarevo meeting of the President of the USSR and the leaders of nine union republics on the conditions for preserving the USSR.

1991– Based on the results of the city referendum, it was returned to Leningrad historical name Saint Petersburg.

24 August 1991– M. S. Gorbachev resigned from the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and appealed to the Central Committee for self-dissolution.

September 2-5 1991– V Extraordinary Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. Recognition of the independence of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. A joint statement by M. S. Gorbachev and the top leaders of 10 union republics with a proposal to form a union like a confederation, the form of participation in which each sovereign republic determines independently.

28 October - November 13 1991– V Congress of People's Deputies. Approval of the basic principles of economic reform.

November 6 1991– Decree of B. N. Yeltsin on the prohibition of activities on the territory of the RSFSR of the CPSU and the dissolution of party structures.

December 8 1991– Signing in Belovezhskaya Pushcha near Minsk an agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) by the leaders of Belarus (V. Shushkevich), Russia (B. Yeltsin), Ukraine (L. Kravchuk) and the dissolution of the USSR.

21 December 1991– Meeting of heads of state in Almaty and accession of Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan to the CIS. Adoption of the Declaration on the Termination of the USSR.

December 25 1991– Official statement by M. S. Gorbachev about his resignation from the post of President of the USSR. The end of perestroika.

Economic development

April 23 1985– Adoption by the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee of a course to accelerate the socio-economic development of the country.

May 7 1985– Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR on measures to eradicate drunkenness and alcoholism. The beginning of the anti-alcohol campaign.

November 19 1985– Adoption of the USSR Law on Individual Labor Activity.

13th of January 1987 G.- Adoption higher authorities state authorities on the principles of creating joint ventures in the USSR with the participation of foreign capital.

February 5th 1987 G.– Decisions on the creation of cooperatives in the production of consumer goods, public catering and services.

June 25-26 1987 G.– The Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee approved the “Basic provisions for a radical restructuring of economic management” and approved the USSR Law “On State Enterprise (Association).” It was planned to introduce self-government principles in the management of enterprises and transfer them to full self-accounting, a radical change in planning, etc.

May 24 1990– Presentation by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers I. Ryzhkov to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of a plan for a phased transition to a regulated market economy. The beginning of panic in the consumer market and, as a consequence, the introduction of regulatory distribution of basic food products.

June 11 1990– Miners’ strikes in the Donbass demanding the resignation of the government of N. I. Ryzhkov and the nationalization of the property of the CPSU.

August 30 1990– Beginning of discussion in parliament of various programs for the transition to the market. (Government program of I. Abalkin - N. I. Ryzhkov and “500 days” of S. S. Shatalin - G. A. Yavlinsky.) None of the options received full support.

October 19 1990– The Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopts the “Main Directions for Stabilizing the National Economy and the Transition to a Market Economy.”

23 November 1990– The Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted laws on land reform and on peasant (farmer) farming.

2 April1991– Government implementation of retail price reform for essential goods.

October1991– Speech by B. N. Yeltsin at the V Congress of People's Deputies of Russia with a program of economic reforms.

November1991– Creation of the Government of the Russian Federation, appointment of E. T. Gaidar as vice president for economic policy.

3 December1991– Decree of the President of the Russian Federation B. N. Yeltsin “On measures to liberalize prices.”

Foreign policy

8. Oprichnina: its causes and consequences.

9. Time of Troubles in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century.

10. The fight against foreign invaders at the beginning of the 15th century. Minin and Pozharsky. The accession of the Romanov dynasty.

11. Peter I – Tsar-Reformer. Economic and government reforms of Peter I.

12. Foreign policy and military reforms of Peter I.

13. Empress Catherine II. The policy of “enlightened absolutism” in Russia.

1762-1796 The reign of Catherine II.

14. Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the xyiii century.

15. Internal policy of the government of Alexander I.

16. Russia in the first world conflict: wars as part of the anti-Napoleonic coalition. Patriotic War of 1812.

17. Decembrist movement: organizations, program documents. N. Muravyov. P. Pestel.

18. Domestic policy of Nicholas I.

4) Streamlining legislation (codification of laws).

5) The fight against liberation ideas.

19 . Russia and the Caucasus in the first half of the 19th century. Caucasian War. Muridism. Gazavat. Imamat of Shamil.

20. The Eastern question in Russian foreign policy in the first half of the 19th century. Crimean War.

22. The main bourgeois reforms of Alexander II and their significance.

23. Features of the internal policy of the Russian autocracy in the 80s - early 90s of the XIX century. Counter-reforms of Alexander III.

24. Nicholas II – the last Russian emperor. Russian Empire at the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries. Class structure. Social composition.

2. Proletariat.

25. The first bourgeois-democratic revolution in Russia (1905-1907). Reasons, character, driving forces, results.

4. Subjective attribute (a) or (b):

26. P. A. Stolypin’s reforms and their impact on the further development of Russia

1. Destruction of the community “from above” and the withdrawal of peasants to farms and farms.

2. Assistance to peasants in acquiring land through a peasant bank.

3. Encouraging the resettlement of land-poor and landless peasants from Central Russia to the outskirts (to Siberia, the Far East, Altai).

27. The First World War: causes and character. Russia during the First World War

28. February bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1917 in Russia. Fall of the autocracy

1) Crisis of the “tops”:

2) Crisis of the “grassroots”:

3) The activity of the masses has increased.

29. Alternatives to the autumn of 1917. The Bolsheviks came to power in Russia.

30. Exit of Soviet Russia from the First World War. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

31. Civil war and military intervention in Russia (1918-1920)

32. Socio-economic policy of the first Soviet government during the civil war. "War communism".

7. Housing fees and many types of services have been cancelled.

33. Reasons for the transition to NEP. NEP: goals, objectives and main contradictions. Results of NEP.

35. Industrialization in the USSR. The main results of the country's industrial development in the 1930s.

36. Collectivization in the USSR and its consequences. The crisis of Stalin's agrarian policy.

37.Formation of a totalitarian system. Mass terror in the USSR (1934-1938). Political processes of the 1930s and their consequences for the country.

38. Foreign policy of the Soviet government in the 1930s.

39. USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War.

40. Attack of Nazi Germany on the Soviet Union. Reasons for the temporary failures of the Red Army in the initial period of the war (summer-autumn 1941)

41. Achieving a fundamental turning point during the Great Patriotic War. The significance of the Battles of Stalingrad and Kursk.

42. Creation of an anti-Hitler coalition. Opening of a second front during the Second World War.

43. Participation of the USSR in the defeat of militaristic Japan. End of the Second World War.

44. Results of the Great Patriotic War and the Second World War. The price of victory. The meaning of the victory over fascist Germany and militaristic Japan.

45. The struggle for power within the highest echelon of the country's political leadership after the death of Stalin. N.S. Khrushchev's rise to power.

46. ​​Political portrait of N.S. Khrushchev and his reforms.

47. L.I. Brezhnev. The conservatism of the Brezhnev leadership and the increase in negative processes in all spheres of life of Soviet society.

48. Characteristics of the socio-economic development of the USSR from the mid-60s to the mid-80s.

49. Perestroika in the USSR: its causes and consequences (1985-1991). Economic reforms of perestroika.

50. The policy of “glasnost” (1985-1991) and its influence on the emancipation of the spiritual life of society.

1. It was allowed to publish literary works that were not allowed to be published during the time of L. I. Brezhnev:

7. Article 6 “on the leading and guiding role of the CPSU” was removed from the Constitution. A multi-party system has emerged.

51. Foreign policy of the Soviet government in the second half of the 80s. “New political thinking” by M.S. Gorbachev: achievements, losses.

52. The collapse of the USSR: its causes and consequences. August putsch 1991 Creation of the CIS.

On December 21 in Almaty, 11 former Soviet republics supported the Belovezhskaya Agreement. On December 25, 1991, President Gorbachev resigned. The USSR ceased to exist.

53. Radical transformations in the economy in 1992-1994. Shock therapy and its consequences for the country.

54. B.N. Yeltsin. The problem of relationships between branches of government in 1992-1993. October events of 1993 and their consequences.

55. Adoption of the new Constitution of the Russian Federation and parliamentary elections (1993)

56. Chechen crisis in the 1990s.

49. Perestroika in the USSR: its causes and consequences (1985-1991). Economic reforms of perestroika.

In March 1985, after the death of Chernenko, at an extraordinary plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, M.S. Gorbachev was elected General Secretary.

The new Soviet leadership was aware of the need for reforms in order to improve the economy and overcome the crisis in the country, but it did not have a pre-developed scientifically based program for carrying out such reforms. The reforms began without comprehensive preparation. Gorbachev's reforms were called the “perestroika” of Soviet society. Perestroika in the USSR lasted from 1985 to 1991.

Reasons for the restructuring:

Stagnation in the economy, growing scientific and technological lag behind the West.

Low standard of living of the population: constant shortage of food and industrial goods, rising “black market” prices.

A political crisis, expressed in the decay of leadership and its inability to ensure economic progress. Merging of the party-state apparatus with businessmen of the shadow economy and crime.

Negative phenomena in the spiritual sphere of society. Due to strict censorship, there was a duality in all genres of creativity: official culture and unofficial (represented by “samizdat” and informal associations of the creative intelligentsia).

Arms race. By 1985, the Americans announced that they were ready to withdraw nuclear weapon into the space. We did not have the means to launch weapons into space. It was necessary to change foreign policy and disarm.

The purpose of perestroika: improve the economy, overcome the crisis. M.S. Gorbachev and his team did not set a goal to turn towards capitalism. They only wanted to improve socialism. So, reforms began under the leadership of the ruling CPSU party.

In April 1985 at the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee an analysis was given of the state of Soviet society and declared a course to accelerate the socio-economic development of the country. The main attention was paid to scientific and technological progress (STP), technical re-equipment of mechanical engineering and activation of the “human factor”. M.S. Gorbachev called for strengthening labor and technological discipline, increasing the responsibility of personnel, etc. To improve the quality of products, state acceptance was introduced - another administrative control body. The quality, however, did not improve radically.

An anti-alcohol campaign began in May 1985, which was supposed to ensure not only “universal sobriety”, but also increased labor productivity. Sales of alcoholic beverages have decreased. Vineyards began to be cut down. Speculation in alcohol, moonshine brewing, and mass poisoning of the population with wine substitutes began. Over the three years of this campaign, the country's economy lost 67 billion rubles from the sale of alcoholic beverages.

The fight against “unearned income” began. In fact, it boiled down to another attack by local authorities on private farms and affected a layer of people who grew and sold their products in markets. At the same time, the “shadow economy” continued to flourish.

In general, the country's national economy continued to work according to the old pattern, actively using command methods, relying on the enthusiasm of workers. Old methods of work did not lead to “acceleration”, but to a significant increase in accidents in various sectors of the national economy. The term “acceleration” disappeared from the official vocabulary within a year.

pushed to rethink existing orders disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in April 1986.

After the disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the government decided that it was necessary to rebuild and begin economic reforms. The economic reform program took a whole year to develop. Famous economists: Abalkin, Aganbegyan, Zaslavskaya presented a good Peconomic reform project approved in the summer of 1987. The reform project included the following:

Expanding the independence of enterprises on the principles of self-financing and self-financing.

Gradual revival of the private sector in the economy (initially through the development of the cooperative movement).

Recognition of equality in rural areas of the five main forms of management (collective farms, state farms, agricultural complexes, rental cooperatives, farms).

Reducing the number of line ministries and departments.

Refusal of the monopoly of foreign trade.

Deeper integration into the global market.

Now it was necessary to develop and pass laws for these economic reforms.

Let's see what laws were adopted.

In 1987, the “Law on State Enterprise” was adopted. This law was supposed to come into force on January 1, 1989. It was envisaged that enterprises would be given broad rights. However, the ministries did not give enterprises economic independence.

The formation of the private sector in the economy began with great difficulty. In May 1988, laws were passed that opened up the possibility of private activity in more than 30 types of production of goods and services. By the spring of 1991, more than 7 million people were employed in the cooperative sector. And another 1 million people are self-employed. True, this led not only to the entry of new free entrepreneurs into the market, but also to the actual legalization of the “shadow economy.” Every year the private sector laundered up to 90 billion rubles. per year (in prices before January 1, 1992). Cooperatives did not take root here because cooperators were taxed at 65% on profits.

Agricultural reforms began late. These reforms were half-hearted. The land was never transferred to private ownership. Rented farms did not take root, since all rights to allocate land belonged to collective farms, which were not interested in the emergence of a competitor. By the summer of 1991, only 2% of the land was cultivated under lease conditions and 3% of the livestock was kept. As a result, the food issue in the country was never resolved. The shortage of basic food products led to the fact that even in Moscow their rationed distribution was introduced (which has not happened since 1947).

As a result, laws that met the dictates of the times were never adopted. And the implementation of the adopted laws was extended over a long period of time. In general, the economic reforms of perestroika were inconsistent and half-hearted. All reforms were actively resisted by the local bureaucracy.

Outdated enterprises continued to produce products that no one needed. Moreover, a general decline in industrial production began.

There was no reform of credit, pricing policy, or centralized supply system.

The country found itself in a state of deep financial crisis. Inflation growth reached 30% per month. Foreign debts exceeded 60 billion (according to some sources 80 billion) US dollars; Huge sums were spent to pay interest on these debts. The foreign exchange reserves of the former USSR and the gold reserves of the State Bank were by that time depleted.

There was a general shortage and the flourishing of the “black” market.

The standard of living of the population has fallen. In the summer of 1989, the first workers' strikes began.

As economic reforms failed, Gorbachev began to focus on the transition to a market economy. In June 1990, a decree “On the concept of transition to a regulated market economy” was issued, and then specific laws. They provided for the transfer of industrial enterprises to lease, the creation of joint-stock companies, the development of private entrepreneurship, etc. However, the implementation of most measures was postponed until 1991, and the transfer of enterprises to lease extended until 1995.

At this time, a group of economists: academician Shatalin, deputy. Chairman of the Council of Ministers Yavlinsky and others proposed their plan for the transition to the market in 500 days. During this period it was supposed to carry out the privatization of state-owned enterprises of trade and industry, and significantly reduce the economic power of the Center; remove government control over prices, allow unemployment and inflation. But Gorbachev refused to support this program. The socio-economic situation in the country was continuously deteriorating.

In general, under the influence of perestroika, significant changes occurred in all spheres of society. Over the 6 years of perestroika, the composition of the Politburo was updated by 85%, which was not the case even during the period of Stalin’s “purges”. Ultimately, perestroika got out of the control of its organizers, and the leading role of the CPSU was lost. Mass political movements emerged and the “parade of sovereignties” of the republics began. Perestroika, in the form in which it was conceived, was defeated.

Politicians, scientists, and publicists have several points of view on the results of perestroika:

Some believe that perestroika made it possible for Russia to begin to develop in line with world civilization.

Others see that as a result of perestroika, the ideas of the October Revolution were betrayed, a return to capitalism occurred, and a huge country fell apart.