Labor productivity is an indicator of the efficiency of labor activity of workers, which is the ratio of the number of products produced to labor costs.
Output is the amount of products produced per unit of time or per one average employee(this is a direct indicator of labor productivity):
where Q is the volume of products produced,
T – average number of employees, t – standard hour.
Output can be determined per one main worker, one working person. In economic calculations, hourly, daily, monthly and annual output are used. Average hourly output characterizes labor productivity in each hour of work and is the ratio of the volume of output produced to the labor costs of the main workers in man-hours. Average daily output characterizes the degree of use of working time and represents the ratio of the volume of products produced to the labor costs of workers (in man-days). Average annual output is the ratio of the annual production volume to the labor costs of all employees, characterizes the average output of one average employee and reflects the change in the number of days of attendance in the corresponding period.
To measure labor productivity in terms of production, three calculation methods are used:
1. Natural: the volume of production is determined in natural units;
2. Cost: the volume of production is determined in monetary units;
3.Labor: the volume of production is determined in standard hours.
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Economic calculations use hourly, daily, monthly and annual production.
To measure labor productivity by production three applies method calculus -
Methods definitions production.
where PT is labor productivity ( production), Q – volume of products produced, T – average number of employees. -
Methodology
Methods definitions production. -
Methodology and planning order represent the overall planning process.
Methods definitions production. -
Methods definitions production. Labor productivity is an indication of the efficiency of the labor activity of the workers who represent it. Profitability and its types. -
The study of reflexes consists of definition their character, uniformity, symmetry. -
Methodology and planning order represent the overall planning process.
Methods definitions production.
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To measure labor productivity in terms of production, three calculation methods are used:
Labor productivity- an indicator of the fruitfulness of the purposeful activity of workers, which is measured by the amount of work (products, services) done per unit of time. To assess the level of labor productivity, a system of generalizing, specific and auxiliary indicators is used. Basic indicators of labor productivity (LP) are indicators of output and labor intensity . Output (B) determined by the ratio of the number of products produced (Q) to the costs of the worker. time to produce these products (T), i.e. according to the following formula: B=Q/T. Labor intensity (T) is the reciprocal of production.
1. Natural method for determining production
Out.=prod. output/number. Natural method; VP (volume) is specified in natural meters: Ext. nat. =(VP in natural measures)/number. Advantage: The method more accurately reflects the PT. Disadvantage: the method can be used in single-product industries; does not allow determining production across the entire range of products of the enterprise and taking into account the quality of products. The method is rarely used, at individual workplaces.
2.Cost method for determining output
Out.=prod. output/number. Cost; VP is specified in prices Ex. Art. =(å n i=1 VP in physical terms of the i-th type per iPrice)/number, where n is the number of types of products produced at the enterprise. Advantage: the method is universal. Disadvantage: Price distorts the level of PT.
3.Labor method for determining production
Out.=prod. output/number. Labor; in which VP is expressed in standard hours. Ext. labor =(å n i=1 VP і above + standard labor intensity)/number. Advantages: 1. The method is directly related to the essence of PT; 2. The method can be used at enterprises producing many types of products. Disadvantages: due to the inability to determine the full standard labor intensity, it is rarely used.
Natural method output is calculated based on production volume expressed in physical units - tons, pieces, meters, etc. The method is applicable in the production of homogeneous products. When producing several types of homogeneous products, output is determined in conventional natural units.
Labor method
- suitable for assessing the level of PT in individual production areas, in workshops when heterogeneous products are produced, a large volume of semi-finished products and work in progress, but requires strict validity of labor standards.
Cost method
output is calculated based on the volume of production expressed in monetary terms, in rubles. The method is the most universal, as it allows you to compare the level and dynamics of labor productivity at an enterprise, in an industry, across regions, and in a country. To determine production using the cost method, various indicators are used for the cost of volume of production: VP (cost of gross output), TP (cost of marketable products), UHP (cost of conditionally net products), PP (cost of net products), VAT (standard cost processing). This is explained by the fact that the production indicator calculated by the cost method significant influence has a share of materials and semi-finished products that differ significantly in price, i.e. affected by transferred value created outside the enterprise.
Methods for making decisions by a group of people
Decision-making methods can be based on the manager’s intuition, on a scientific-practical approach, which requires a number of stages in formulating the problem, developing alternative solutions, processing large quantity information, making the optimal decision.
When developing a solution by a group of people, formalized (mathematical) and heuristic (creative) methods can be used.
For well-structured (programmed) decisions, methods of quantitative analysis and electronic information processing are widely used. In this case, the optimization criterion may include indicators of profit, gross income, labor productivity, etc. This choice is called optimization.
Computational problems are solved using mathematical methods. Typically these are current management tasks, such as forecasting the volume of inventories, placement and determination of quantities depending on the production program, and others. Mathematical methods are used in cases where the factors that influence the choice of solution can be assessed quantitatively, which is why they are called quantitative.
Analytical methods– the main part of mathematical ones – are characterized by the fact that they establish analytical relationships between the conditions for completing a task (factors) and its results (the adopted decision). Analytical methods include a group of methods for economic analysis of a company’s activities (for example, constructing a break-even equation and finding the break-even point).
Statistical methods based on the collection, processing and analysis of statistical materials. Distinctive feature of these methods - taking into account random influences and deviations. Statistical methods include methods of reliability theory and mathematical statistics.
Methods mathematical programming are considered in applied mathematics and contain the theory and methods for solving conditional extremal problems with several variables. Mathematical programming methods have found their greatest application in the areas of product range and product planning; determining the route for manufacturing products; minimizing waste from the production process; regulation of inventory levels; calendar planning production and others.
Game-theoretic methods are intended to justify decisions under conditions of uncertainty, incompleteness and ambiguity of information. These include statistical decision theory and game theory.
Methods of statistical decision theory are used when the uncertainty of the environment is caused by objective circumstances that are unknown or random.
Game theory used in cases where the uncertainty of the environment is caused by the conscious actions of an intelligent adversary.
In conditions of weakly structured (unprogrammed) decisions, a system of weighted criteria is used. With this system, criteria for evaluating a solution are selected, an expert assessment of each criterion is selected, and based on the total assessments of each solution (sum of points), a conclusion is drawn about the advisability of using a particular solution.
Expert methods are used in cases where it is impossible to use quantitative methods, that is, when there is insufficient information or its absence. In practice, the method of simple ranking and the method of weighting coefficients are used.
Simple ranking method consists in the fact that each expert places the features in order of importance - the least important feature comes first, then the next most important feature, etc. The obtained data are summarized in a table; the average rank is determined, i.e. the average statistical value of the location of each feature. As a result, the lowest average rank indicates the most important feature, and so on.
Weighting method is that all features are given weighting coefficients in the following ways:
· all characteristics are assigned weighting coefficients so that their sum is equal to 1, 10 or 100;
· the most important characteristic is assigned a weight coefficient that is equal to a fixed number, and the last ones are assigned coefficients that are equal to fractions of this number.
Data obtained through expert assessments can be further used when making decisions using the integral indicator method.
Delphi method assumes that each survey participant answers questions independently and anonymously. The results of the answers are collected in the center, and all solutions are sent to each participant. Having become familiar with other solution options, each participant can develop a new solution. The decision is sent to the center.
The center collects individual decisions and, if necessary, repeats these steps until an agreed solution is reached.
Problems that are non-standard in nature, based on qualitative rather than quantitative variables, are solved using heuristic methods.
Method of analogies based on the search for possible solutions based on borrowing. That is, a decision is made that has already been made previously in a similar situation, in the manager’s opinion, and its implementation led to a satisfactory result. If several such decisions were made, then the option that led to the best result in the most similar situation is chosen.
Inversion method– the opposite of the method of analogies. Its essence lies in the fact that a decision is made that is opposite to that made in a similar situation, if the previous decision did not bring success, or similar to the one made in the opposite situation, if its implementation was successful.
Empathy method- insight into the essence of things. When using the empathy method, the decision maker must associate himself with the object regarding which the decision is being made and, thanks to this, finds out the reasons for the problem situation.
Brainstorming method. Conditions for using this method: works creative Group specialists in the problem under consideration numbering no more than 10 people. The team is assembled and introduced to the problem by the manager who is tasked with solving the problem.
After a short period of reflection and understanding of the problem, the group begins to generate ideas. At the first stage of decision-making, ideas are discussed without criticism.
At the second stage, ideas are selected based on healthy criticism of proposals from junior to senior group members.
In-depth development of selected ideas and their detailed development - the third stage of brainstorming - occurs in the form of a discussion in order to identify all the possible advantages and disadvantages of the proposed alternatives. Based on the information received at this stage, the manager makes the final choice and decision.
Group notebook method suggests that the group may include both specialists and non-specialists to ensure fresh perspectives and generate innovative ideas. After familiarizing yourself with the problem, each group member receives a notebook in which he will keep notes related to his decision-making option.
Everyone puts out their proposals in writing on a notepad within the time limit allotted by the manager. At the end of the period for thinking about the problem, the group gathers and all its participants are heard. At this stage, criticism of proposals is not allowed. Each group member individually ranks all projects in the notebook. Based on these ratings, the project with the best rating is selected under conditions of anonymity.
Questions and tasks for self-control and reflection
1. Identify approaches to understanding the content of the concept of “decision” in management. How are management decisions classified?
2. Describe the elements of the management decision-making process.
3. What signs determine the decision-making method?
4. How to evaluate the effectiveness of a management decision?
5. Describe heuristic methods of decision making.
6. Describe mathematical methods of decision making.
7. What are the characteristics of decision-making methods under conditions of uncertainty?
The development of any management decision begins with the process of thinking about the management problem. The deliberation process can be difficult for an individual or a group as a whole. In such a situation, standard intellectual analysis schemes should be used: sorting options and specifying their causes, forecasting and analyzing necessary actions, developing recommendations for action, highlighting the main and auxiliary characteristics of the problem, dividing the problem into parts.
Typical models of the process of thinking about a problem:
1. sevenfold search model
The problem situation is analyzed and the general formulation of the problem is formulated,
Analyzes of similar objects are carried out,
The formulation of the problem is clarified,
Various ideas have been put forward to problem solving,
Restrictions are put forward on the implementation of solution options,
Options for solutions are evaluated
The most preferable solutions to the problem are selected.
2. “Lots” model
Discussion of the existing option,
Discussion of strategy,
Development of long-term goals,
Development of short-term goals,
Discussion of resource provision,
Discussion of human resources potential,
Output development plans,
Discussion of organization options,
Development of reporting and analysis options.
3. McKinsey model
Strategy assessment,
Skills assessment,
Assessment of generally accepted values,
Structure assessment,
Assessment of organizational systems,
Personnel assessment,
Action evaluation.
4. model “Attack on the gap between desired and predicted activities”
Formulation of goals,
Forecast of indicator dynamics,
Identifying the gap between goals and forecast,
Formulating investment alternatives and business strategy,
Determining resource needs,
Return to the beginning.
Organization group work depends largely on the activities of the group leader. The group leader, before starting to discuss the problem, must determine the basic rules of work:
Determine the decision-making method,
Note the role of individual group members,
Determine the timing of the group's work,
Ensure equal participation
Determine the rule for resolving private conflicts,
See informal roles, which will help to effectively discuss the problem.
Ethical behavior is necessary when discussing a problem because it simplifies the process of discussion and development of a solution.
Problem solving, like management, is a process that includes a sequence of interconnected stages. Experience of group development methods management decisions allows us to distinguish the following typical models:
1. brainstorm - This is a group’s way of working, focused on finding options for solving a problem situation.
main idea method - putting forward as many new options as possible due to the collective intelligence of the participants. Experts from various fields of knowledge are invited to participate in the brainstorming session.
The group’s work is organized in three stages:
- formulation of the problem carried out by the group leader. He tries to explain the essence of the problem, its characteristic factors. The leader formulates and asks questions, manages the process of statements, monitors the implementation of the rules and regulations of the process.
- generation of ideas occurs through the nomination of each of the discussion participants, based on the following provisions:
a) avoid the idea that the problem can only be solved by known methods,
b) the more proposals put forward, the greater the likelihood of a new and valuable idea emerging,
c) it is not your knowledge that is required, but ideas for solving the problem,
d) do not wait for approval and do not think about the possible consequences
The number of ideas put forward during the brainstorming process is significantly greater than the sum of the options offered by specialists individually. This happens by combining ideas, stimulating the thinking process during a brainstorming session.
The duration of the brainstorming process depends on the complexity of the problem being solved and ranges from 15-60 minutes.
- evaluation and selection of ideas can be performed by brainstorming participants or a special group of specialists. Proposals that are obviously unfeasible are discarded, and the remaining ones are analyzed.
Brainstorming produces the best results when creating new products, identifying methods of construction and repair, and finding options for action in difficult situations.
2. synectics- This is a professional brainstorming session. It is implemented by a special group of people trained in special creative techniques. The group, as a rule, is constant in composition. The sequence of their actions:
The formulation of the problem by the manager in the form in which it was received from the customer,
Understanding of the problem by the participants as they see it, taking into account possible past analogues,
Generating ideas,
Assessing the feasibility of options for solving the problem.
Typical working methods of synectics participants:
The principle of adaptation - adaptation known processes for the conditions of the problem being solved,
The principle of differentiation is the crushing and separation of elements of a system or object,
The principle of integration is combining, combining, simplifying functions, forms, elements,
The principle of analogy is finding similarities with known systems in technology, nature,
The principle of idealization is the formulation of an ideal situation from which adjustments and adaptations should begin,
The principle of empathy is considering a problem from someone else’s perspective,
The principle of simplification is discarding, neglecting the unimportant and highlighting certain factors,
Induction is an inference from individual facts to a general statement,
Deduction is a conclusion according to the rules of logic from general patterns to a particular result.
3. morphological analysis.
Each object has several characteristic morphological characteristics or independent characteristics, for which implementation options are in turn determined. The completeness of the set is a subjective assessment of the researcher. For characteristics and options all are formed possible options combinations. Unacceptable options are discarded, and the rest are analyzed for possible implementation.
The basis of morphological analysis is the ordering and systematization of the formation and analysis of options, the systematization of the researcher’s thinking process.
4. functional-cost analysis– structuring the problem with a special target orientation: reducing the cost of the product.
The application of the method begins with identifying the main functions performed by the product as a whole and each of its elements separately. Achieving results is assessed in terms of costs, and then options are sought to reduce costs while maintaining the required level of functions performed. A functional cost analysis is organized through the activities of a special group of researchers. It implements its activities through the construction of a matrix of functions and costs.
Setting the priority of tasks to be solved is the basic rule of effective work. Non-essential tasks should be abandoned. The priority of tasks to be solved is determined based on:
1. ABC analysis
According to the “Pareto rule,” a limited number (20%) of the elements that make up a phenomenon determine 80% of its occurrence. Among the elements that make up a problem, only a small part is of vital importance, therefore, when studying a problem, it is necessary to concentrate on the significant elements and not pay attention to a lot of attention to the rest.
For example:
20% of customers (products) provide 80% of turnover or profit,
80% of customers (products) bring 20% of turnover or profit,
In a manager’s work, 80% of results are achieved in the first 20% of time spent,
20% of the initial products determine 80% of the cost of the finished product.
Based on the Pareto rule, all tasks are divided into three parts. Group A – tasks with a significance of 65% with a specific weight of 15%, group B – tasks with a significance of 15% with a specific weight of 20%, Group C – tasks with a significance of 15% with a specific weight of 65%. This grouping provides support for choosing the order of solving problems. First, tasks are solved, of which there are few, but which provide great significance for the final result.
2. Eisenhower principle
All tasks are divided into three groups. The first group are tasks that should be completed without delay, the second are tasks for which a deadline should be set, and the third are tasks that should be delegated to others for completion.
3. problem resolution levels - the problem is considered from the point of view of different levels of impact on it.
The first level is resolving the problem through small organizational changes. It does not require large expenditures and options for improvement are identified without additional effort.
The second level is an attempt to attract additional resources to complement the existing mechanism, without changing its established principles.
The third level – the problem is solved through fundamental changes in the rules, principles, conditions.
The fourth level is the involvement of fundamentally different areas of knowledge to change the operating conditions of the object in question and its purpose.
The organization of preparation and implementation of management decisions requires the implementation of certain organizational and administrative measures for interaction between employees participating in the implementation of the goal.
To develop a management decision, it is necessary to perform the following set of administrative actions by the manager and management staff:
1. indicate the task, the composition of personnel and the system of their subordination, execution time, resources, highlight the intermediate stages of monitoring progress,
2. familiarize performers with the tasks and the beginning of work on developing the task,
3. explain the rights, responsibilities and opportunities of participants when performing work,
4. allocation of necessary resources and funds to employees and identification of sources of information,
5. control is carried out to ensure compliance of the task with current legislation and the company’s statutory documents,
6. draw up a conclusion on the technical, economic and organizational feasibility of the task,
7. choose a method for developing a management decision for each option of a management decision,
8. compile a list of options for developed management decisions.
For the procedure for approving a management decision, it is necessary to carry out the following administrative actions of the manager and management staff:
1. highlight physical and legal entities, with which it is necessary to coordinate the management decision,
2. determine the time periods for approvals and the necessary accompanying documents,
3. appoint a technical executor to monitor the process of approving a management decision,
4. If necessary, draw up a statement of comments during approvals.
To select a management decision, it is necessary to carry out the following administrative actions of the manager and management staff:
1. confirm the compliance of management decision options with current legislation,
2. check for contradictions in management decision options and previously prepared and implemented decisions,
3. determine a set of criteria for choosing a management decision (quantitative and qualitative parameters),
4. compare the parameters of the management decision from the parameters of the criteria,
5. formalize the procedure for making a management decision, indicating the date, responsible persons, available comments,
6. select the form of the document (resolution, order, order, etc.) to formalize the decision made in accordance with the requirements of GOST R 6.30-97.
To approve a management decision by higher authorities, customers or clients, it is necessary to carry out the following administrative actions of the manager and management staff:
1. identify officials whose responsibilities include approving management decisions made in departments,
2. identify individuals and legal entities from whom it is necessary to approve the management decision,
3. determine the necessary supporting documents and approval time periods,
4. appoint a technical executor to monitor the process of approval of management decisions,
5. document the approval of the management decision (general statement of approvals, statement of comments upon approval).
To organize the implementation of a management decision, it is necessary to perform the following set of administrative actions by the manager and management staff:
1. draw up documentation on the beginning of the implementation of a management decision (task, execution time, resources, intermediate stages of progress monitoring),
2. explanation to performers of the content, procedure for execution, rights, responsibilities and powers when doing work,
3. clarify unaccounted for details and review the order of issued tasks,
4. provide performers with the necessary resources,
5. organize a counseling system,
6. carry out periodic monitoring of the progress of implementation of management decisions,
7. archive documentation on the development and implementation of management decisions.
6.3. Expert methods for selecting solution options.
Expertise in many practical situations means making a decision in a poorly formalized problem. The purpose of the examination may be to determine a number, an event, or a program of action.
The examination must be carried out subject to a number of mandatory conditions:
Independence,
Honesty,
Objectivity,
impartiality,
Privacy,
Professionalism,
Competencies,
good faith,
Responsibility.
An expert is a specialist with knowledge, skills and experience.
Classification of experts regarding the inviting company or subject of examination:
- independent experts are in no way connected with the company’s business and have no personal connections with its managers,
- dependent experts feel an explicit or implicit influence from the result expert assessment,
- personally interested experts related to the subject of the examination directly or indirectly.
There are a number of ways to form an expert commission:
A formal method of selection by position, title, length of service, academic degree, etc.,
The “snowball” method - first, one expert is invited, who is asked to write the names of three other experts on this problem; each of the four experts is then asked to recommend three more worthy experts. This continues until 5-10 names of experts are repeated by the majority of recommenders. These experts are invited to conduct an expert assessment.
The expert is brought in by the manager to assess the situation and analyze options for solving the problem, but ultimately only the manager will make the decision. The expert is responsible for the completeness of his analysis, but cannot be held responsible for the consequences of the decision made. He should not be interested in the result of the examination, have psychological independence and high qualifications.
Selecting an expert turns out to be a critical problem. At the same time, they take into account the connection between the expert’s activity profile and the problem being analyzed, the coincidence of recommendations and actual results in the work previously performed by the expert, the degree of consistency of the expert’s opinion with other experts, the degree of the expert’s access to the necessary additional information.
As an exception, the expert's assessment can be carried out by the head of the enterprise in the form of test control, when the expert is assigned to perform one or two examinations on situations that have a preliminary objective assessment. Comparing an expert's opinion with a known assessment can be a criterion of his professionalism.
Method of examination in last years actively involved in solving various economic problems. Of its modifications, the most widely used is the “Delphi method”, which is used to develop various forecasts by a group of experts.
The Delphi method is implemented as follows:
Invite 5-12 experts who do not know each other,
Each expert is given a subject to evaluate (process or phenomenon),
Written opinions of experts are divided into two parts according to the proximity of the assessment result. If the experts' estimates are very close, then they are accepted as the final result. If there are significant differences, the examination process continues,
The assessment and argumentation of the minority of the expert commission are transferred to the majority for analysis,
If the majority of experts agree with the argumentation and assessment of the minority, then the examination process ends, otherwise the examination process continues,
The assessments and arguments of the majority of experts are transferred to the minority for analysis,
The approval process continues until complete agreement, or until categorical opposition,
In case of agreement, the examination process ends, and in case of opposition, the organizer of the examination brings to the attention of the head the different results of the examination. The manager may accept one or another result of the examination at his own responsibility.
Basic principles of this method:
Experts can only be recognized specialists in the relevant field,
To develop a satisfactory solution, a sufficiently large number of experts is needed,
It is necessary to pose questions to experts that exclude ambiguity in the answer,
The success of a complex examination is ensured by a well-thought-out system of questions,
Open discussions during the examination are excluded,
It is permissible to request additional information, including divergent opinions of other experts,
It is allowed to conduct several rounds of examination when experts study additional information before each round, including divergent judgments of other experts.
The Delphi method ends with the development of a consensus opinion of the majority of experts. If at enough large number rounds of examination it is not possible to develop a consensus opinion, then the problem should be considered insoluble.
There is also a method of conducting an examination based on an average assessment, where the average assessment of all experts is determined according to some rule:
1. simple ranking method is based on the fact that each expert places management decisions one after another in descending order of influence of each criterion. The resulting data is tabulated and evaluated against the desired set of priorities.
A modification of the simple ranking method is the method of evaluative comparisons, which differs in that experts assign points for the feasibility of each indicator.
The method includes performing the following operations:
A list of criteria indicators is compiled,
The list is recorded in the table in descending order of importance,
For each criterion indicator, an assessment of its implementation for all decisions is recorded in the table,
For each column, the sum of the products of the assessment and the corresponding significance coefficient of the criterion indicator is found,
The resulting values are sorted by the maximum value of the sum, which determines the preferred solution.
2.preset weighting method consists in the fact that the expert indicates for each criterion indicator the corresponding weighting coefficient for all decisions. Two options for forming weighting coefficients are used:
The sum of all coefficients must be equal to some integer,
For the most important feature of the solution, a limiting coefficient is established; all other coefficients are equal to fractions of this number.
Then the sum of the weighting coefficients for each solution is calculated (horizontal summation). The maximum amount determines the best solution.
The work of experts is implemented according to the following scheme (Fig. 6).
Rice. 6. scheme for implementing expert methods.
Expert methods are based on evaluation criteria. To select the best management decision, you need a set of criteria that characterize its quality or effectiveness in a particular field of activity.
Classification of criteria:
According to the functional focus (in planning, organization, control, etc.),
By organization (individual, group, corporate)
For reasons (situational, initiative, seasonal, programmatic, etc.),
By repeatability of use (continuous, periodic),
By affiliation (own, pre-specified),
By scale of impact (general and specific),
By time of action (strategic, tactical, operational),
By the nature of the action (balanced, impulsive, inert, risky, cautious),
By number (single and group),
By structure (simple and compound),
By direction of assessment (internal and external),
By depth of impact (single-level and multi-level),
By method of recording (written and oral).
The set of criteria most often includes: profit, time, cost, legality, feasibility, use of existing equipment and production assets, environmental, social and technical safety.
The set may include one or more criteria. The presence of one criterion indicates a primitive approach to assessing a management decision. With an increase in the number of criteria, the correctness of the choice of management decision increases, but the cost of its evaluation increases (the costs of the resources used increase). Therefore, a reasonable number of criteria is determined by the manager based on experience.
Modeling methods.
Modeling methods (operations research methods) involve the use of mathematical models to solve the most common management problems.
The procedure for developing and optimizing a solution using modeling methods includes the following steps:
Formulation of the problem,
Determination of the criterion for the effectiveness of the analyzed operation,
Quantitative change in factors influencing the operation under study,
Construction of a mathematical model,
Quantitative solution of the model and finding the optimal solution,
Checking the adequacy of the model and the solution found for the analyzed situation,
Correction and updating of the model.
A model is a conditional representation of reality. The degree of correspondence can be different, and the problem is to choose the level of simplification of the real situation, leaving the main influencing factors and the relationships between them.
To ensure the success of the simulation, you need to:
1. highlight the main properties of the modeled object,
2. separate the main properties from the secondary ones,
3. neglect secondary properties.
Exists great amount specific models (since the number of problems that are solved by a specific model is numerous), we will consider the most common types of models.
Game theory models– analyze possible alternatives to their actions, taking into account possible retaliatory actions of competitors, since predicting the actions of competitors can be a significant advantage for any commercial organization.
Here, competitors' reactions to decisions made are predicted, for example, to price changes, the release of new types of goods and services, entry into new market segments, etc.
For example, when deciding to change product prices, management must predict the actions of its main competitors. If, based on the game theory model, it is determined that competitors will not do the same, then the organization needs to find another solution to the problem in order not to be at a disadvantage.
In game theory, situations are considered when there are two participants in an operation, each of whom pursues opposing goals. Participants can be teams, competing enterprises, etc. In all cases, it is assumed that the operation is carried out against an intelligent competitor pursuing its own goals and deliberately opposing the achievement of the goal by another participant.
Since the goals are opposite, and the result of each party’s action depends on the actions of the competitor, these actions are called conflict situations where the opposing interests of two participants collide. A schematized model of a conflict situation is called a game, and if one of the players wins exactly as much as the other loses, then such a game is called a “zero-sum game.”
The development of the game over time is represented as a series of successive random and deliberate moves.
It should be noted that these models are used quite rarely, since the real economic situation is usually much more complex and unpredictable, which leads to inaccurate forecasts.
Queuing theory models– are used to find the optimal number of service channels at a certain level of demand for them.
They help solve, for example, determining the number of telephone lines required to answer customer calls, the required number of tellers in a bank, etc.
The main issues in solving such problems are that additional service channels (more telephone lines or bank employees) require additional costs and their load is uneven. Therefore, the decision must take into account the additional costs of expanding service channels and losses from their lack. Queuing theory models make it possible to find such optimal solutions.
Inventory management models– allow you to find the optimal level of inventory, which minimizes the costs of its creation and maintenance at a given level of continuity of production processes.
Any organization must maintain a certain level of reserves of its resources for reliable operation, avoiding downtime and interruptions, however, the creation of reserves requires additional costs associated with storage, warehousing, transportation, insurance, and also leads to a reduction in available resources. working capital. Thus, inventory management models are important for any organization whose activities involve certain stocks of materials, components, finished products, cash, instruments, etc.
Linear programming models – used to find the optimal solution in a situation of allocating scarce resources in the presence of competing needs (for example, you can calculate the number of products of each type to produce the greatest profit with a certain amount of materials and parts, equipment operating time and the profitability of each type of product).
Linear programming used to solve problems such as: resource allocation, drawing up an investment portfolio, choosing a production program.
Methods for determining output at enterprises
At enterprises, output is determined in different ways based on the units in which production volume and labor costs are measured. In Fig. 25 reflects three main methods: natural, labor and cost, each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Rice. 25. Methods for determining output at enterprises
Natural method output is calculated based on production volume expressed in physical units - tons, pieces, kilograms, meters, etc. Its advantage is that it more simply and accurately characterizes labor productivity. However, this method is applicable when producing homogeneous products. When producing several types (brands) of homogeneous products, production is determined in conventional accounting natural units. IN real life It is not possible to use natural indicators to calculate output everywhere, since in the vast majority of cases industrial enterprises produce several types of products that are not comparable in their natural form. In addition, production in physical terms does not take into account the quality of the product.
Consequently, the disadvantage of the natural method of determining production is that it does not allow determining production across the entire range of products of the enterprise and taking into account the quality of the products. At labor method As a product meter, its labor intensity in standard hours is used, i.e. labor cost standards.
If production standards do not change over a certain period, then the estimate in standard hours quite accurately shows the change in labor productivity. This method is universal. It is suitable for assessing the level of labor productivity in individual areas of production, in workshops, in cases where heterogeneous products are produced, a large volume of semi-finished products and work in progress, but it requires strict validity of labor standards. When using labor standards with different intensity, which occurs in enterprises, the labor method significantly distorts labor productivity, and therefore is not yet widely used.
Despite the differences between natural and labor methods, both of them have sufficient high degree objectivity and diagnostic ability, since they use real and normative data.
Cost method output is calculated based on the volume of production expressed in monetary terms, in rubles. In this regard, this method is the most universal, as it allows you to compare the level and dynamics of labor productivity at an enterprise, in an industry, across regions, and in a country. To determine production using the cost method, various indicators are used for the cost of production volume: VP, TP, UCHP, PE, VAT. This is explained by the fact that the production indicator calculated by the cost method is significantly influenced by the share of materials and semi-finished products that differ significantly in price, i.e. affected by transferred value created outside the enterprise.
The presence of different methods (methods) for determining production volumes to measure output indicates that the cost method can significantly distort the true situation in assessing labor productivity.
Methods for determining output at enterprises - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Methods for determining production at enterprises" 2015, 2017-2018.