Dedicated to all girls
girls, women and grandmothers!
Artists of the 15th century began to cover their canvases with a dense carpet of plants, imitating tapestries. In front of you you see a Burgundian tapestry depicting a captive unicorn.
The tradition of depicting various plants, giving them symbolic meaning, appeared in antiquity. Yes, leaves acanthus were considered a symbol of death.
On the tapestries, plants are depicted with surprisingly “botanical” accuracy, but it seems that for now they only serve as decoration.
In the unicorn hunting scene, in the lower right corner is orange tree. It was an exotic plant, it was considered a symbol of heaven.
Traveling to distant countries allowed Europeans to get acquainted with new plants - date palms, For example.
Often different types plants decorated the marginalia of manuscripts.
The legend about magical properties root mandrakes.
The palm trees seemed something like this.
Cone pine trees(pine) was a symbol of the tree of life.
Several flowers were considered symbols of the Virgin Mary.
Some plants had symbolic meaning for different religions. The picture shows a leaf from an ancient Jewish book with an image of a menorah and olive trees, symbol of peace. (Spain, 12th century)
In the initial letter of a medieval manuscript we see Death admiring himself in the mirror, and around - periwinkles, symbol of youth and beauty. The irony, apparently, is this.
Ancient myths were popular during the Renaissance. In the painting by Cosimo Tura (1465) there is the muse Calliope, the patroness of poetry. There is a branch in her hand cherries- a symbol of fertility, here - creative, apparently.
Raphael Santi "The Knight's Dream" (1504).
It’s clear that hidden symbolism was literally asking for the allegory canvases. This picture is "encrypted" difficult choice between wisdom and bodily pleasures. On the left is the goddess Minerva, holding out a book to the sleeping knight, a symbol of knowledge, on the right is Venus, offering apple tree flowers- a symbol of sensual inheritances.
There is a lot of symbolism in Old Testament stories. In Albrecht Altdorfer's painting "Susanna and the Elders" (1526), the heroine goes to court (on the right), carrying in her hands lily- a symbol of innocence. If you remember, lustful elders harassed her after watching her bathe, and when the pious woman refused them, they falsely accused her of adultery. The wise King David carried out righteous judgment, bringing the libertines to clean water. See Susanna walking past a tall stem mullein, also called the “royal scepter” - a symbol of power and justice.
Another beautiful South Flemish tapestry "The Killing of the Unicorn". Now with symbols.
A bush is visible in the lower left corner hazel is a symbol of wealth and abundance. Squirrel is a symbol of hard work.
And, of course, a lot secret symbols V religious painting 15-16 centuries. The grassy cover at the feet of the saints, especially in the paintings of the Northern Renaissance, is a real botanical reference book. It seems that knowledge of btanica was a required skill for artists of that time. Interestingly, almost every plant had its own meaning.
I once told you in great detail about the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan van Eyck. Let me remind you that there are a lot of symbols here, including plant symbols.
For example, Eve holds in her hand the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge, but here it is not an apple, but an “Adam’s apple” or not edible Iberian citron.
Apple, like lemon- a symbol of original sin.
In this wonderful painting by Matthias Grunewald "Stuppach Madonna" (1517) we see symbols of Mary in a vase - white lily- innocence and purity, rose- maternal grief and the wounds of Christ, marigold(or marigolds) - “Mary’s gold”, the gift of consolation of the Mother of God to the poor and wretched. Maria gives it to the baby walnut- a symbol of Christ (the nondescript shell is the human body, the tasty kernel is the divine essence).
On the same Ghent Altar you can also see the flowers of the Virgin Mary: rose- sorrow, lily- purity, aquilegia and lily of the valley- tears.
Lily of the valley can also be seen at the feet of Saint Veronica from a painting by Robert Campin. And one more thing dandelion: cute flower - baby Christ, lance-shaped leaves - Longinus' spear, passion of Christ.
Jacques Daret, "Madonna and Child with Saints in the Forbidden Garden" (1425). At Mary's feet - hellebore, symbol of Christ and eternal life. On the left in the corner - iris, a symbol of maternal grief and torment.
Angels present the Madonna and Child jasmine. Cosimo Rossini (1440-1507)
Jasmine is a symbol of purity.
"Christmas" by Hugo van der Goes is the progenitor of still lifes. Fragment:
In the foreground of the picture we see those already familiar to us lilies, irises(white symbolizes purity, blue - maternal grief), aquilegia. And also cloves- the blood of Christ and mother's love, And violets- a symbol of humility. Spikelets wheat- bread, the flesh of the Lord.
Venetian copy of Leonardo da Vinci's painting "Leda and the Swan". In ancient times mythological plot flowers have a completely different meaning: anemone- windiness, aquilegia- symbol of fertility, periwinkle in the hands of Leda - natural strength, passion, youth, caustic buttercup(“night blindness”) - carelessness. Oak above the head of Leda is a symbol of Zeus. Such meticulous detailing, usually not characteristic of the Itelians, was often “borrowed” by artists from northern painters.
Mary gives the baby cloves- symbol parental love. (Leonardo da Vinci "Madonna of the Carnation").
Gerard David "Nativity with donors, Saints Jerome and Leonard" (1510-15).
This is symbolic dandelion, you already know its meaning:
Gerolamo di Labri "Madonna and Child with Saints" (1520). bay tree- glory, immortality. Peacock is a symbol of eternal life (for some reason its flesh was considered incorruptible)
Martin Schongauer "Madonna of the Roses"
Actually, rose- a symbol of the suffering and sacrifice of Christ and Mary, “God’s wounds.” It is interesting that it is not roses that are depicted here, but tree-like ones. peons. It was believed that roses in paradise had no thorns, so the peon was quite suitable for this role.
And these are Schongauer’s sketches (1495). Peon! 
Stefan Lochner. Another pink thicket. At the feet of Our Lady violets, symbol of humility.
Joos van Cleve (1513-15). Often the Madonna and Child were depicted with fruit. Christ holds in his hands orange(fruit of the tree of paradise) or peach- opposition to the apple, the fruit-symbol of original sin; peach is a symbol of the Trinity. Pomegranate on the tray is a symbol of the Universal Church, grape- wine - the blood of Christ, nut - you already know, cherry- blood of Jesus, pear- the sweetness of virtue.
Filippo Lippi (late 15th century). Same pomegranate.
Giovanni Bellini (1480), here with us pear.
Joos van Cleve (1525). Clearly in hand peach. Lemon lies defiantly to the side - this is a symbol of earthly passions: beautiful on the outside, impossibly sour on the inside. It is clearly opposed to the walnut, a symbol of Christ.
Carlo Crivelli (1480). Baby holding in hand goldfinch, symbol of the passion of Christ. On the left sits a fly - the waking devil, a symbol of death and decay. Sometimes apple was interpreted as a symbol of redemption, and cucumber- purity and resurrection.
Lucas Cranach. Grape- Eucharistic symbol of Christ, the blood of Christ.
Martin Schongauer" Holy family".Grape, and in the basket - blackberry, symbol of the purity of the Virgin Mary.
Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grunewald, 1510-15
The saints in the doors stand on pedestals entwined with ivy- a symbol of resurrection, eternal life, devotion.
Now we have saints.
Adrian Isenbrandt "Mary Magdalene with a Landscape". Behind the saint - snowdrop, symbol of hope and purification.
Lucas Cranach. "Saint Dorothea" When the saint was being led to execution, the guard, mockingly, invited her to perform a miracle - to get roses in the middle of winter. A boy with a basket of roses immediately approached the saint. Now it is a symbol of Saint Dorothea.
Antonio Correggio "Saint Catherine". Branch palm trees- a symbol of martyrdom.
Albrecht Durer "Maximilian the First". Pomegranate- you already know.
All sorts of secular people went.
Hans Suess van Kulbach. A girl weaves a wreath from forget-me-nots- a symbol of devotion to a loved one. This is confirmed by the inscription on the tape.
"Young Knight in a Landscape" (Duke of Urbino?). Vittore Carpaccio. Apparently the portrait is posthumous. A heron is attacked in the sky by a hawk near the water; it already eats it up. The dog is fidelity, the lily is purity, the iris is sorrow, the ermine is the symbol of the order to which the knight belonged.
Portrait of a lady. In the basket there are flowers that indicate that this is most likely the bride: violet - humility, jasmine - purity, carnation - love.
Andrea Solario "Portrait of a Man with a Carnation". Such ceremonial “groom” portraits were very popular. They showed that the hero was in love and was going to get married. Or the young husband presented such a portrait to his wife as a sign of love.
Many more: 
Unknown 1480.
1490
Lucas Cranach. Portrait of Doctor Johann Kuspinian and his fiancee (already his wife?) Anna Kuspinian.
Hans Holbein. Portrait of Georg Guisse.
Hans Memling
Dirk Jaakobs. Portrait of Pompeus Occo (1534)
Michael Wolgemuth "Portrait of Ursula Tücher" (1478)
Jan van Eyck's workshop
Pisanello, Portrait of Countess Guinevere d'Este (1447)
And this is a portrait of a girl who was already dead at the time of its creation. She died at 21, and her husband was blamed for his death (his second wife also died strangely). In the picture there are symbolic flowers: aquilegia - tears, carnation - love (possibly parental, we don’t know who ordered the painting), butterflies and a sprig of pine needles - immortality in the memory of loved ones.
Domenico Gerlandaio "Portrait of a Lady". Apparently she is a bride, another symbol of purity is the orange blossom
Albrecht Durer, self-portrait at age 22.
The portrait was intended for a young wife, the holly in her hands is a symbol of marital fidelity. The picture inspired me to create this post.
Neuzv. Lady from the Hofer family. Forget-me-not - loyalty, devotion. Perhaps the lady’s husband has died - the fly on the headdress may indicate this; here it is a symbol of death, the frailty of existence.
Lady Philippa Kingsby. Cherry - fertility, abundance
Portrait of a Lady (1576). Here, a buttercup in your hands means wealth, a primrose means marriage. Lucky, apparently, your aunt!
Mirabello Cavalori "Boy with hyacinth and peach". Hyacinth symbolized courage, dexterity, and playfulness. Sometimes - wisdom, but here - hardly. And hyacinths smell good - they gave them to me today.
And finally, a portrait of Nicolaus Copernicus by Tobias Steamer. Lily of the valley is a symbol of bitterness and tears. As you know, the scientist had a lot of this stuff!
And I wish you not to feel bitterness, but to shed tears only from joy!
Usually, when the phrase “Middle Ages” is uttered, gloomy Gothic castles appear before one’s eyes, everything is dark, neglected, dull... This is a stereotype that for some reason has developed in people’s minds. The painting of this period proves the opposite - it is not only not dull, but also very colorful.
Art of the Middle Ages: features and trends
The Middle Ages represents the period from the fifth to the seventeenth centuries. The term itself originated in Italy; it was believed that this time was a cultural decline; the Middle Ages were constantly compared with Antiquity - and the comparison was not in favor of the former.
There are several features of the art of the Middle Ages, and all of them are closely related to the foundations and traditions that prevailed in society at that time. Thus, the church and religious dogmas were strong - that is why religion became something commonplace for the culture of that time. Besides this, characteristic features it was asceticism, rejection of ancient traditions and at the same time commitment to antiquity, attention to inner world man and his spirituality.
The era is usually divided into several periods: early Middle Ages(before the eleventh century), developed (before the fifteenth) and later (before the seventeenth century). Each of these intervals, again, has its own trends. As an example - early Middle Ages was distinguished by a complete rejection of ancient traditions, sculpture sank into oblivion, flourished wooden architecture and the so-called animal style. People, as a rule, were not depicted, and the art was “barbaric.” Particular attention was paid to color.
The developed Middle Ages, on the contrary, concentrated on applied art - carpets, castings, and book miniatures were in fashion.
In the era of late Middle Ages Romanesque and Gothic styles began to dominate, in particular, they predominated in architecture, which was the main form of art in this period.
In general, the following periodization of the art of the Middle Ages is generally accepted: Celtic, early Christian, art of the period of migration of peoples, Byzantine, pre-Romanesque, Romanesque art and Gothic. Next, we will dwell in more detail on genres, styles, techniques and plots. medieval painting. Let's remember the famous masters.
Painting of the Middle Ages
IN different periods During the Middle Ages, different types of art came to the fore - sculpture, architecture. It cannot be said that painting remained on the sidelines. Over time and under the influence of changes in society, it also changed, as a result of which the paintings became more realistic, and artists appeared new techniques, themes and perspectives for creativity. So, for example, despite the fact that the tendency to paint canvases with religious themes remained popular in medieval painting of any period (however, after the thirteenth century it began to occur much less frequently), with increasing education they became more common so-called secular paintings - everyday content, reflecting simple life ordinary people(including the nobility, of course). This is how realistic painting arose, uncharacteristic of the era. early Middle Ages. The paintings began to depict not the spiritual, but the material world.
Book miniatures spread - in this way they tried to improve and decorate books, making them more attractive to potential buyers. Wall paintings also appeared, as well as mosaics, which decorated the external and internal walls of churches - for this we should thank the Franciscan Order, for which it was built large number similar structures. All this happened after the thirteenth century - before painting was not given so much attention. close attention, she played rather a secondary role and was not considered something important. Pictures were not painted - they were “painted”, and this word fully reflects the attitude towards this species art in that time period.
With the heyday of painting in the Middle Ages, the understanding came that painting artistic canvases was the lot of those who truly know how and love this craft. Paintings were no longer “painted”; their creation was no longer treated as an entertaining pastime accessible to everyone. As a rule, each painting had its own customer, and these orders were made exclusively for some purpose - canvases were bought for noble houses, for churches, and so on. It is characteristic that many artists of the Middle Ages did not sign their works - this was a common craft for them, the same as the production of buns for a baker. But the painters of that period tried to adhere to unspoken rules: to emotionally influence the one who will look at the canvas; ignore real dimensions - to give greater effect; depict different time periods with the same hero in the picture.
Iconography
Icon painting was the main art form in early Middle Ages. These paintings, or rather icons, were considered a kind of sermon that teaches without words. This was a connection with God accessible to everyone, because many people at that time were illiterate, which means they could not read the texts of prayers or any church books in general. Icons conveyed to ordinary people what paper could not convey. Characteristic feature Iconography included deformation of the torso - this was done in order to make a greater emotional impression on the audience.
Byzantine art
Speaking about the culture of the Middle Ages, one cannot fail to say at least a few words about painting in Byzantium in the Middle century. This was the only place where they remained true to the good old traditions of Hellenistic art. Byzantine culture managed to harmoniously combine entertainment and spiritualism (“spirit above body”), which came to it from the East. Under the influence of Byzantium, the cultures of many other countries were subsequently formed - in particular, Russia.
The leading idea in painting in Byzantium in the Middle Ages was the idea of the world as a mirror. This “mirror,” according to the ideas of the ancients, was supposed to reflect the spiritual world of man with the help of special symbols - these symbols were the paintings. Very great attention focused on light and color. On canvases, as a rule, full height human figures were depicted - in the center, Jesus Christ or the Mother of God, various saints, behind them and next to them - the rest of their surroundings. If it was necessary to show negative heroes(the same Judas), then they were written in profile. The peculiarity of the depiction of characters in the paintings was their sketchiness coupled with significance. They seemed to “gain weight”, but at the same time they became flat. Perspectives cannot be found in the paintings of Byzantine artists either.
But the Byzantines very carefully followed one of the rules of medieval painting - all the figures that were present on their canvases, for greater clarity, are not depicted in actual sizes and with a violation of proportions: sometimes with a very large head and huge eyes, sometimes with an elongated neck and elongated torso, sometimes with the absence of limbs, and so on. It is characteristic that the artists did not paint from life. Among the predominant stories in Byzantine painting One can distinguish a figure crucified on a cross - a symbol of suffering, a figure of a woman with outstretched arms - a symbol of mother, a figure with a halo - a symbol of holiness, a figure of an angel with wings - a symbol of purity and purity.
Styles
The main style of painting at the beginning of the Middle Ages was Western Europe is considered to be Romanesque. A little later the Gothic style appeared. However, before the advent of both, painting still existed. As mentioned above, this was the so-called barbarian art, which had little in common with the culture of ancient times. People were afraid of nature and deified it, which was reflected in painting - images of nature, as well as humans, in art early Middle Ages very little. Mostly, the ornament was popular, where the already mentioned “animal” style was manifested. This continued until the eighth century, when images of Christ and the human figure in general began to be woven into the ornament.
Flemings
The fifteenth century brought glory to Flanders - it was in this area that a new unique technique appeared, which had a huge impact on all art and at one point became popular. We are talking about the invention of oil paints. Thanks to the addition vegetable oil into the mixture of dyes, the colors became more saturated, and the paints themselves dried much faster than the tempera that painters had used before. Having tried to apply layer after layer, the masters were convinced of the possibilities and prospects that had opened up to them - the colors played in a completely new way, and the effects that were obtained in this way absolutely eclipsed all previous achievements.
It is not known for certain who exactly is the inventor of oil paints. Often their emergence is attributed, perhaps, to the most famous master of Flemish school - Jan van Eyck. Although even before him Robert Campin, who, in fact, is considered the founder, was quite popular Flemish painting. Nevertheless, it was thanks to van Eyck that oil paints became so widespread throughout Europe.
Prominent artists
Medieval painting gave the world many wonderful names. Already mentioned above, Jan van Eyck is an excellent portrait painter, whose work differs from others interesting game light and shadow. A characteristic feature of his paintings is the meticulous detailing of the smallest details. Another Flemish, Rogier van der Weyden, was not so attentive to detail, but he drew very clear contours and focused on colorful, bright shades.
Among Italian masters In addition to those mentioned above, it is worth noting Duccio and Cimabue, the founders of realism, and Giovanni Bellini. Also, the Spaniard El Greco, the Dutchman Hieronymus Bosch, the German Albrecht Durer and others left a big mark in art.
- The word “miniature” comes from minium - this is the Latin name for minium, which was used to write capital letters in texts in the Middle Ages.
- Model for the painting " last supper"Leonardo da Vinci became an ordinary drunkard.
- In each new century, the amount of food in still lifes increased.
- Titian’s painting “Earthly Love and Heavenly Love” changed them four times before receiving such a name.
- The artist Giuseppe Arcimboldo composed his canvases from vegetables, fruits, flowers, and so on. Very few of his works have reached us.
The painting of the Middle Ages, like the entire culture of this period, is a unique layer that can be studied for centuries. In addition, this is truly a masterpiece of heritage, which is our direct responsibility to preserve for posterity.
The period of development of culture and art in Western Europe from the fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th century) to the beginning of the Renaissance (15th century) was first called the “Middle Age” by Italian humanist writers. They considered this time wild and barbaric in contrast to antiquity and the culture of their time. Later, scientists revised this negative assessment. Detailed Study artistic monuments, documents, works of literature led to the conclusion that medieval art was an important and significant stage in the development of world culture.
In the history of Western European art of the Middle Ages, it is customary to distinguish three periods - the art of the early Middle Ages (V-IX centuries), Romanesque art and Gothic. The last two names are conditional. Romanesque (from the Latin word “Roma” - “Rome”) archaeologists of the 19th century. They named the buildings of the 10th-12th centuries, in which they found similarities with Roman architecture, and subsequently they began to call the art of the era as a whole. All medieval art was originally called Gothic. Italian humanists considered him a product of the Goths, at the beginning of the 5th century. sacked Rome. When the term “Romanesque art” appeared, Gothic began to be understood as works of architecture, sculpture and painting from the mid-12th to 15th centuries, which differed from their predecessors in their pronounced originality.
Odo from Metz. Interior of the palace chapel in Aachen. OK. 798-805.
The era of the early Middle Ages - the time of formation new culture, which was created on the territory of Europe by alien tribes. The Romans called them barbarians. Having defeated the once mighty Rome, barbarian peoples formed their own kingdoms on the territory of the conquered empire. The new rulers of Europe did not know how to build stone buildings as skillfully as the Romans, and they extremely rarely and very conventionally depicted people in art. Much closer to them was the world of fantastic animals and the complex pattern of ornaments with which they decorated items made of metal, wood, bone, clothing items, weapons, and ritual utensils.
Initially, the conquerors attracted builders and artists who lived on the lands they conquered, but the skills of high construction skills were gradually lost, and ornament threatened to forever supplant the ancient traditions of depicting people.
As Europe took shape feudal relations, central power strengthened, the idea of power and greatness Ancient Rome attracted the rulers of new states who dreamed of the glory of the Roman Caesars. The Frankish king Charlemagne, the creator of a huge power, trying to surround his power with greatness and splendor, was crowned in Rome and tried to revive the traditions of Roman culture at his court. At Charles's residence in Aachen, a palace was built and next to it - a palace church - a chapel. It is well preserved. The model for it was the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, from where the marble columns installed in the chapel were brought. But in general, the creation of a Frankish architect is heavier and more massive than a Byzantine temple.
Religious buildings predominated among the stone architecture of the Carolingian era (the so-called dynasty of Frankish kings, the most prominent representative of which was Charlemagne). It was due to that special role.
what role the church played in the life of medieval society. The largest feudal owner, she justified the existing system with her teachings and, as the main customer works of art, powerfully directed the development of art in her own interests. Under her influence, strict rules for depicting sacred subjects began to emerge, mandatory for every artist.
Church in Paray-le-Monial. OK. 1100. France.
Carolingian churches and palaces were decorated with paintings and mosaics, and sculptures were also found in temples. However, many monuments were lost, and we can judge the work of Carolingian artists only from the carved ivory plates that have come down to us. jewelry, precious frames of handwritten books and mainly based on the illustrations in these books - miniatures. Books were rare in the early Middle Ages. They were created by order of emperors, large feudal lords, bishops and abbots of monasteries in special workshops - scriptoria. In the Carolingian era, scriptoria existed at the royal court and at large ecclesiastical centers. Unlike their predecessors, artists of the 8th-9th centuries. carefully studied the works of Roman and Byzantine masters and learned a lot from them. The main design element in the books were story miniatures depicting characters% landscapes, architectural background (see Miniature).
In the Romanesque era, architecture played a leading role in artistic creativity. By the 11th century. extensive stone construction took place throughout Europe. When constructing stone buildings, medieval architects encountered a number of technical difficulties, in particular when constructing ceilings: wooden beams and ceilings often burned, while stone structures - arches, domes, vaults - had semicircular outlines and, like a bow, seemed to strive to push the walls of the building apart to the sides. In an effort to avoid this, Romanesque architects made very thick walls and massive pillars and supports.
In the fragmented, warring Europe of the X-XII centuries. The main types of architectural structures were the knight's castle, the monastery ensemble and the temple. In the era of civil strife and wars, stone buildings served as protection from attacks. Therefore, Romanesque buildings are very similar to a fortress: they have massive walls, narrow windows, and high towers.
Figures of the apostles. Fragment of the sculptural decoration of the facade of the Church of St. Trophime in Arles. OK. 1180-1200. France.
Romanesque art was most clearly revealed in the architecture of church buildings and their pictorial and sculptural decoration. The Romanesque church is characterized by a stern, courageous beauty; it is distinguished by its impressiveness and solemn power. In Western Europe, churches had an elongated middle part. Inside, this room was divided by rows of supports, pillars or, more often, arcades into narrower longitudinal halls - naves. On the western side, where the entrance was located, it was framed or crowned by towers; in the eastern part there was a sanctuary of the temple - an altar. It was marked by a special niche - the apse. The altar part of the church was preceded by a transverse nave. The distance from the entrance of the brightly lit altar, the path to which lay through the twilight nave, emphasized the distance that was then believed to separate man from God.
The Romanesque churches were frescoed inside and decorated with brightly colored reliefs on the outside. biblical themes. The crowning parts of the columns - capitals - were decorated with plot sculptural images. The artists of the Romanesque era did not lose their taste for ornamental decoration, but they were much more attracted to images of man and his actions. The masters of that time began to turn more often to the heritage of the past, knew the works of Byzantine artists, and were observant. They knew how to notice and convey an expressive pose, a characteristic gesture, and tell an entertaining story about an event. To make this story more expressive, Romanesque masters often violated the proportions of the human body, enlarged individual details, and exaggerated movements.
Often, painters and sculptors gave free rein to their imagination and “populated” the walls of temples or the pages of manuscripts with images of fantastic creatures, figures of acrobats, birds and animals, images borrowed from popular beliefs.
Few works of secular art have survived from the Romanesque era. And therefore, of particular interest is the large embroidered carpet that decorated the Bayeux Cathedral in France (11th century). The scenes presented on it tell the story of the conquest of England by the Normans.
Until the 12th century. main cultural centers there were monasteries where there were the most educated people, construction problems were discussed, books were copied. In the 12th century. primacy began to shift to new economic and cultural centers - cities. Medieval science was born here, crafts flourished and artistic creativity. Cities fought with feudal lords for their independence. Free-thinking and a critical attitude towards the feudal system were born among the townspeople. During this period, chivalric poetry flourished and the literature of the urban class took shape. The Crusades changed the geographical understanding of Europeans and expanded their knowledge of the world around them. It appeared huge and dynamic.
Interior of Notre Dame Cathedral in Reims. XIII century France.
At this time, in France, where the royal power fought for the unification of the country, Gothic art began to take shape, which then spread to England, Germany, Spain, the Czech Republic and other European countries.
Architecture remained the main form of art during the Gothic era. She most vividly embodied new ideas about the world around her. Other types of art, primarily sculpture, began to acquire independent significance. The highest creation of Gothic style is the majestic city cathedral. In the birthplace of Gothic art, in France, cathedrals were erected in one of the city squares. The builders who worked on the creation of a grandiose building united in a special organization - a lodge, which included masons, carpenters, sculptors and glassblowers who made colored glass for stained glass windows. The construction was headed by the chief master, an experienced and skilled architect. The architects of Gothic cathedrals were bold experimenters. They were able to develop a complex design that made it possible to distinguish the building frame from the supports of the vault and additional supporting pillars - buttresses. Special connecting arches - flying buttresses - transferred the pressure of the arches of the central nave, which was higher than the side ones, to the buttresses located along the walls. Now it was not the wall, but this structure as a whole that supported the vaults, so the Gothic masters boldly cut windows into the walls, and built light and high arcades between the supports. Gothic style is characterized by pointed, upward-pointing arches. They emphasized the lightness and upward aspiration of Gothic architecture. In France, craftsmen paid special attention to the design of the western facade, which was richly decorated with sculpture. Sculptural images were also placed on the portals on the sides of the transverse nave. Inside the cathedral, slender pillars, surrounded by thin semi-columns, rapidly rose up to the pointed arches; the arcades created a majestic perspective of the naves.
In the altar, side naves and in the upper tier of the central nave, numerous windows shone with multi-colored stained glass. Depending on the weather, time of day or year, the light penetrating through the colored glass colored the interior of the temple in different ways, making them either mysterious or jubilantly festive.
Gothic sculpture, compared to Romanesque, is more like a round statue. The figures, although placed against a column or wall, have become more voluminous, they protrude more boldly into real space. The themes of the images have also become more diverse. Along with church subjects, figures of ancient philosophers, kings, truthful images of representatives of different nations, and illustrations of edifying fables appeared. Images of saints began to resemble those of their contemporaries, and the first attempts to create portraits of secular persons appeared. Previously, such images were found only on the tombstones of noble feudal lords and prominent representatives of the church. Medieval masters did not work from life and created ideal and representative portrait images. In the Gothic era, artists are already trying to give the model realistic features. The sculptors, who created twelve statues of feudal lords who donated funds for the construction of the temple around 1250 in the German city of Naumburg, could not see those portrayed, who had died long before. Nevertheless, the masters endowed them with individual features, expressive faces, and characteristic gestures.
Along with temples, in the Gothic era, much attention was paid to the construction of secular buildings - town halls, shopping arcades, hospitals and warehouses. The state rooms in the castles were richly rebuilt. In cities, two squares gradually emerged - the cathedral and the market. The city was protected by high walls with entrance gate. The Town Hall, the building of the city magistrate, was a symbol of city government. In countries where cities were flourishing, town halls could sometimes rival cathedrals in their grandeur.
Medieval art of Europe as the embodiment of religious Christian mentality. Aesthetics of identities: canonicity, anti-novatism, anonymity, repetition of traditional plots and images. Aesthetic dominants of the early, mature and late Middle Ages. Styles of medieval architecture: Romanesque style, Gothic style.
Medieval painting (book miniatures, monumental painting, stained glass art). Medieval Literature: and its features. Basic literary traditions: Latin Literature:, epic, courtly Literature:, urban Literature:. Church mode and medieval musical genres.
Painting. The subjects for paintings and sculptures were themes of the greatness and power of God. The stylistic feature of these images was that the figure of Christ was significantly larger in size than other figures. In general, real proportions were not important to Romanesque artists: in the images, heads are often enlarged, bodies are schematic, sometimes elongated. In Germany in the 11th century. more and more space in the image. The theme of the crucifixion, death and resurrection of Christ begins to occupy the place. In the future, this motive will become dominant in Catholicism and will even supplant the image of Christ as the Pantocrator. Monumental early medieval painting. In it, along with early Christian traditions, features of impetuosity and expression are observed. Monuments from the 9th century that have reached our time. Church paintings in France make it possible to distinguish between schools of “light” and “blue” backgrounds. The first, common in the west and center of France, is characterized by a light background, sharp contours and a flat interpretation of forms (the frescoes “The Battle of the Archangel Michael with the Dragon” in the Church of Saint-Savain in Poitou). For the second (south and east of the country), blue backgrounds, rich colors and a clear influence of Byzantine art are indicative. The “School of Blue Backgrounds” is especially well represented by the complex of Berze-la-Ville paintings created at the beginning of the 12th century. Thus, in the art of the 14th century, although it was still controlled by the church, secular and realistic features intensified. Stained glass. During the heyday of the Romanesque style, there were two techniques for stained glass painting: grisaille(black and gray paint on colorless glass of a greenish smoky tone) and on typesetting colored glass(glass was boiled in special ovens, then cut in accordance with the prepared design and typed on special templates, after which it was covered with painting on a colored background). However, stained glass reached its greatest flourishing during the Gothic period. The main purpose of these "window paintings" was to show people who could not read the Scriptures what they should believe. Due to the variety of subject matter, the stained glass windows are Gothic. cathedrals successfully competed with sculpture. In addition to compositions on biblical and gospel subjects, individual figures of Christ, Mary, and the apostles, they also contained episodes from legends about the lives of saints and images of historical events. Never before have color and light played such a symbolic role. It was believed that the natural color of Gothic was purple - the color of prayer and the mystical aspiration of the soul, like a combination of the red color of blood and the blue sky. Blue was also considered a symbol of fidelity. Therefore, the stained glass windows were dominated by red, blue and purple paints. Along with them, orange, white, yellow, and green colors were especially loved. The best goth. stained glass windows are in the cathedrals of Chartres (“The Virgin and Child”) and Paris (Saint-Chapelle).
Literature. All literature of the Middle Ages can be divided into heroic epic, knightly courtly poetry, knightly courtly novel and poetry and prose of the urban class. Heroic epic represented tales glorifying the exploits of heroes, the most important real events, tales based on folk legends. Early works“songs about exploits” were of this kind. The performers of these songs-poems were jugglers, traveling singers and musicians. In France, the greatest monument of that era is the “Song of Roland” (the ideal knight, patriot and lover of truth, defender of Christians from infidels). Breton (Brittany - region in France) and Celtic legends tell about the British king Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, as well as about the search for the Holy Grail, the cup in which, according to legend, the blood of the Savior was collected when his body was placed in the coffin. The most famous poem of this cycle glorifies the exploits of the knight Parzival. In Germany - the epic “The Song of the Nibelungs” about the death of the Burgundian kingdom and the death of the Hun king Attila. The hero Siegfried appears in the land of the Nibelungs and falls in love with the sister of King Gunther. The king asks Z. for help to perform heroic feats and marries the Icelandic queen. Later the deception is revealed. Knightly courtly (court) poetry. Courtly poetry began with the cult of the “lady of the heart.” Knight-poets sang the beauty and nobility of the Beautiful Lady, who was, as a rule, the wife of the overlord. Courtly love is secret, the poet avoided calling his lady by the name subtle, refined. She should look like reverent adoration. It was sung by troubadours (Southern France), trouvères (Northern France), minnesingers (Germany) and minstrels (English). In Provence (and it was there that the first love poems of chivalry appeared) there were many forms of courtly poetry. Canzona(“the song” presented a love theme in narrative form. Alba(“morning dawn”) was dedicated to earthly, shared love. The lovers part at dawn, the approach of which is warned by a servant or friend standing guard. Ballad- dance song. Pastorela- a song about the meeting of a knight and a shepherdess. Cry- a song where the poet yearns or mourns his lot, mourns the death of a loved one. Tenson- poem. dispute, cat. either two poets take part, or a poet and P.D., poetry and Lyubov. Sirventes- song, cat. Social networks are already rising. questions: who is worthy of love - a polite commoner or an inglorious baron? knightly courtly romance. Authors – learned people. The first novels appeared in France. and were a fusion of Celtic epics. legends with the late antique works of Homer, Ovid, Virgil, fascinating stories of the crusaders about unknown countries. One of the creators of Chretien de Trouy "Yvain, or the Knight with the Lion." The actions of Chretien de Troyes's heroes are aimed at accomplishing a feat, while it is not love that pushes the knight to adventure, but a passion for these feats. More complex techniques for revealing people. har-ra were used by Chrétien de Troyes in The Tale of the Grail, where a feat of “increased difficulty” dooms the hero to asceticism.
The other Wed has a completely different tonality. novel - “Tristan and Isolde”, based on a cat. Irish tales about the unhappy love of two young hearts. The plot lacks a knightly adventure and brings to the fore the insoluble conflict between the individual motives of the heroes and generally accepted norms. The destructive passion of the young man Tristan and Queen Isolde pushes them to trample on their vassal and marital duties, to a chain of pretenses and deceptions. Heroes do not die under the blows of strong opponents, they become victims of fate, fate. Poetry and prose of the mountains. estates. Popular genres are fabliau (in France), schwank (in Germany). The heroes are townspeople and peasants with their ingenuity and common sense, cat. struggle with everyday adversity, while maintaining optimism. All situations are of a comic or adventurous nature, but do not go beyond the boundaries of a realistic everyday depiction. The most famous epic. cycle is fr. “A Novel about a Fox”, where the life of the srvek is depicted in an allegorical form. Europe. The main theme is the successful fight of the fox Renard, the lead. resourcefulness, dexterity and cunning, with a stupid, bloodthirsty wolf. A special phenomenon is the poetry of wandering schoolchildren - vagants. They made sharp attacks against the princes of the church, which made the vagants militant heretics. The favorite themes of their songs are feasts, light flirting, ironic complaints about their hard lot (“On the French side...”). The folk humor was transformed into satire and gave birth to a new genre - farce (crude comedy with its inherent mockery).
Music. Music The culture of the early Middle Ages is represented mainly by court and folk songs and dances, playing music. instruments and religious music. All levels of society were passionate about music, song, and dance. Church hymn. Already at the end of the 6th century. basis for music. Catholic worship became a single-voice church chant, performed by a male choir in unison or by soloists in Latin. This is the so-called Gregorian chant (named after Pope Gregory I, who, according to legend, established this singing genre). Uniform Christian singing was gradually introduced in all countries of Western Europe. KIX-X centuries - the first recordings of polyphonic works. Two-voice organum plays were created by masters from France. Monastery of Saint-Marcel, which they borrowed from improvising singers. Distribution music The motet became a genre starting from the 13th century. In order to write a motet, comp. took a well-known tune and added one, two or three voices to it. Church music was also composed according to the same principle. ritual. This one has a polyphone. On the basis and songs of troubadours and trouvères, the creativity of the comp. late Middle Ages. Various songs genres and forms: rondos, ballads, madrigals. This period in the history of music is called Ars nova(lat. new art), because refined secular poetry was now set to music of a new type, imbued with special liveliness and a wealth of sound colors. An outstanding master of IT. Ars nova was Francesco Landino. Early blindness did not prevent him from becoming a virtuoso organist and the author of many lyrical songs. Fr. Ars nova headed the computer. and the poet Guillaume de Machaut, cat. contemporaries nicknamed him “the earthly god of harmony.” The ballad in his work became an example of sophisticated lyricism. It was performed by one singer with polyphonic instrumental accompaniment. The creativity of both opened the trail. stage - music Renaissance