The objective basis of international production cooperation (ICP) is the growing level of development of production forces, the degree of their breakdown into industries, productions, and enterprises. A powerful incentive for the development of MCP was the radical transformation in the conditions of scientific and technological progress of the primary production cell - an enterprise from which individual stages of the technological process are actively “spun off” and the production of components of the final product is separated.
World experience shows that cooperation between labor and production is an objective historical process that is inherent in all methods of production, in countries with any socio-economic system. In production cooperation, advanced ideas and achievements in the fields of fundamental science, research and development (R&D), production, design, management and information technologies are combined and materialized.
Cooperation in the modern world is becoming the reproductive base of socio-economic and scientific and technological progress of the countries of the world, the core of world economic processes, regional economic integration, transnationalization (production, R&D, information and financial sphere, etc.), international industrial cooperation, globalization of the world economy . This form of interaction between global economic entities has become an accelerator for the structural restructuring of industry, its sectoral and interdepartmental complexes on a new technological basis, including the widespread use of electronic and information technologies.
In economic literature the term " production cooperation"in international cooperation is used both in a narrow sense, which means cooperation exclusively in production activities, and in a broad sense, including various areas of economic activity of enterprises: scientific research, logistics, production process, product sales, enterprise management.
In the glossary of terms published by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) in 1983, industrial cooperation (the term “industrial cooperation” is equivalent to the term “industrial cooperation” in its broad sense) is defined as “relations between enterprises of different countries based on long-term community of interests." Industrial cooperation may include the provision of licenses, establishment of factories or production lines; development of new types of technologies and provision of information related to these types of technologies; production, marketing, joint projects or joint bids.
Most foreign economists believe that the most important features of international industrial cooperation are the long-term (repeated) nature of economic relations, their direct focus on the production of material goods, joint or technologically related activities in order to save costs, improve production, increase labor productivity, quality of products and efficiency production. At the same time, cooperative cooperation extends both to production itself and to activities preceding the production process or related to it in another way, for example, to the sale of finished products.
In the entire community of cooperative ties, scientific and technical cooperation between economic entities of different countries can be considered as part of international production cooperation. In the case when cooperative ties in research activities extend further to the sphere of production or, conversely, cooperation in the sphere of production entails cooperation of partners in the field of industrial developments related to the improvement of manufactured products, we are dealing with production and technical cooperation.
When partners in production and technical cooperation agree on the general sale of manufactured products, such cooperation takes the form research, production and sales. Cooperation in this form reflects an integrated approach to solving problems of scientific and technological development, in which all stages of social production from scientific research to the sale of products on the world market must be linked into one system.
In accordance with the UNECE concept, the following forms of industrial cooperation are distinguished:
co-production, including research and development (R&D);
joint ventures;
joint projects.
supply of complete plants and equipment with subsequent payment of their cost in products to be manufactured on their basis;
provision of licenses and (or) production experience, as well as knowledge, with subsequent payment of their cost by supply of products obtained using them;
Supply of complete plants, equipment with subsequent payment of their cost, products made on their basis or raw materials that will be extracted, is a special form of production cooperation. It is also called cooperative cooperation on a compensation basis or simply " compensation agreements". In addition to the supply of machinery, equipment, technological lines and their installation, it also includes related services provided by the supplier and the price of which is usually included in the cost of the agreement. The supplier provides the client with a work plan, trains local personnel, provides assistance in putting the facility into operation, etc. Cooperation often extends to the exchange of technical documentation and information, joint research into product improvements, production processes, and joint marketing.
Close in essence to the first form of cooperative cooperation is provision of licenses, production experience and knowledge with subsequent payment of their cost by supply of products obtained using them. This form of cooperation can only conditionally be considered a form of cooperation, since in this case the establishment of direct permanent production or scientific and technical ties between partners is not guaranteed. Such compensation agreements develop into cooperation agreements, provided that joint production is established.
Contract- this is the simplest, initial form of cooperation, in which the contractor undertakes to perform certain work in accordance with the assignment of his cooperation partner, his order and according to his technical documentation or specifications. A common feature of agreements of this type of cooperation is their short duration and validity - most of them include short-term obligations that are renewed annually. In general, cooperative cooperation based on simple contractual relations should be considered as a transitional stage to more complex forms of cooperation, for example, such as joint production.
Co-production involves the exchange of components and parts with the subsequent assembly of finished products at the enterprise of one or both partners. A prerequisite for the successful implementation of this form of cooperation is the solution of issues of standardization, unification and typification of individual parts and assemblies, and final products. It is accompanied, as a rule, by a large volume of mutual supplies and leads to greater interdependence and greater interconnection between partners. Joint production involves the supply by each partner of a certain number of units, parts and other components for the manufacture of the final product at the enterprise of one or both partners. This also includes the development technical specifications for the specified components, distribution of their production between partners, establishing the volume and specifics of production. Often such cooperation extends to general R&D. In this case, there may be a transfer of developed technology to both parties and cooperation must be strictly balanced. Joint production based on specialization, compared to cooperative cooperation based on the distribution of programs, makes it possible to more fully use capacities, increase the competitiveness of products, and reduce production costs. International practice shows that reaching agreements with a high degree of specialization of partners is a complex and long-term process that requires a clear definition of the responsibilities of the parties, agreement on prices, technical standards, delivery times for raw materials, quality control procedures for components and final products, procedures for resolving discrepancies, and effective coordination of actions.
Joint ventures (SP)– a more complex, integrated form of production cooperation. Based on the principles of joint participation of partners in capital, management, distribution of income and risks, they provide for a great interest in fulfilling their obligations. Joint ventures concentrate the advantages and benefits of all forms of cooperation (increasing the technical level of products and their competitiveness, releasing products in a shorter time frame at lower production costs, accelerating the innovation cycle, penetrating the markets of other countries with expanding export sales to them).
Cooperative cooperation in the form of joint projects represents cooperation between two or more countries to implement a project (bilateral or multilateral, respectively) both in the interests of the countries where cooperation partners are based, and for its implementation on the order of any other country.
Over the past two decades, transnational cooperation of corporate structures, which, depending on the form of its existence, combines almost all of the above forms of international cooperation. The emergence and spread of organizational structures in the world in the form of transnational companies (TNCs) is caused by complications and interconnections of economic processes, increased inter-firm and interstate competition for markets and sources of raw materials. TNCs, as a rule, mean long-term voluntary cooperation based on a contract (agreement) between legally and economically independent enterprises that are located in different countries ah, to achieve a common goal through conscious coordinated behavior of partners, the number of which is not limited. The forms of such entrepreneurial cooperation are, first of all, determined by: the relatedness of the production activities of enterprises and the technological processes that are carried out on them, the presence or absence of a mechanism of joint-stock co-founding. In the presence of the latter, the phenomenon of a transnational financial-industrial corporation arises, and many developed corporate structures are associations of a financial-industrial nature.
The importance of developing international cooperation is explained, first of all, by the constant trend of increasing capital intensity of new products, which requires huge financial resources. International production cooperation makes it possible to significantly reduce the preparation time for the production of new goods and reduce their capital intensity. According to the UNECE, interstate agreements on technical cooperation and the exchange of components and parts on the basis of cooperation, on average, reduce the preparation time for the production of new products by approximately 14 - 20 months compared to organizing it exclusively on our own, and also reduce the cost by 50 - 70% development of new production. This is due to the fact that international cooperation expands the possibilities for complex, long-term and mobile use of various production resources. At the same time, savings also arise due to new technical foreign developments. In addition, cooperation makes it possible to achieve over 90% of the quality level of a foreign partner’s products, while mastering foreign technology on one’s own can provide only 70–80% of this indicator 28 .
Export, as you know, is one of the priorities of the economic strategy of the Republic of Belarus. In this regard, one of the reserves for increasing Belarusian exports is concentrated within the framework of international industrial complexes. Practice shows that in modern conditions, an important form of involving Belarusian enterprises in cooperative ties is the creation of specialized financial and industrial groups (FIGs), in particular, with the Russian side. We are talking, for example, about the FIG “Aerospace Equipment” and the FIG “Defense Systems”.
The agreement on the creation of the FIG “Defense Systems”, signed at the end of 2000, provides for the participation in it from the Belarusian side of the Minsk Wheel Tractor Plant, the Borisov Instrument-Making Plant, the aircraft repair enterprise of the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Belarus (Baranovichi), NPO Integral, JSCB Minskcomplexbank and a number of other enterprises. Within the framework of the financial industrial group, investment projects are being implemented that meet the interests of Belarusian enterprises. To maintain the high export potential of their products, its participants intend to accumulate the best national scientific and technical achievements.
Thus, Belarus is implementing an economic policy based on the principles of externally oriented development. In other words, integration into the world economy is ensured, in particular, through the comprehensive development of forms of international division of labor on the basis of large-scale and effective cooperation with other countries.
The progressive development of the productive forces of society and scientific and technological progress diversify the economic ties of national economies and determine the growing interdependence between the subjects of the world economy, i.e. globalization of the world market space, which will be discussed in the next topic.
Questions for self-control
What is the international division of labor and what type of division of labor is it a special case?
Name the main factors influencing the interstate specialization of economic life.
Explain how you understand the international division of factors of production such as land, capital and technology.
Show the differences between general, private and individual interstate division of labor.
Does cooperation in such a factor of production as land make economic sense? Give arguments for and against a positive answer.
Basic terms
International division of labor – the highest stage of development of the socio-territorial division of labor between countries, which is based on the sustainable, economically profitable specialization of production of individual countries on certain types of products and leads to the mutual exchange of production results between them in certain quantitative and qualitative ratios.
International production specialization – a form of division of labor between countries, in which there is a differentiation of national industries engaged in the production of homogeneous products in excess of their internal needs.
International production cooperation – cooperation of national economic complexes for the purpose of complementarity and coordination of production cycles; the process of establishing and developing production relations between firms from different countries on the basis of division of labor, specialization of production in order to increase production capacity utilization, establish mass production, increase labor productivity, reduce production costs, accelerate scientific progress and increase production efficiency.
An objective consequence of the formation of a developed market economy in all countries of the world is the complication of domestic and global competition relations commodity markets. International competition is intensifying and becoming systemic. The active inclusion of countries in the MRI system is the most important strategic task, the solution of which determines the degree of satisfaction of both internal needs and the possibility of successfully integrating the economies of countries into the world system of production and exchange, which is rapidly changing in the conditions of economic globalization.
Interstate interactions between economic entities of the world economy with the more active use of MRI in the context of globalization go beyond foreign trade transactions, developing into new forms of cooperative cooperation. One of these forms of cooperation is joint entrepreneurship, which should be considered as a system of diverse forms and types of production and economic activities for the cooperative interaction of business structures in the areas of production, trade, scientific, technical, investment and service areas.
International industrial cooperation in the system of modern international division of labor
The development of the world economy is based on international division of labor– the objective basis of the processes of internationalization, transnationalization and globalization of the system of world economic relations and the most important material prerequisite for international economic cooperation. The most important form of MRI is international industrial specialization and cooperation.
International specialization and cooperation of production represents the specialization of individual countries, firms, associations for the production of certain types of finished products, semi-finished products (or at individual stages of the production and technological process) and cooperation on a contractual basis of legally independent manufacturers from different countries to create certain types of products that have a strictly targeted purpose and constituent elements final products.
A country's participation in the MRI system is increasingly determined by acquired factors of production - technology, quality of labor, etc. The most important trend of modern MRI is a change in its nature and forms - from the international division of labor, based on the difference between countries in natural resources and factors of production, to a new international division of labor, based on the features of the global production strategy of TNCs, and the creation of network forms of their interaction within the framework of MCA . The further development of the internationalization of economic life and the strengthening of the interconnection of national economies led to the deepening of MRI and the intensification of MSCP processes in the areas of production, trade and R&D, strengthening the role of TNCs, active formation international production complexes and global inter-firm networks.
Modern international cooperation (from lag. cooperation - cooperation) is the basis for the socio-economic and scientific and technological progress of countries, the globalization of world economic relations, regional economic integration, transnationalization, and international industrial cooperation. The development of international cooperation presupposes: a) cooperation implemented through an agreement and not accompanied by the creation of any organizational structures; b) cooperation implemented through international business associations.
In economic literature the term "industrial (production) cooperation" in relation to international cooperation, it is used both in a narrow sense, as cooperation exclusively in production activities, and in a broad sense, including various areas of economic activity of enterprises: scientific research, information and logistics support, the production process and sales of products, enterprise management. Thus, industrial cooperation includes both the production process itself and the exchange between cooperators of the products they produce (services) necessary for the implementation of the production process (information, experience in the field of marketing and management).
In general, industrial cooperation includes scientific-technical, industrial and scientific-production cooperation. Scientific and technical cooperation involves cooperation in the field of R&D based on the division of labor between partners; production cooperation– long-term connections between economic entities in the production of mass or serial products; scientific and production cooperation– sustainable cooperation throughout the “science – technology – production” cycle.
The advantages of international cooperation in various areas of international business, reflecting the development processes of MRI, make it possible to differentiate the content of concepts international industrial (production)) And intercompany cooperation.
International industrial (production) cooperation represents long-term and stable ties between business entities from different countries engaged in the joint production of certain products based on the specialization of their production. This refers to the interaction of legally and economically independent industrial enterprises belonging to the jurisdiction and capital of different countries, on the basis of coordination of functions or joint activities in the field of production, R&D, sales and management in order to increase the competitiveness of participants. According to the terminology of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), this "relations between enterprises from different countries based on long-term common interests". The initial period that allows us to talk about the long-term nature of such relations between economic entities is, as a rule, 10 years.
International intercompany cooperation represents a close interaction between two or more legal and economically independent enterprises, whose economic activities take place on the territory of different countries and, therefore, in the areas of jurisdiction of states, including in the field of national civil law.
In general, cooperative relations between economic entities permeate all forms of entrepreneurial activity. There are dozens of types of cooperation, each of which corresponds to accepted contractual practice. According to experts, about 40% of investment and consumer goods entering the EU market are produced due to the advantages of IPC.
Let us present a brief classification of IPC forms, taking into account the complex nature of the relevant partnership relationships, the heterogeneity and stability of the partners’ economic ties, and their economic and legal independence. Taking into account these criteria, international cooperation in the modern world economy is developing in the following forms.
- 1. Cooperation based on the production of intermediate products carried out by contract cooperation(production of a certain type of product by a subcontractor enterprise on behalf of the customer enterprise). Contract cooperation is used for the supply of components (based on detailed (unit), technological (stage-by-stage) forms of specialization). It is implemented through the exchange of components and the assembly of the final product by partners independently; as well as through the supply of components by one partner to another and the assembly of the final product by one of the partners. IPC in the form of production of components is the most common form of cooperation. Intra-company detail and technological production cooperation is most widely developed within TNCs in the form of production and technical ties between the parent company and its foreign branches (numerous assembly plants of electronics, automotive, instrument making, etc.).
- 2. Internationalization of scientific research is a cooperation of companies from different countries to conduct scientific and design work based on the specialization of individual countries in certain types of scientific research. A form of exchange of scientific and technical information and results of research conducted in different countries is international trade in patents and licenses.
- 3. Cooperation based on agreements on specialization and the creation of international research, production and other specialized associations includes: an agreement on the division of production programs on the basis of contractual specialization; creation of international scientific, technical and production complexes; creation of international management associations (usually in high-tech industries). It is a monopolistic conspiracy, often practiced between competing firms, to differentiate the range of products, reduce and eliminate duplication of production and related markets.
- 4. Cooperation based on the organization of joint production– a form of the closest production cooperation of research and technological, scientific, technical, material and financial resources of partners for the implementation of individual agreed goals, including the creation of a new product. At the same time, firms distribute the production of components for a new product among themselves, based on their specialization. Joint production facilities are created to produce new types of products, where risks and capital investments are high in connection with the development of high-tech products and new technologies, taking into account production, scientific, production and financial capabilities. This method is used in the implementation of programs for the creation of new generations of weapons and military equipment, the space industry, etc. An example is the organized joint production of armored vehicles and anti-aircraft systems by defense enterprises of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan, as well as numerous joint production programs of companies Lockheed Martin, Boeing And BAE Systems and other major world manufacturers of weapons and military equipment.
- 5. Joint venture is a form of organization of a company that combines the capital of partners (legal entities and individuals) from two or more countries. The main goal of the joint venture is to increase the volume of exports of goods (services) and increase the efficiency of export-import operations. May have the form general partnership, societies with limited liability, joint stock company.
- 6. Transnational cooperation of corporate structures depending on the form of its existence, it combines almost all forms of international cooperation. The strengthening of inter-firm and inter-state competition for sources of raw materials and sales markets determines the direction of foreign direct investment by TNCs in the creation of production facilities abroad using various types of specialization, suggesting the location of various parts of the production process in different countries of the world. Such conduct of international business is, first of all, determined by the relatedness of the production activities of enterprises and technological processes, the presence or absence of a corporatization mechanism. The presence of a corporatization mechanism leads to the emergence of a corporate structure of a financial and industrial nature - a transnational financial and industrial corporation. For example, the confectionery enterprises "Russia", "Nestlé Russia" and 10 other companies in the Russian Federation are subsidiaries wholly owned by a Swiss company Nestle.
- 7. International Strategic Alliance– a functional structure based on a formal and informal agreement between TNCs on combining scientific potential, production and financial resources, sharing risks in order to achieve excess profits, implement projects, redistribute sales markets and consolidate the sphere of influence. These can also be agreements on participation in assets both without the formation of a new organization (mutual exchange of shares, acquisition of a small share of participation), and with the creation of a new organization (for example, a joint venture). American management guru M. Porter defines MCA as “long-term agreements between firms that go beyond ordinary trading operations, but do not lead to a merger of firms.” Neither alliance partner can control the other partner's strategic decision-making on a wide range of business issues. Otherwise, the alliance may develop into a more integrated form of cooperation - a financial industrial group with a dominant role of the parent company. The relatively high concentration of MCAs in the computer and software manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, automotive, aerospace, and entertainment industries is primarily due to companies seeking ways to collaborate to reduce the high entry costs, tariffs, and non-tariffs that characterize these industries. barriers, significant technological and operational risks. For example, MCA of pharmaceutical companies Human Genome Sciences And GlaxoSmithKline formed with the aim of developing an original drug for lupus, and MCA Bayern Oncomed– the original medicine against cancer.
Practice issues
A successful example of international cooperation can be called the one created in the city of Pavlovo ( Nizhny Novgorod region) at the production facilities of a specialized design bureau for automation and mechanization of mechanical assembly work at automobile, mobile and agricultural engineering enterprises together with the American company Ingersoll Rand CIS JV CJSC INSTRUMENT-RAND. It is one of the largest suppliers of high-quality, certified compressor equipment and pneumatic tools, precision products for all industries. The company provides uninterrupted supply of equipment, carries out service maintenance and technical audit of assembly processes of automotive production. More than 80% of manufactured products are supplied to foreign markets, in particular steering columns of a unique design - the company Mercedes-Benz.
IPC allows cooperation partners to gain new competitive advantages, save resources, optimally distribute risks, reduce the preparation time for the production of new goods, and reduce their capital intensity. The IPC helps to accelerate the structural restructuring of the economy and the technical re-equipment of priority, high-tech industries. The innovative activity of large TNCs due to IPC increases by 30–40%. According to the UNECE, on average, the cost of developing new production is reduced by 50–70%, and the preparation time for the production of new products is reduced by 14–20 months compared to own capabilities. These factors are due to significant savings due to new technical foreign developments and the possibility of integrated use of various production resources.
To assess the effectiveness of the IPC, a system of indicators is used, grouped by the number of identified cooperation factors, including: foreign trade effect, consumption effects, scale, time savings, improved product quality, scientific and technical effect, effectiveness and indirect effects. This system of indicators allows us to determine the integral effectiveness of cooperative interaction with foreign partners and indirect factors of international cooperative interaction in dynamics. The development and use of a system of interrelated actions of IGC participants will increase the degree of coordination of partners and the effectiveness of cooperative interaction. In order to improve the IPC process, expert assessment possible risks of the IPC, and recommendations are developed on choosing a partner, documenting cooperation, and organizing the work of personnel.
The current trend in the development of MRI is the increasing inclusion of manufacturing industries (primarily mechanical engineering) in the development of MIC, taking into account the multi-product nature of these industries and fierce competition in the field of high technology. For Russia, the development of the IPC has special meaning due to a large-scale systemic crisis in the industry and a decrease in its share in the total volume of industrial production. The modern engineering complex of Russia now creates less than 3% of GDP, while the oil and gas complex and raw materials sectors of the economy account for about 28–30% of GDP. In the structure of Russian industrial production, the share of mechanical engineering is less than 20%, while the threshold values for economic security are 30%. It should be said that economically developed countries the share of mechanical engineering reaches 35–50% (in the USA - 46%, Germany - 54%). In China, this figure is now 40% (as in the USSR in 1990).
According to independent experts, more than 70 thousand industrial enterprises have been closed in Russia, and such branches of mechanical engineering as machine tool building, aircraft manufacturing, shipbuilding, agricultural engineering and a number of others have actually ceased to exist. Currently, no more than 50 domestic engineering companies (and only for relatively narrow segments of the world market) are capable of producing competitive products. One of the most effective means solution to these problems is to strengthen cooperation with foreign companies with high investment and innovation potential.
The most competitive countries have high degree adapting their economies to the conditions of global demand and optimal national specialization, concentrating material and financial resources in areas that ensure the highest production efficiency. The benefits from the cooperation of participants in international cooperation are determined by the profitability of the created production.
It should be noted that in Russia industrial cooperation has not received such widespread development as in countries with developed market economies. The main obstacle to our state’s participation in the IPC is the raw materials orientation of its economy. The undeveloped system of credit and financial institutions with a constant shortage of capital within the country led to the accumulation of investment resources in companies in the primary industries, where the previously established production ties were practically not destroyed. Enterprises in other industries have not actually updated their fixed production assets or developed technologies for more than 20 years. Due to the fact that the bulk of exported modern Russia products are raw materials and semi-finished products, there is a significant loss of potential added value. Even in the export of non-ferrous metallurgy, products of higher processing stages account for only 10%, and 80% are the main primary metals, in this regard, domestic exporters in world markets face opposition to high-tech metal products.
Moreover, in certain industries in Russia (as in other countries with economies in transition), the practice of using tolling still persists. Tolling(from English toll - duty) - is an operation for processing foreign raw materials with the subsequent export of finished products on a preferential basis. Such a mechanism, according to Art. 239 of the Customs Code of the Customs Union, is the processing in the customs territory of foreign goods (raw materials) "with full conditional exemption from import customs duties, taxes and without the use of measures non-tariff regulation with the subsequent export of processed products outside the customs territory of the Customs Union."
For example, tolling schemes allow the united company RUSAL to minimize tax payments: significantly reduce the tax rate on profits, avoid paying import customs duties and taxes on raw materials, as well as duties on the export of finished products. It should be said that tolling schemes in countries with transition economies are used to support industries in order to protect them, such as, for example, for the textile industry of the Russian Federation. They help reduce production costs and increase the competitiveness of products. The use of the tolling mechanism in such profitable export-oriented industries as the aluminum industry cannot contribute to the growth of the competitiveness of its products in foreign markets and an increase in the volume of tax revenues to the budget of the Russian Federation.
Thinking for yourself
What industries, in your opinion, in countries with economies in transition need to use tolling schemes and why?
An analysis of Russia’s interests in the context of developing its priority industries and determining the country’s place in the global market for high-tech products irrefutably indicates the need to change its position in the MRI system. This is possible only through the use of intensive factors of economic growth, which involve the modernization of manufacturing industries, the creation modern system technical regulation, ensuring capacity utilization, employment of the population, improving the quality of management systems, technologies and human capital. Industrial cooperation with foreign companies that have high investment and innovation potential is one of the most effective means of solving these problems, since all participants in cooperation are interested in the profitability of production.
Countries with developed market economies, specializing in the production of high-tech products with high added value and providing intellectual services, actively participate in the IPC, which provides for their inclusion in international research and production networks with economically equal partners. They are interested in Russian partners, first of all, in order to reduce production costs, obtain additional production resources and opportunities for marketing final products. The greatest successes in the Russian market have been achieved by TNCs in the automotive industry, which view the Russian market as capacious and promising from the point of view of the lack of competition. Foreign partners are attracted and tax benefits, reduction or cancellation of import duties on imported components, guarantees against losses in case of unforeseen circumstances, etc.
More active participation of Russia in the IPC processes should be helped by coordination activities of government, industry, scientific and production levels, improvement of industrial policy in the field of tax preferences that stimulate the flow of capital from primary industries to manufacturing. At the same time, the main attention should be paid to basic innovations that form the basis of modern technical and technological structures that promote international technology transfer and international investment cooperation.
It should also be taken into account that in connection with the creation of the Customs Union of the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation and a single legal space on the territory of the former Soviet Union Russia can no longer be considered in isolation from these states. Increasing political and economic competition from the EU, China and the United States necessitates the restoration of strategically important technological connections between the states of the customs union in the post-Soviet space. Implementation of the most effective schemes industrial cooperation between the countries of the union will allow for the restoration of old production chains and the lost potential of high-tech industries. The creation of a unified system of technical regulation of the countries of the customs union, the absence of which does not allow the elimination of technical barriers to industrial cooperation, will also help to intensify the IPC processes. The activation of significant scientific and technical potential in Russia, which is largely unclaimed, and the optimal use of the most promising forms of IPC for the country will lead to a change in the country’s place in the MRI. Particularly relevant in this regard is the attraction of foreign direct investment in the form of creating a joint venture.
- URL: rg.ru/2011/09/20/niashinostroenie.html (access date: 06/28/2013).
- State comprehensive program for the development of mechanical engineering in Russia for the period until 2020.
- As a result of the collapse of the USSR, numerous production and technical ties between enterprises of the former republics acquired international status.
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International production cooperation
Introduction
1. International production cooperation
1.1 Features
1.2 Definition
2. Methods for the development of international production cooperation
3. Types of international production cooperation
Conclusion
References
Introduction
International production cooperation as a specific form is implemented by various firms and enterprises. Increasing competition in the world market encourages them to improve this form of international economic cooperation. There are several directions for such development.
International cooperation in production not only helps to increase labor productivity, but also helps to implement major economic tasks that are extremely difficult or even impossible to solve without combining the efforts of enterprises from several countries. Such tasks include the construction of large industrial facilities being built not only in developing countries, but also in developed countries.
1. International production cooperation
1.1 Peculiarities
The international division of labor has several forms of expression - intra-industry, inter-industry, inter-generic and national economic forms of division of labor between the national economies of individual countries taken as a whole. Each of these forms deserves independent consideration.
Cooperation is an independent way of socializing production and, unlike the division of labor, finds expression in a variety of types of enterprises. In its historical development, cooperation as a form of joint production activity of people had several types. Their features will be discussed in detail in the chapter on the organizational and social forms of participants in international economic relations. Here we just note that from the point of view of ownership of the means of production, all types of cooperation represent a single economic enterprise owned by an individual, a team of workers or a certain group of shareholders who own and manage its assets. Cooperation -- This is the joint production of many people working in one enterprise, including a large firm or corporation, which implies the unity of the organizational and economic structure within which this production is carried out, and is owned by one or more persons.
Another feature of the IPC is that with it production relations between enterprises are long-term. Unlike international trade, which is one-time in nature, cooperation relations are designed for a long period. In accordance with this, supply contracts are concluded for a long time, and the supplies themselves are stable and regular, which increases the interest of enterprises in this form of economic cooperation. It is noteworthy that cooperative relations, as a rule, continue after the expiration of the cooperation agreement, i.e. after the goal is achieved.
Finally, a characteristic feature of international cooperation in production is that in some cases it is complex in nature, i.e. covers not only production itself, but also research and development work and sales activities directly servicing production. Thus, the sale of jointly manufactured products may include coordinated performances of partners on the market, as well as resolving issues of technical maintenance of sold products, their subsequent modernization taking into account the requirements of the buyer.
One of the reasons for the development of MIC is the tendency to increase the capital intensity of the production of new products, which require huge financial resources. International specialization and cooperation in production reduces the time it takes to set up the production of new goods and reduces their capital intensity.
Among the important motivational advantages that encourage enterprises and firms from different countries to participate in international production cooperation is the opportunity it creates, through a relatively small increase in purchases of components, to achieve a significant increase in the output of final products, including those for export.
For example, the construction of the railway tunnel under the English Channel, inaugurated in May 1994 by the Queen of England and the French President, was carried out jointly by construction firms from England and France. There are many such examples of successful joint construction - in India, in Africa, and in other regions of the world.
One of the main reasons for the growth of international production cooperation was the desire of large enterprises and corporations to increase income from the export of their products. Due to the fact that some countries introduced a direct ban on the import of finished cars, manufacturers in industrial countries used the remaining open opportunity to export similar cars, but in the form of a complete set. This is the first thing. Secondly, in individual countries there are differences in import duties on assembled machines and on complete sets of components. Trying to increase their incomes using this difference, exporters of industrial countries switched to exporting intermediate products.
1.2 Definition
TOoperation represents production connections between different enterprises involved in the manufacture of a certain product, but at the same time maintaining their economic independence. In cooperation it is necessary to distinguish between two characteristic features: a) in the context of the development of this process, independent manufacturers from different countries, on a contractual basis, carry out joint activities to create certain types of products that have a strictly targeted purpose and constitute elements of the final product, i.e. cooperating enterprises specialize or delimit production responsibilities among themselves for the joint production of agreed products; b) cooperation involves the exchange between participants of jointly produced partial products. But this means that cooperation has two characteristic features of the international division of labor and, therefore, is one of its forms.
In economic literature, along with the concepts of “cooperation” and “cooperation”, the difference between which we have just clarified, such terms as “industrial cooperation” and “production cooperation” are also used. In the interests of a more clear development of theoretical problems of cooperation, it is necessary to see the difference between these concepts. Industrial cooperation is a narrower concept compared to production cooperation; it represents only its particular manifestation. In the first case, we are talking about the development of cooperation only in the industrial sphere, in the second - both in industry and in other spheres of activity. For example, in agriculture there are specialized enterprises for growing seedlings, preparing seeds for sowing, feeding complexes, etc. Thus, production cooperation is a broader concept than industrial cooperation.
Unlike complex types of cooperation - firms, industrial associations or transnational corporations, in which production relations are carried out within the framework of one property, in cooperation they occur between different owners. This is the most important characteristic feature of international production cooperation.
2. Methods for developing international cooperation
International specialization and international cooperation of production can be implemented by a variety of methods. The oldest way of implementing cooperative relations in industry, as well as in construction, is the conclusion between enterprises of agreements on specialization by each of them in a contractual manner, which in the literature is better known as contracting cooperation. This method provides that the customer instructs the performing company to carry out certain work in accordance with a previously reached agreement regarding the timing, volume, quality and other conditions of execution. The contracting method involves the supply of products from one partner to another and the assembly of the final product by only one of them.
Contract cooperation has two varieties: a classic contract for the production of products and a contract for the design and manufacture of components, devices and other equipment. In classical contracting, the contracting firm produces partial products on behalf of the customer according to his drawings and specifications under his responsibility and at his expense. It can assemble components or assemblies from components produced by the customer or his other contractor, as well as perform technological operations on behalf of the customer in order to transform semi-finished products into finished components and other activities.
On the contrary, when using a contract for the design and production of components, assemblies and other components, the customer provides the contractor with only the most general parameters of the required equipment. The latter designs, develops and manufactures samples of new technical products and transfers to the customer all documentation about them. From this moment, cooperative relations begin to develop between them. It must be said that such cooperation is beneficial to partners: the customer receives new equipment in a short time and at a lower price than with its own production, and the designer can, to his benefit, sell new products not only to the customer, but also to other buyers. In connection with this additional advantage, contract cooperation in the design and manufacture of new units and other components has become widespread in many engineering industries. Thus, automobile manufacturing companies provide orders to specialized firms for the design of engines, transmissions, bodies, cabins and other parts of the car. Among such companies large volumes The company that stands out in terms of work, for example, is Motor Panels, which designs and manufactures cabins for trucks. During the year, it produces 25 thousand cabins of 160 modifications 1.
The second one is quite widespread. method international production cooperation provides mutual partial specialization based on the use of individual resources of partners and the supply of products to each other to create their own final product. This method is usually used between firms that, by the nature of their activities, are in direct bilateral production dependence. Partners agree on the terms of mutual specialization of production and, in accordance with this, exchange components for assembling the final product independently. For example, in this way cooperative ties have developed between the famous Hungarian company Ikarus and the Russian automobile manufacturer LiAZ, which exchange rear and front axles with each other to produce their own brands of buses.
In development practice, IEO is also used method international production cooperation based on the implementation by partners of a joint program for each of them to create their own final product. As a rule, we are talking about the development and production of a technically complex product provided for by a joint program of cooperating countries. At the same time, their financial, scientific, technical, material and labor resources are combined and each of them is assigned full responsibility for the production of a certain part of the product. With this method, cooperating countries cooperate closely at all stages of product creation, from scientific and technical work to sales and maintenance. In general, this option for the development of cooperative ties can be called the method of mutual partial specialization and the addition of forces to create one’s own final product.
Such cooperation is also usually carried out by firms with approximately the same production profile, with a predominance of the same specialization. The basis of such cooperation is the principle of specialization of partners in the manufacture of parts of the final product, for which they have the most favorable economic, scientific and technical conditions, allowing them to produce high-quality components and low production costs.
The method of mutual partial specialization and international production cooperation based on the implementation of a joint program by partners is also used to create a single product, from the design stage to sales and maintenance. Greatest development He received his qualifications in aerospace, nuclear, power engineering and shipbuilding. This is due to the fact that the development and production of products in these industries require significant costs, and the technical complexity of objects consisting of many thousands of parts and subsystems makes it impossible to create and produce them without establishing broad scientific and technical cooperation between parent companies.
Finally, an important relatively new method the development of international cooperation in production is cooperation between enterprises from different countries on the joint construction of economic facilities. In fact, this means the revival of contract cooperation, but on a new production basis. If in traditional contract cooperation it was a question of the contractor fulfilling the customer’s instructions for the production of partial products according to his drawings and specifications or assignments for the design and manufacture of new devices, motors or machines, now the establishment of cooperative ties involves firms from several countries carrying out joint coordinated work on behalf of the customer aimed at achieving a major concrete result - the construction of a specific industrial or other economic facility. Such activities include, in addition to the supply and installation of equipment, also design, construction, engineering and other work.
Several firms from different countries, including firms from the customer country, can take part in the construction of industrial facilities. The main advantage of multilateral cooperation is the mutual complementarity of the financial, production and other resources of the partners, which allows greater use of the opportunities of the international division of labor. With multilateral cooperation, the highest efficiency in using available resources and increasing the profitability of production is achieved.
Organizational cooperation in the construction of industrial, transport and other facilities is carried out on the basis of international treaties or agreements on production, technical and industrial cooperation. Such agreements provide for the participation of partners with their own funds and efforts in the implementation of a joint program for the construction of a facility. In some cases, relations between cooperators are limited to the duration of the agreement for the implementation of the intended program. But at the same time, they can be longer and more versatile than with ordinary sales contracts. In other cases, multilateral cooperation does not end with the commissioning of an economic facility, but continues, but in a different version. Some of the participants in the construction of an industrial facility, after its commissioning, continue to cooperate with the customer to produce products at this facility on a cooperative basis. An example is the assembly of buses in Libya and Madagascar from Hungarian and Swedish components, the assembly of tractors in Brazil, the parts of which are supplied from Germany and other countries.
3. Types of international cooperation
We made an attempt to determine the content of international cooperation in production, identified its main features, and identified some reasons further development and identified the subjects of this process. We also found out methods for developing international production cooperation. But for a more complete understanding of this widespread international economic phenomenon, it is necessary to keep in mind that in life there are many types of cooperation that can be classified into separate related groups depending on the principles of their formation.
Take, for example, the principle of forming types of cooperation based on the number of firms, corporations and other economic entities participating in it. It is necessary to note here the existence two types of international cooperation: bilateral, when the relationship involves two enterprises, and multilateral, when cooperation occurs between several enterprises. As practice shows, many countries have acquired the greatest experience in conducting bilateral cooperation. In addition, it is unidirectional in nature, i.e. one of the partners produces parts or assemblies in agreed quantities to complete final products produced by the other partner.
Economic entities participating in international bilateral or multilateral cooperation can supply each other with one, two or several units, apparatus and other partial products. This means that it is possible to identify another type of international cooperation, the constitutive feature of which is the number of objects supplied. When one intermediate object is realized, it will be VID of single-subject cooperation. In the event that deliveries cover several sites, we will deal with multi-subject cooperation.
As for intersectoral cooperation, in our opinion, it is carried out between industries that are part of the same type of production, or, as it is more often called, one national economic sector. As you know, there are five types of production: industry, agriculture, construction, transport and communications, trade. Taking into account the noted national economic structure, the following subtypes of intersectoral cooperation can be identified:
cooperation in industry;
cooperation in agriculture;
cooperation in the field of design and construction of various facilities;
cooperation in the field of transport and communications;
cooperation in the field of trade.
If cooperation is carried out between industries included in different types of production, then it is advisable to call it not intersectoral, but intergeneric. In accordance with this principle, the following subtypes of intergeneric cooperation can be recorded:
between industry and agriculture;
between industry and construction.
An example is the supply of fertilizers to the chemical industry. agriculture or the supply of special rolled products by the metallurgical industry to various construction companies and other options.
If we approach the formation of types of cooperation according to the principle of territorial distribution, then according to this criterion we can distinguish several of its types. One of them is intraregional, or simply regional, international cooperation, when cooperative ties between enterprises are carried out within one international region, say, within Eastern or Western Europe. If similar relations develop between enterprises of two regions, for example, Southeast Asia and South Asia, then this will already be a type interregional cooperation. Interregional connections within one continent can also be called intracontinental. In the same case, when there is cooperation between enterprises located on different continents, for example, in Western Europe and America, then we see a view of the international intercontinental cooperation. Currently, each of these types takes place in life, but the palm so far belongs to intraregional international cooperation.
Conclusion
Thus, international production cooperation is a widespread type of production relations, which are distinguished by long-term, stable and regular connections between partners. This type of economic cooperation helps firms reduce production and distribution costs, and therefore the cost of their products. Reducing production costs leads to strengthening the position of firms in the national and world markets. The IPC also makes it possible to solve major national economic problems that would be impossible even to pose without the combined efforts of producers from several countries. Therefore, it is popular among participants in foreign economic relations. This type of international economic relations should also be developed by Russia.
References
1. International specialization and cooperation in production of the CMEA countries / Ed. Yu. Shiryaeva. M., 1982.
2. International economic relations / Ed. S. Sutyrina. 1996.
3. Foreign economic relations / Ed. I. Faminsky. M., 1992.
4. Zavyalov P.S. Organization and management of international production cooperation. M., 1987.
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Lecture No. 5. International cooperation in production
1. TNCs, the role and areas of activity of TNCs in the modern world economy
International corporations- These are large associations of companies and firms that operate not only within the country, but also abroad. The first of them appeared in the second half of the 19th century. and were associated with activities in the field of mining and marketing of mineral raw materials. In the second half of the 20th century. The scope of their activities is expanding, and they are already operating on a global scale.
Their emergence is associated with the development of division of labor and cooperation. The specialization of an enterprise helps to increase the scale of production, and this is typical for any economic entity.
After an enterprise has increased production within its country, it expands beyond its borders. At this stage, international production formations appear. Enterprises strive to get as much as possible more income and enter the world market.
International corporations are generally divided into three groups: transnational corporations (TNCs), multinational corporations (MNCs) and international corporate alliances.
Multinational corporations- These are production associations of international firms, and these firms belong to owners from different countries. National companies unite on the basis of technology and scientific developments. Examples of such corporations include Univeler, Fiat-Citroen, etc.
International corporate unions are most often consortia in their organizational form. These are associations of concerns to solve certain economic problems.
Transnational corporations- these are companies that are controlled, as a rule, by shareholders of one country. But they also carry out their activities in other countries through the creation of branches and their subsidiaries, which have their own sales services, production, etc. Vivid examples TNCs are such American companies as Ford, General Motors, the Swiss Nestlé, etc.
In order for an international company to be considered a TNC, it is necessary that the shares of employees in foreign enterprises, foreign assets and foreign sales do not exceed 25-30%.
A TNC consists of a parent corporation and subsidiaries. The parent company forms a development strategy, exercises control over finance and technology, and participates in management subsidiaries through participation in their capital. It also makes decisions about the purchase, establishment or liquidation of its divisions.
TNCs do not operate in all industries. The majority of multinational corporations are in the oil, chemical, automotive and electronics industries. This is explained by the fact that it is easier and more profitable to create international production associations in these areas.
TNCs have a number of advantages compared to other participants in international economic relations. First of all, this is a large territory in which they operate. Having its branches in foreign countries, they trade their goods without paying customs duties. Thanks to this, they use resources from other countries. These are not only natural resources, but also human, scientific and technical potential. In addition, they can benefit from the socio-economic level of development of the country: after all, if in a given country the level of wages is low, then it is not necessary to pay workers the same as they are paid, for example, in the country where the parent corporation is located; and if raw material prices are low, production costs are reduced. In any case, when making any decisions regarding the activities of TNCs, the specifics of the country in which the branch is located are taken into account.
In addition, multinational corporations take advantage of opportunities to avoid paying customs duties when importing goods into the country that were produced by subsidiaries abroad.
Within international corporations, when exchanging goods, so-called intra-company transfer prices are used. Their level is significantly lower than in regular trading, and according to some data, the difference between them is 3–4 times. Thanks to this instrument, it becomes possible to finance some divisions of TNCs using others, and at the same time, the amount on which taxes must be paid is significantly reduced. Currently, a significant part of the funds passes through such channels of international intra-company turnover.
Thus, transnational corporations widely take advantage of international cooperation and division of labor. They operate far beyond the borders of their “home” country and, by forming interethnic complexes, have a significant impact not only on the economies of individual countries, but also on the state of world trade as a whole.
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From the author's bookChapter 1 Basics construction production and production of finishing
The development of international specialization of production is accompanied by the development of international production cooperation (ICP). With inter-industry and subject-specific intra-industry specialization, the manufacturer is able to organize the process of manufacturing products and selling them both domestically and foreign markets. If the specialization takes on the character of a detail or technological one, it is inevitable to establish direct contact between manufacturers of parts, assemblies or semi-products with their consumers-manufacturers of finished products.
Thus, international cooperation of production involves the direct connection of labor of workers from different countries in a single production process.
The objective basis of cooperation is the growing level of development of productive forces and the establishment of stable production links between independent enterprises within the country and on the world stage. Scientific and technological revolution introduced an important element into the process of cooperation - science.
By its economic nature, international cooperation is a productive force that allows one to achieve useful results in the field of production, sales, and scientific research at lower costs (compared to if the participants acted separately).
International cooperation covers different areas:
1. Production and technological cooperation (transfer of licenses, development of design documentation, technological processes, standardization, etc.);
2. Technical and economic cooperation related to the sale of cooperative products;
3. After-sales service.
Each of the MRI participants has its own economic interest.
Realization of the advantages of MRT in the process of international exchange of any country under favorable conditions gives: obtaining the difference between the world and domestic prices of exported goods and services; savings in domestic costs due to the abandonment of production and the use of cheaper exports.
The most important features of international production cooperation include:
Agreement by participants contractually or through internal regulation of the terms of joint activities both at the preliminary stage and in the process of releasing products on the basis of cooperation;
Participation as direct subjects of production cooperation of industrial enterprises (firms) of different countries;
Distribution among cooperation participants within the framework of an agreed program of tasks for the production of parts, assemblies and finished products. In this case, it is possible to produce the finished product at one cooperating enterprise, to which the others supply parts and components, or at two or three enterprises. In this case, counter deliveries of parts and components of the finished product are possible between these enterprises;
Economic relations between cooperating enterprises are built on the basis not of ordinary sales and purchase agreements, but of long-term contracts that establish the procedure for determining the volume of supply of cooperating products, prices for them, etc. An important element of contracts is to ensure the rhythm of deliveries and establish sanctions for violating their terms.
Cooperation between firms from different countries is developing not only in the field of production, but also in the field of scientific research and development, design and construction of facilities, in the field of sales, provision of services, etc.
The following classification of MCP can be given:
1. By type: economic cooperation, industrial cooperation, production cooperation, scientific and technical cooperation, sales cooperation, etc.
2. By stages: pre-production, production, commercial.
3. By methods of use: implementation of joint programs, creation of joint ventures.
4. According to the structure of connections: intra- and inter-firm, intra- and inter-industry, horizontal, vertical and mixed.
5. By territorial scope: between two or more countries, within a region, interregional, worldwide.
6. A) by the number of subjects: two and multilateral.
B) by the number of objects: single and multi-subject.
7. By form of organization:
Contract cooperation, which assumes that one of the parties to the agreement gives the other or other participants an order to perform certain work based on specified requirements, including volumes and timing of deliveries, their quality, etc.;
Joint production, when two or three or more firms, on the basis of an agreement, jointly produce finished products, specializing among themselves in performing certain types of work;
A joint venture is a wealthy company for the joint implementation of a project. Firms - founders of a joint venture on a parity basis invest in its creation either financial resources (capital), or new technology, or production capacity. A joint venture is created to implement one project. To cooperate on many projects, cooperating firms can create partnerships (partnerships).
Contractual specialization, which involves delimiting the programs of the parties to the agreement. Such agreements are usually aimed not only at eliminating duplication of production, but also involve cooperation in the production of other products, mutual or unilateral subcontracting, joint research and development.
Intercompany cooperation agreements may include cooperation in personnel training and production; licensing agreements and franchising; subcontracts for production, assembly and subsequent purchase of products; management and marketing contracts; cooperation in geological exploration and scientific research.
The economic significance of the MCP lies in the fact that it:
Integrates innovation through market methods;
Increases the dynamism of competition and contributes to the acceleration of scientific and technological progress;
Reduces investment, scientific and technical costs, costs of current production;
Intensifies joint business activities;
Smoothes out possible negative consequences of attracting foreign capital to the domestic economy, restrains the development of the raw materials sector;
Orients in the direction of increasing the competitiveness of cooperative products on the world market.
The main functions of the MCP are to be a means of increasing the produced material goods and services with higher labor productivity, as well as the implementation of fundamentally new tasks that are difficult to solve without combining the efforts of producers from different countries.
International division of labor, international specialization, international cooperation, inter-industry specialization, intra-industry specialization, subject specialization, detail specialization, technological specialization, contract cooperation, joint production, joint venture, contract specialization.
Security questions
1. What is meant by the international division of labor?
2. What factors of the international division of labor are decisive at the present stage?
3. List and explain the types of international specialization and international cooperation
4. What indicators characterize the degree of participation of a country in the international division of labor?
5. What benefits does a country receive from participating in the international division of labor?