Ancient Greek tragedy is the oldest of known forms tragedy. Comes from ritual actions in honor of Dionysus. The participants in these actions put on masks with goat beards and horns, depicting the companions of Dionysus - satyrs. Ritual performances took place during the Great and Lesser Dionysias (festivities in honor of Dionysus).
The three greatest tragedians of Greece - Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides - consistently reflected in their tragedies the psycho-ideology of the landowning aristocracy and merchant capital at various stages of their development.
The poet Aeschylus, who lived during the Greco-Persian wars. Performances began to depict not only myths, but also recent events. To revive the theater, Aeschylus came up with the idea of introducing a second actor. So that the actors could move more freely and still be taller than the choir, Aeschylus provided them with high wooden heels or tethered stools. Aeschylus also arranged the first decoration. His actors had to play closer to the tent: they began to paint its front wall, giving it, depending on the play, the appearance of an altar, a rock, the front facade of a house with a door in the middle, etc. If in the play it was necessary to present both people and gods , then the gods entered the flat roof of the tent to appear taller than people.
The main motive of Aeschylus' tragedy is the idea of the omnipotence of fate and the doom of the fight against it. Nothing can shake the social order established by superhuman powers, not even the Titans.
These views expressed the protective tendencies of the ruling class - the aristocracy, whose ideology was determined by the consciousness of the need for unquestioning submission to this public order. The tragedies of Sophocles reflect the era of the victorious war between the Greeks and the Persians, which opened up great opportunities for trading capital. At the center of his tragedies is the conflict between tribal tradition and state authority. Sophocles believed reconciliation was possible social contradictions- a compromise between the trade elite and the aristocracy.
In Sophocles' dramas, the action was diversified with lively scenes. In his play "Ajax" the hero is presented Trojan War, who fell into wild madness when the armor of the murdered Achilles was awarded not to him, but to Odysseus; Ajax's wife tells the chorus of his comrades that Ajax, in rage and blindness, killed a herd of rams, mistaking them for Odysseus and his warriors; During these words, the doors of the stage tent open wide: out of them comes a platform on wheels and on it the unfortunate, lost Ajax among the figures of the animals he killed; after a few minutes this moving stage is rolled back and the action continues.
And finally, Euripides - a supporter of the victory of the trading stratum over the landowning aristocracy - already denies religion. His Bellerophon depicts a fighter who rebelled against the gods for patronizing treacherous aristocratic rulers.
Euripides, as usual, chose content from myths, but under the guise of heroes he depicted people contemporary to him. In the dramas of Euripides, the misfortunes and death of a person are presented as consequences of his character and the mistakes he made. In conversations characters various questions are raised: power or truth triumphs in the world, is it possible to believe in gods, etc. These conversations sometimes resemble disputes and evidence in an Athenian court.
Greek tragedy was somewhat similar to our opera: the choir sang several songs; The characters, in addition to ordinary conversation, also chanted poems.
In the Greek theater, only the stage was covered. The audience crowded or sat around the open orchestra. To give them more space, stone ledges were built around the orchestra, rising upward more and more. in wide circles. Below, closer to the stage, were placed the main persons in the city, bosses, council members and honored guests from other cities.
Greek tragedy was greatly influenced by Homeric epic. Tragedians borrowed many tales from him. The characters often used expressions borrowed from the Iliad.
The great tragic poet Sophocles stands on a par with Aescholus and Euripides. He is known for such works as Oedipus the King, Antigone, and Electra. He held government positions, but his main occupation was still composing tragedies for the Athenian stage. In addition, Sophocles introduced several innovations in theatrical performance.
Brief biographical information
The main source of biographical information about the second tragic poet after Aeschylus Ancient Greece- an untitled biography, which was usually placed in editions of his tragedies. It is known that the world famous tragedian was born around 496 BC in Colon. Now this place, glorified by Sophocles in the tragedy Oedipus at Colonus, is a district of Athens.
In 480 BC, at the age of sixteen, Sophocles participated in a choir that performed in honor of the victory at the Battle of Salamis. This fact gives the right to compare the biographies of three great Greek tragic authors: Aeschylus participated in Sophocles glorifying him, and Euripides was born just at this time.
Sophocles' father was most likely a man of middle income, although there are different opinions on this matter. He managed to give his son a good education. In addition, Sophocles was distinguished by his outstanding musical abilities: In adulthood, he independently composed music for his works.
Heyday creative activity The tragedy coincides in time with the period that in history is usually called the “age of Pericles.” Pericles headed the Athenian state for thirty years. Then Athens became a significant cultural center; sculptors, poets and scientists from all over Greece came to the city.
Sophocles is not only an outstanding tragic poet, but also a statesman. He served as treasurer state treasury, a strategist, took part in the campaign against Samos, which attempted to secede from Athens, and in the revision of the Athenian constitution after the coup. Evidence of Sophocles' participation in state life preserved by the poet Jonah of Chios.
The “Age of Pericles” was distinguished not only by the flourishing of Athens, but also by the beginning of the decomposition of the state. The exploitation of slave labor displaced the free labor of the population, small and medium-sized slave owners went bankrupt, and a serious stratification of property emerged. The individual and the collective, which had been in relative harmony, were now opposed to each other.
Literary heritage of the tragedian
How many works did Sophocles create? What's it like literary heritage ancient Greek playwright? In total, Sophocles wrote more than 120 tragedies. Only seven works by the author have survived to this day. The list of works by Sophocles includes the following tragedies: “The Trachinian Women”, “Oedipus the King”, “Electra”, “Antigone”, “Ajax”, “Philoctetes”, “Oedipus at Colonus”. In addition, significant fragments of the drama "The Pathfinders" based on the Homeric hymn to Hermes have been preserved.
The dates of the tragedies staged on stage cannot be determined precisely. As for Antigone, it was staged approximately in 442 BC, Oedipus the King - in 429-425, Oedipus at Colonus - after the death of the author, around 401 BC.
The playwright repeatedly participated in tragic competitions and even defeated Aeschylus in 468. What work did Sophocles write to participate in this competition? It was a trilogy based on the tragedy Triptolemus. Subsequently, Sophocles took first place twenty more times and was never third.
The ideological basis of the works
In the contradictions between the old and new ways of life, Sophocles feels doomed. The destruction of the old foundations of Athenian democracy forces him to seek protection in religion. Sophocles (although he recognizes the freedom of man from the will of the gods) believed that human capabilities are limited, there is a power over everyone that condemns them to one fate or another. This can be seen in the works of Sophocles “Oedipus the King” and “Antigone”.
The tragedian believed that a person cannot know what is in store for him every next day, and the will of the gods is manifested in constant variability human life. Sophocles did not recognize the power of money, which was corrupting the foundation of the Greek polis, and wanted to strengthen democratic foundations states, protesting against the stratification of citizens by wealth and property.
Innovations of Sophocles in Ancient Greek Theater
Sophocles, being a successor to Aeschylus, introduces several innovations into theatrical performances. Departing somewhat from the principle of the trilogy, the author began to write separate dramas, each of which represented a complete whole. These parts had no connection with each other, but three tragedies and a satyr drama were still staged on stage.
The tragedian expanded the number of actors to three people, which made it possible to make the dialogue more lively and reveal deeper acting characters. The chorus has already ceased to play the role that Aeschylus assigned to it. But it is obvious that Sophocles used it skillfully. The choir parts echoed the action, intensifying all the sensations of the audience, which made it possible to achieve that cleansing effect (catharsis) that Aristotle spoke about.
"Antigone": content, images, composition
Sophocles' work Antigone was not part of the trilogy, representing a complete tragedy. In Antigone, the tragedian places divine laws above all else; the contradiction between human actions and the will of the gods is shown.
The drama is named after the main character. Polyneices, son of King Oedipus and brother of Antigone, betrayed Thebes and died in battle with his brother Eteocles. King Creon forbade the funeral, leaving the body to be torn to pieces by birds and dogs. But Antigone performed the ritual, for which Creon decided to wall her up in a cave, but the girl committed suicide. Antigone fulfilled the sacred law, did not submit to the king, and followed her duty. Afterwards, her fiancé, the son of Creon, pierced himself with a dagger, and in despair over the death of his son, the king’s wife also took her own life. Seeing all these misfortunes, Creon admitted his insignificance before the gods.
The heroine of Sophocles is a determined and brave girl who consciously accepts death for the right to bury her brother according to the established rite. She honors ancient laws and has no doubts about the correctness of her decision. Antigone's character is revealed even before the main action begins - in the dialogue with Ismene.
Creon (as a stern and unyielding ruler) puts his will above all else. He justifies actions by the interests of the state, is ready to pass cruel laws, and considers any resistance as treason. Compositionally, a very important part of the tragedy is the interrogation of Antigone by Creon. Each remark of the girl increases Creon’s irritability and the tension of the action.
The climax is Antigone's monologue before her execution. The drama is enhanced by the comparison of the girl with the fate of Niobe, the daughter of Tantalus, who was turned into a cliff. Catastrophe is approaching. For the death of his wife and son that followed Antigone's suicide, Creon blames himself. In complete despair, he exclaims: “I am nothing!”
The tragedy "Antigone" by Sophocles, summary which is given above, reveals one of the deepest conflicts in the author’s contemporary society - the conflict between tribal and state laws. The religion, rooted in hoary antiquity, prescribed to honor blood ties and perform all rituals in relation to close relatives, but every citizen of the polis had to comply with state laws, which often contradicted traditional norms.
“Oedipus the King” by Sophocles: analysis of the tragedy
The tragedy discussed below raises the question of the will of the gods and the free will of man. Sophocles interprets the myth of Oedipus, belonging to the Theban cycle, as a hymn to the human mind. The author shows extraordinary strength of character and the desire to build life according to his own discretion.
Sophocles' work Oedipus the King tells the story of the life of Oedipus, the son of the Theban king Laius, who was predicted to die at the hands of his own child. When Oedipus was born, his father ordered his legs to be pierced and thrown on the mountain, but the slave, who was assigned to kill the heir, saved the child. Oedipus (his name from ancient Greek means “with swollen feet”) was raised by the Corinthian king Polybus.
As an adult, Oedipus learns from an oracle that he is destined to kill his own father and marry his mother. The prince wishes to avoid such a fate and leaves Corinth, considering Polybus and his wife to be his real parents. On the way to Thebes, he kills a nameless old man, who turns out to be Laius. The prophecy began to be fulfilled.
Upon arrival in Thebes, Oedipus managed to guess the riddle of the Sphinx and save the city, for which he was elected king and married Laius' widow Jocasta, that is, his own mother. During for long years Oedipus ruled in Thebes and enjoyed the well-deserved love of his people.
When a terrible pestilence struck the country, the oracle announced the cause of all the misfortunes. There is a murderer in town who needs to be driven out. Oedipus strives to find the criminal, not assuming that it is himself. When the truth becomes known to the king, he deprives himself of his sight, believing that this is sufficient punishment for the crime committed.
The central character is King Oedipus, in whom the people see a wise and fair ruler. He is responsible for the fate of people, he is ready to do everything so that the pestilence stops, and saves the city from the Sphinx. The priest calls Oedipus “the best of husbands.” But Oedipus also has weaknesses. As soon as he began to suspect that the priest was covering up for the murderer, he thought that he himself had participated in the crime. Anger quickly overtakes Oedipus in his conversation with Creon. The king, suspecting intrigue, throws insults. This same trait - lack of restraint of character - was the reason for the murder of old man Laius on the road to Thebes.
Not only Oedipus in the work of Sophocles strives to avoid his predetermined fate. Jocasta, the mother of Oedipus, is sinful from a moral point of view, since she allows the baby to be given to death. From a religious point of view, this is disregard for the sayings of the oracle. She later tells the adult Oedipus that she does not believe in predictions. Jocasta pays for her guilt with death.
Creon in Antigone and Oedipus Rex is endowed with different traits. In Sophocles’ tragedy “Oedipus the King,” he did not strive for power at all, values honor and friendship above all else, and promises protection to the daughters of the Theban king.
“Oedipus at Colonus”: images, features of the tragedy
This tragedy of Sophocles was staged after his death. Oedipus, accompanied by Antigone, reaches the outskirts of Athens. Ismene, the second daughter of the former Theban king, brings the news of the oracle that her father is destined to become the patron saint of the country where he will die. The sons of Oedipus want to bring him to Thebes, but he refuses and, hospitably received by King Theseus, decides to stay in Colonus.
In the mouths of the choir and characters - the hymn of Colon. The main goal of Sophocles' work was the glorification of his homeland and the atonement of the sin committed by suffering. Oedipus here is no longer the ruler that the viewer sees him at the beginning of the tragedy “Oedipus the King,” but also not the man broken by misfortunes that he became by the end of the work mentioned above. He is fully aware of his innocence and says that there was no sin or malice in the crimes he committed.
The main feature of the tragedy is the choir parts glorifying the author’s native village. Sophocles shows a person’s lack of confidence in the future, and everyday adversities give him pessimistic thoughts. It is possible that such a gloomy attitude towards surrounding reality caused the last few years of life.
The tragedy "Philoctetes": a brief analysis of the work
Sophocles is briefly studied in philological departments, but the lack of teaching hours often forces some works to be excluded from the program. Thus, Philoctetes is often ignored. Meanwhile, the image of the main character is drawn in development, which is of particular interest. At the very beginning of the action, he is a lonely person, but has not yet completely lost faith in people. After Hercules appears and hopes for healing, he is transformed. In the depiction of characters one can see the techniques inherent in Euripides. The main idea of the tragedy is that a person finds happiness not in satisfying his own interests, but in serving his homeland.
"Ajax", "Trakhinyanki", "Electra"
The theme of Sophocles' tragedy "Ajax" is the awarding of the armor of Achilles not to Ajax, but to Odysseus. Athena sent Ajax into a fit of madness and he slaughtered a herd of cattle. Ajax thought that this was the Achaean army, led by Odysseus. When main character When he came to his senses, he, fearing ridicule, committed suicide. Thus, the entire action is built on the conflict between the power of God and dependence on the divine will of an individual.
In the work "The Trachinian Women", the wife of Hercules becomes a criminal out of ignorance. She soaks her husband's cloak with the blood of the centaur he killed, wanting to return her love. But the centaur's gift turns out to be deadly. Hercules dies in agony, and his wife commits suicide. The woman is portrayed as meek, faithful and loving, forgiving the weaknesses of her husband. The feeling of responsibility for the crime she committed out of ignorance forces her to punish herself in such a cruel way.
The theme of the tragedies of Euripides and Sophocles “Electra” was the myth of the same name about the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. Electra - passionate nature, in Sophocles this image is distinguished by its psychological depth. The girl, together with her brother, kills her mother, fulfilling the sacred will of the god Apollo, the patron of paternal rights. The idea of the tragedy is to punish the crime and protect the religion of Apollo. This is confirmed not only by the finale, but also by many parts of the choir.
General characteristics of creativity
The works of Sophocles reflect issues typical of his time, for example: attitudes towards religion, unwritten and state laws, the free will of an individual and the gods, the problem of nobility and honor, the interests of the individual and the collective. A number of contradictions are revealed in the tragedies. For example, in “Electra” the tragedian defends the religion of Apollo, but he also recognizes the free will of man (“Oedipus the King”).
In tragedies, complaints about the instability of life and the fickleness of happiness are constantly heard. Each work examines the fate of an individual person, not a family. Interest in personality was also reinforced by the innovation introduced by Sophocles into theatrical performance, namely the addition of a third actor.
The heroes of Sophocles' works are strong personalities. In describing their characters, the author uses the technique of contrast, which allows him to emphasize main feature. This is how the brave Antigone and the weak Ismene, the strong Electra and her indecisive sister are depicted. Sophocles was attracted to noble characters, reflecting the ideological foundations of Athenian democracy.
Sophocles on a par with Aeschylus and Euripides
Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides are the greatest Greek authors of tragedies, the significance of whose creative heritage was recognized by their contemporaries. Between these authors, who belonged to different generations, there is a significant difference in the field of dramatic poetry. Aeschylus is imbued with the testaments of antiquity in all respects: religious, moral and political, his characters are often given schematically, and the heroes of Sophocles are no longer gods, but ordinary individuals, but distinguished by well-developed characters. Euripides lived already in the era of the new philosophical movement, and began to use the stage to promote certain ideas. Aeschylus and Sophocles differ significantly in this regard. The characters of Euripides are completely ordinary people with all the weaknesses. In his works he raises difficult questions of religion, politics or morality, but there is never a final answer.
Mention of tragedians in Aristophanes' comedy "Frogs"
When characterizing ancient Greek authors, one cannot fail to mention another outstanding author, but in the field of comedy (tragedies are Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles). Aristophanes glorified three writers in his comedy "Frogs". Aeschylus (if we talk about the time of Aristophanes) died quite a long time ago, and Sophocles and Euripides died almost simultaneously, half a century after Aeschylus. Disputes immediately began about which of the three was better. In response to this, Aristophanes staged the comedy "Frogs".
The work is named this way because the choir is represented by frogs living in the Acheron River (through which Charon transports the dead to the kingdom of Hades). The patron of the theater in Athens was Dionysus. It was he who became concerned about the fate of the theater and decided to descend into the afterlife and bring Euripides back so that he would continue to stage tragedies.
As the action progresses, it turns out that in the afterlife there are also poetry competitions. Aeschylus and Euripides read their poems. As a result, Dionysus decides to bring Aeschylus back to life. The comedy ends with a chorus part in which Aeschylus and Athens are glorified.
In the 7th - 8th centuries. BC, the cult of Dionysus, the god of the productive forces of nature, fertility and wine, is widespread. The cult of Dionysus was rich in carnival-type rituals. A number of traditions were dedicated to Dionysus, and the emergence of all genres of Greek drama, which was based on ritual magic games, is associated with them. The staging of tragedies at festivals dedicated to Dionysus became official at the end of the 8th century BC during the era of tyranny.
Tyranny arose in the struggle of the people against the power of the tribal nobility; tyrants ruled the state, naturally, they relied on artisans, traders and farmers. Wanting to ensure popular support for the government, the tyrants confirmed the cult of Dionysus, popular among farmers. Under the Athenian tyrant Lysistrata, the cult of Dionysus became a state cult, and the holiday of the “Great Dionysius” was established. The production of tragedies was introduced in Athens in 534. All ancient Greek theaters were built according to the same type: under open air and along the hillsides.
The first stone theater was built in Athens and could accommodate from 17,000 to 30,000 people. The round platform was called the orchestra; even further away is the skena, the room in which the actors changed clothes. At first there were no decorations in the theater. By the middle of the 5th century. BC. Pieces of canvas began to be leaned against the façade of the sketches, painted conventionally “Trees meant the forest, the dolphin meant the sea, the river god meant the river.” Only men and only free citizens could perform in the Greek theater. The actors enjoyed a certain respect and performed in masks. One actor could, changing masks, play male and female roles.
Almost no biographical information has been preserved about Aeschylus. It is known that he was born in the town of Eleusis near Athens, that he came from a noble family, that his father owned vineyards, and that his family took an active part in the war with the Persians. Aeschylus himself, judging by the epitaph he composed for himself, valued himself more as a participant in the battle of Marathon than as a poet.
We also know that he is around 470 BC. was in Sicily, where his tragedy “The Persians” was staged a second time, and that in 458 BC. he left again for Sicily. He died and was buried there.
One of the reasons for Aeschylus’s departure, according to ancient biographers, is the resentment of his contemporaries, who began to give preference to the work of his younger contemporary, Sophocles.
The ancients already called Aeschylus “the father of tragedy,” although he was not the first author of tragedy. The Greeks considered Thespis, who lived in the second half of the 4th century, to be the founder of the tragic genre. BC. and, in the words of Horace, “carrying tragedy in a chariot.” Apparently Thespile was transporting costumes, masks, etc. from village to village. He was the first reformer of tragedy, since he introduced an actor who answered the chorus, and, changing masks, played the roles of all the characters in the drama. We know other names tragic poets, who lived before Aeschylus, but they did not make significant changes to the structure of the drama.
Aeschylus was the second reformer of tragedy. His plays are closely related, and sometimes directly devoted to pressing problems of our time, and his connection with the cult of Dionysus was concentrated in his satyr drama. Aeschylus turned a primitive cantata into dramatic work by limiting the role of the chorus and introducing a second actor into the action. Those improvements that were introduced by subsequent poets were only quantitative in nature and could not significantly change the structure of the drama created by Aeschylus.
The introduction of a second actor created the opportunity to portray a conflict, a dramatic struggle. It is possible that it was Aeschylus who came up with the idea of the trilogy, i.e. the development of one plot in three tragedies, which made it possible to more fully reveal this plot.
Aeschylus can be called the poet of the formation of democracy. Firstly, the beginning of his work coincides with the time of the struggle against tyranny, the establishment of democratic order in Athens and the gradual victory democratic principles in all areas public life. Secondly, Aeschylus was a supporter of democracy, a participant in the war with the Persians, an active participant in the public life of his city, and in tragedies he defended the new order and the moral standards corresponding to them. Of the 90 tragedies and satyr dramas he created, 7 have reached us in full, and in all of them we find a thoughtful defense of democratic principles.
The most archaic tragedy of Aeschylus is “The Entreaties”: more than half of its text is occupied choral parts.
An adherent of the new order, Aeschylus acts here as a defender of paternal law and the principles of a democratic state. He rejects not only the custom of blood feud, but also the religious purification of shed blood, depicted earlier in the poem of Stesichorus, a lyric poet of the 7th - 6th centuries BC, who owns one of the adaptations of the myth of Orestes.
The pre-Olympic gods and the old principles of life are not rejected in the tragedy: a cult is established in honor of the Erinyes in Athens, but they will now be revered under the name of Eumenides, benevolent goddesses, givers of fertility.
Thus, reconciling the old aristocratic principles with the new, democratic ones, Aeschylus calls on his fellow citizens to a reasonable settlement of contradictions, to mutual concessions for the sake of preserving civil peace. In the tragedy there are repeated calls for harmony and warnings against civil strife. For example, Athena:
“May abundance be here forever
Fruits of the earth, let the gardens grow richly,
And let the human race multiply. And just let
The seed of the daring and arrogant perishes.
As a farmer, I would like to weed
A weed so that it does not choke the noble color.”
(Art. 908-913: translated by S. Apta)
Athena (Erinyam):
“So don’t harm my land, not this
Bloody feuds, intoxicating the youths
Intoxicated by the intoxicating intoxication of rabies. my people
Don't set it on fire like roosters so that there won't be
Internecine wars in the country. Let the citizens
They do not harbor insolent enmity towards each other.”
(Art. 860-865; translated by S. Apta)
If the aristocrats were not content with the honors bestowed upon them, but sought to preserve all their previous privileges, the establishment of a democratic polis would not have been achieved with “little blood”, as it actually happened; having accepted new orders for known conditions, the aristocrats acted wisely, like the Erinyes, who agreed to perform new functions and renounced their claims.
Aeschylus reduced the role of the chorus and paid more attention to the stage action than was before him, nevertheless, choral parts occupy a place in his tragedies significant place, which is especially noticeable when comparing his dramas with the works of subsequent tragic poets. Aeschylus’ artistic technique is usually called “silent grief.” This technique was already noted by Aristophanes in “Frogs”: the hero of Aeschylus is silent for a long time, while other characters talk about him or his silence in order to draw the viewer’s attention to him.
According to ancient philologists, the scenes of silence of Niobe at the grave of her children, and Achilles at the body of Patroclus, in the tragedies of Aeschylus “Niobe” and “The Myrmidons” that have not reached us, were especially long.
In this tragedy, Aeschylus protests against the violence from which the daughters of Danae are fleeing, contrasts Athenian freedom with Eastern despotism and develops an ideal ruler who does not take serious steps without the consent of the people.
The myth about the humane titan Prometheus, who stole fire from Zeus for people, is the basis of the tragedy “Chained Prometheus” (one of later works Aeschylus).
Prometheus, chained to a rock by order of Zeus as punishment for stealing fire, pronounces angry, accusatory speeches against the gods and especially Zeus. However, one should not see in this a conscious criticism of religion on the part of Aeschylus: the myth of Prometheus is used by the poet to pose current socio-ethical problems. Memories of tyranny were still fresh in Athens, and in Prometheus Bound, Aeschylus warns his fellow citizens against the return of tyranny. The face of Zeus depicts a typical tyrant; Prometheus personifies the pathos of freedom and humanism hostile to tyranny.
The latest work of Aeschylus is the trilogy “Oresteia” (458) - the only trilogy that has completely come down to us from Greek drama. Its plot is based on the myth about the fate of the Argive king Agamemnon, over whose family a hereditary curse hung. The idea of divine retribution, reaching not only the criminal, but also his descendants, who in turn are doomed to commit a crime, has taken root since the time of the tribal system, which conceived the clan as a single whole.
Returning victorious from the Trojan War, Agamemnos was killed by his wife Clytemnestra on the very first day. The trilogy is named after Agamemnon's son, Orestes, who kills his mother to avenge his father's death. The first part of the trilogy: “Agamemnon” tells about the return of Agamemnon, about the feigned joy of Clytemnestra, who arranges a solemn meeting for him; about his murder.
In the second part (“Choephors”), the children of Agamemnon take revenge for the death of their father. Obeying the will of Apollo, and inspired by his sister Electra and friend Pylades, Orestes kills Clytemnestra. Immediately after this, Orestes begins to be pursued ancient goddesses revenge of Erypnia, which obviously personifies the torments of the conscience of Orestes - the matricide.
The murder of a mother in ancient society was considered the most serious, irredeemable crime, while the murder of a husband can be expiated: after all, the husband is not a blood relative of the wife. This is why the Erinyes defend Clytemnestra and demand the punishment of Orestes.
Apollo and Athena, the “new gods” who here personify the principle of citizenship, adhere to a different point of view. Apollo, in his speech at the trial, accuses Clytemnestra of killing a man, which in his opinion is much more terrible than killing a woman, even a mother.
Key Concepts
Cult of Dionysus, great Dionysia, ancient tragedy, ancient theatre, orchestra, skena, katurni, “Aeschylus the Father of Tragedy”, “Chained Prometheus”, “Oresteia”, “silent sorrow”.
Literature
- 1. I.M. Tronsky: History of ancient literature. M. 1998
- 2. V.N. Yarkho: Aeschylus and the problems of ancient Greek tragedy.
- 3. Aeschylus “Chained Prometheus.”
- 4. Aeschylus “Oresteia”
- 5. D. Kalistov “Ancient Theater”. L. 1970
Belinsky: “Drama is the highest stage of development of poetry.” The term "drama" is translated from Greek as "action". Life events are revealed not through the author’s story, but through the actions and speech of the characters. The main elements in drama are action and dialogue, through which events, characters, thoughts and feelings are directly revealed.
The chorus was an integral part of the drama. He sang to the music and danced. In drama, the hero, the person, and not the event came to the fore (unlike the epic). The drama is built on a tense clash of forces, on acute conflicts. Hero ancient tragedy comes into conflict with fate, with the gods, with his own kind, a conflict with society is emerging - 5th century BC.
In VII - VI, after anti-aristocratic coups, tyrants were in power. They tried to be loved by the people → encouraged folk holidays(cult of Dionysus). People took to the streets and acted out scenes from his life
The roots of the drama lie in the cults (religious and mythological) in honor of the god Dionysus: dithyrambs and the Eleusinian mysteries. The drama is based on the cult of Dionysus. Dionysus is crowding out the cult of Apollo - the cult of aristocrats. The theatrical performances themselves are born from dithyrambs. According to legend, the first dithyramb was invented by Orion. But only the praises of Bacchylides have reached us. Songs in honor of Dionysus - “goat songs” - tragos.
Pisistratus in the 20s VI issued a decree to stage performances on stage in the days of the great Dionysius → legalized performances.
The anthropomorphism of the gods provided great opportunities for the theater. Seven tragedies of Aeschylus, seven of Sophocles and seventeen of Euripides have reached us.
Performances took place only three times a year during the festivals of Dionysus. They sang not only tragic songs, but also funny ones. The crowd performing such songs was called Kommos. There was another genre - satyr drama.
Theater performances went according to the principle of agons (according to gr - competition) - 3 tragedy poets competed, each representing a tetralogy (3 tragedies and 1 satyr drama) three comedy poets (1 comedy each)
Those who prepared its material side were called choregas. Sometimes they went bankrupt, since the theater was an expensive business, but they never refused this honorable position.
The performance circle began with a proagon - sacrifices were made to Dionysus, initially even human ones. Then the choirs came out. Each tragedian had to have a tetralogy: a tragic trilogy and a satyr drama.
Actors - only men
The choir is the narrator, commentator, and occupied a central place in the narrative. There could only be three actors, and at first there could only be one - the protagonist (the first responder), who stood out from the lead singer of the choir. The second answerer is a deuteragonist, introduced by Aeschylus. They could be in conflict. Sophocles introduced a third actor - a tritagonist, this is the pinnacle of Greek tragedy.
The main task of theater is catharsis. Cleansing from the passions that consume a person. Fate always wins, although the hero is noble.
Structure of Greek tragedy
The tragedies began with a parod - the song of a choir walking through the orchestra. The leader of the choir is a luminary. In later times, it was replaced by a prologue (commencement) - this is all before the first song of the choir, usually a story, an exposition. Then came the stasim - the song of a standing choir. Then the episode - the protagonist appeared. Then there was an alternation of stasims and episodies. The episode ended by O mosom - a joint song of the hero and the choir. All tragedy ends uh ksodom (departure of the choir) - the song of everyone.
Since ancient times, at festivals in honor of Dionysus, or Bacchus, the god of the vine and wine, villagers organized solemn processions to the temple and sacrificed goats to the god. They dressed up in goat skins, tied up their hooves, horns and tails, depicting the companions of Dionysus - goat-footed satyrs. In honor of God, the choir sang solemn chants (dithyrambs), accompanied by games and dancing. At the same time, a singer stood out from the choir, who portrayed Dionysus or some other mythical figure, and the singing was performed alternately by the choir and then by the singer. This is where the tragedy came from (“tragedy” in Greek means “song of the goats”). Initially, only the choir and the author himself participated in it as the only actor. The first tragedies set forth myths about Dionysus: about his suffering, death, resurrection, struggle and victory over his enemies. But then poets began to draw content for their works from other legends. In this regard, the choir began to portray not satyrs, but other mythical creatures or people depending on the content of the play.
The tragedy arose from solemn chants. She retained their majesty and seriousness; her heroes became strong personalities, endowed with a strong-willed character and great passions. Greek tragedy always depicted some particularly difficult moments in the life of an entire state or an individual, terrible crimes, misfortune and deep moral suffering. There was no place for jokes or laughter.
The tragedy reached its greatest flowering in the 5th century. BC e. in the works of three Athenian poets: Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides.
Before Aeschylus, dramatic performances were still very primitive, since the participation of just one actor did not allow poets to present a complex action, show the struggle of ideas, views, moods, etc. Only after Aeschylus, the “father of tragedy,” introduced a second actor and moved the focus of the play from the chorus to the dialogue of the actors, the tragedy became a real dramatic performance. But still, in the tragedies of Aeschylus, the choir still played an important role. Only with the appearance of a third actor in the drama, whom Sophocles introduced, did the chorus gradually lose its significance, and from the end of the 4th century. BC e. tragedies are written without a chorus at all.
Thus, in ancient Greek tragedy there was singing, dancing and music. In this way it differed from the tragedy of a later time.
Plays with a chorus of satyrs stood out in special genre- a comic, cheerful performance, a “satyr drama.” For the festival of Dionysus, every poet in Athens who wanted to take part in a dramatic competition had to present three tragedies - a trilogy and one satyr drama.
The eldest of the three great tragedians was Aeschylus. He was born in 525 BC. e. in the town of Eleusis, near Athens. The time of his life coincides with the era of the Greco-Persian wars and the strengthening of the democratic system in Athens. As a hoplite (heavily armed infantry warrior), Aeschylus fought for the happiness and freedom of his homeland against the Persian invaders.
The ancients attributed 72 or 90 plays to Aeschylus, of which only seven tragedies have come down to us in their entirety: “The Petitioners”, “The Persians”, “Seven Against Thebes”, “Chained Prometheus” and the “Oresteia” trilogy, consisting of tragedies: “Agamemnon”, "Choephori" ("Women pouring a funeral libation") and "Eumenides".
Aeschylus enjoyed fame among his contemporaries greatest poet: He was a winner in dramatic competitions 13 times and his plays received the exclusive right to be re-staged. A monument was erected to the poet in Athens. Towards the end of his life, Aeschylus moved to Sicily, where he died in 456 BC. e. in the city of Gela. The inscription on the grave glorifies him as a valiant warrior.
The plots of all Aeschylus’ tragedies, except for “The Persians,” are ancient myths about gods and heroes, but the poet puts into these mythical tales the ideas, concepts and views of his time, reflecting the political life of Athenian society in the 5th century. BC e. A supporter of the Athenian democratic system, Aeschylus appears in his works as an ardent patriot, an enemy of tyranny and violence, who firmly believes in the victory of reason and justice. Using examples of heroic images ancient mythology Aeschylus raised his fellow citizens in the spirit of selfless devotion to the homeland, courage and honesty.
The idea of the advantages of a democratic system over monarchical despotism is expressed with great force by the poet in the tragedy “The Persians.” In it he glorifies the brilliant victory of the Greeks over the Persians at Salamis. The tragedy was staged 8 years after this battle. It is easy to imagine what a huge impression “The Persians” made on the audience, most of whom, like Aeschylus, were participants in the Greco-Persian War.
In ancient times of Greek history, myths arose about a curse that weighed down entire families. The tragedy of Aeschylus “Seven against Thebes” is dedicated to the ill-fated fate of the Labdacid family; three tragedies by Sophocles: “Oedipus the King”, “Oedipus at Colonus” and “Antigone” - and tragedies by Euripides: “The Phoenicians” and partly “The Petitioners”. But while presenting the same myth, each of the poets interpreted it in his own way, depending on the goals that he pursued in his tragedies.
An ancient myth told that the Theban king Oedipus from the Labdacid clan, in complete ignorance, committed terrible crimes: he killed own father Laia and married his mother Jocasta. Only after many years did the terrible truth reveal itself to his eyes. Horrified by crimes committed Oedipus blinded himself. But the Labdacid family did not get rid of the curse. The sons of Oedipus, Eteocles and Polynnicus, attacked each other and both died in a fratricidal war.
The siege of the seven-gate Thebes by Polynnicos, who led a foreign army led by six Argive commanders to his homeland, his battle with Eteocles and the death of both brothers are the plot of Aeschylus’s tragedy “Seven against Thebes.”
Aeschylus presents the struggle of two brothers for royal power in the tragedy as the struggle of the free Theban people against foreign invaders - the Argives, who came to enslave the city, betray it to fire and violence. By creating a terrible picture of a besieged city, the poet evokes in the audience’s memory sentiments similar to those that the Greeks experienced during the years of the Persian invasion. The ruler of Thebes, Eteocles, according to myth, is a blind instrument in the hands of the gods. In the tragedy, he is depicted as a decisive, reasonable and courageous military leader. This is a man of strong will, going into battle with his brother consciously, in the name of protecting his fatherland. The image of Eteocles combines everything best qualities Greek fighters, heroes of Marathon and Salamis. Thus, under the influence of contemporary events, Aeschylus processed the ancient legend.
The poet’s tragedy “Chained Prometheus” is world famous, in which he immortalized the image of the tyrant-hater Titan Prometheus, a fighter for freedom, happiness and culture of mankind.
Wanting to save from death human race, Prometheus stole fire from Zeus and gave it to people. He taught them to build houses and ships, tame animals, recognize medicinal plants; taught them the science of numbers and literacy, endowed people with consciousness and memory. For this, Zeus severely punished the titan. In response to Zeus' messenger Hermes, who threatened him with new torment, Prometheus proudly declares:
Know well that I would not trade
Their sorrows into servile service...
A fighter for truth and justice, Prometheus says that he hates all gods. This tragedy was one of Karl Marx's favorite works.
The powerful characters of the images of Aeschylus' tragedies made a huge impression. To express the feelings and thoughts of these heroic individuals, a particularly majestic and solemn style was required. Therefore, Aeschylus created poetic speech, full of bright hyperboles, metaphors, composed Difficult words, consisting of several roots and prefixes. In this regard, the understanding of his tragedies gradually became more and more difficult and interest in his work among later generations decreased.
However, the influence of Aeschylus on all subsequent world literature huge. Poets of all eras and movements were especially attracted to the image of Prometheus, which we find in the works of almost all famous poets XVII - XIX centuries: Calderon, Voltaire, Goethe, Shelley, Byron and others. The Russian poet revolutionary-democrat Ogarev wrote the poem “Prometheus”, in which he protested against the tyranny of Nicholas I. The work of Aeschylus also had a great influence on composers: Liszt, Wagner, Scriabin, Taneyev and others.
The work of Aeschylus' younger contemporaries - Sophocles and Euripides - dates back to the period of the highest economic and cultural prosperity of the Athenian democratic state.
After the victory over the Persians, Athens became the scientific and cultural center of all Greece - the “school of Hellas.” Scientists, artists, sculptors, and architects come there. Are being created greatest works arts, among which one of the first places is occupied by the temple of Athena - the Parthenon. Works are written on history, medicine, astronomy, music, etc.
Particular interest is shown in the personality of the person himself. The beauty of the human body is depicted by the sculptors Phidias and Polykleitos. Inner world man, his moral experiences are revealed by the Greek tragedians Sophocles and Euripides. Like Aeschylus, they draw plots for their works from ancient mythological tales. But the heroes they created are no longer powerful, unshakable titans towering above mere mortals, but living people who evoke deep sympathy in the audience for their suffering.
In Sophocles' famous tragedy Oedipus the King, all attention is not focused on external events, but on the feelings that take possession of Oedipus as he learns about the crimes he committed. From a happy, beloved and respected king by his people, Oedipus turns into an unhappy sufferer, dooming himself to eternal blindness and exile. Another remarkable tragedy of Sophocles, “Antigone,” tells about the death of Oedipus’s children.
Euripides, like Sophocles, with subtle observation depicts in his tragedies the changing feelings and moods of the characters. He brings the tragedy closer to life, introduces a lot of everyday traits from family life their heroes. Being one of the most progressive people of his time, Euripides puts into the mouths of the characters discussions about the injustice of slavery, the advantages of a democratic system, etc. The best of Euripides' tragedies that have come down to us is “Medea.”
The works of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides played a colossal role in the education of many generations. Defense of the Athenian democratic system, defense of human rights, the spirit of patriotism and irreconcilable hatred of tyranny and violence, love of freedom - this is what forms the basis of the ancient Greek tragedy.
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