Byzantium. Creation of the Christian capital of the Roman Empire. Capital of the Roman Empire

26.09.2019

If there is a heart of Catholic Christianity in our world, it is located in the very center of Europe, namely in Rome, the capital of Italy! The well-known Vatican, a mind-boggling number of historical and architectural sites, the friendliness of sensitive Italians and much more - all this will create a pleasant experience for visiting tourists. The Eternal City is where UNESCO World Heritage and the modernity of a huge metropolis intertwine. Evening Rome will envelop its guest in elegant beauty, feed it with famous culinary masterpieces and delicious, world-recognized wine.

Geography

Rome is located on the Apennine Peninsula, 25 km from the Tirenian Sea. The city was built at the mouth of the Tiber River, on 12 hills. The Old Town (the center of Rome) is located on 7 of them. Coordinates of the capital of Italy: 41° 53" 30 N, 12° 30" 40 E. The city's time zone is Central European Time (CET), UTC offset +1. When switching to summer time - UTC +2. Historically, Rome was previously divided into 14 districts. The modern city has 22, each of which has its own characteristics and attractions. So, the Romans call parts of the city “quartieri”, among them:

Column
Monty
Trevi
Campo Marzio
Sant'Eustaquio
Regola
Ponte
Parione
Pigna
Sant'Angelo
Campitelli
Borgo
Trastevere
Esquilino
Sallustiano
Ludovisi
Castro Pretorio
Testaccio
Celio
San Saba
Prati

Most of the province belongs to the Roman agglomeration. Upon arrival, tourists should definitely visit the most popular areas of Monti, Trevi, Colonna, Ponte, Regola, Parione, Campo Marzio.

Climate

The climate of Rome is considered tropical, Mediterranean. It is accompanied by hot summers and rainy, but warm winters. The capital of Italy is good for travel in any weather, but when planning a trip you need to take into account some seasonal nuances. The ideal time to visit the city is considered to be from March to June. At this time, the weather is ideal: there is no heat, and the cold has already receded. The air temperature warms up to +22 degrees. Rains this season are a rare occurrence; during this period the longest daylight hours occur, which allows you to walk around the city for a long time. The weather is usually warm during the day, and the nights are quite cool. In summer, Rome is covered in heat. The air temperature can rise above 40 degrees Celsius. It is very hot for walking around the city, but for beach holiday- just perfect. This time is practically not in demand among tourists. The period from September to October is also good for visiting - the weather is quite favorable, it is not hot and the cold has not yet set in. The air temperature ranges from +15 to +26 degrees. Winter on the streets of Rome is quite warm. In December the rains begin - it gets significantly colder, the weather is mostly windy and chilly. But frost and snow are rare in this city. Temperatures during this period rarely drop below +5.

Story

On seven hills, just under 3,000 years ago, there was a city that went down in history as one of the greatest cultural places on the ground. Initially, it was a small settlement on the banks of a fast-flowing river, whose residents could not even imagine what a powerful, powerful and influential metropolis this community would grow into. In ancient Rome, many writers were fond of fictitious myths, which is why there was a complicated history of the founding of the city's settlement. It is widely believed that Romulus and Remus argued passionately about which hill to found the city on. As a result, Romulus killed Remus with the words “So it will be with everyone who crosses the walls of my city.” The slopes of the hills on which present-day Rome is located were hewn and fortified with square and oval structures that protected them from the invasions of ill-wishers. There are still seven hills. The first mention of cultural places includes the sanctuary of the mysterious Argei. Aggressive political actions, an advantageous location and innovations in military affairs - all these factors brought Rome to a leading position in all areas (politics, trade, science, culture, military affairs and shipbuilding). Artists, architects and sculptors came from all over Italy to work on orders from the highest clergy.

One of the unique things about Rome is the location on its territory of a separate state - the Vatican. It is the main center of Catholicism, the seat of the Pope. It is here that there is an abundance of Catholic churches created by the best architects, artists and sculptors of ancient times. Rome began to gain rapid changes in progressive growth with the advent of monarchical sentiments. Literally from scratch, the city began to be rebuilt under the strict leadership of Caesar, and then Augustus and Trojan. The latter finally connected a number of imperial squares together. The Roman Empire in the ancient World and the Ancient period of history was the largest state, covering the entire Mediterranean coast, Crimea and part of Britain. Rome was the center of the empire, where cultural and scientific knowledge from all its corners was collected. The Eternal City was repeatedly destroyed by vandals, and in particular by the ruler Ricimer, during whose reign the churches were significantly devastated. And in 1870, Rome was stormed by the troops of the Royal Guard of Italy, after which the city was awarded the title of capital, and it began to recover and flourish. In Europe, Rome is the greenest city, which by default pleasantly surprises its guests. History has given characteristic designs to local buildings and landscapes. Modernity only emphasizes them, and seems to be silently proud of the surroundings with a touch of antique character.

Sights of Rome

The so-called “heart” of Rome is the center of religious worship - the Capitol. Today, the Roman municipality and the mayor of the city live there. The Capitoline Hill is crowned with an impressive staircase made of white marble designed by Michelangelo. On both sides of the stairs are bougainvillea bushes with stunning lilac-purple flowers. At the very top of the stairs there are two equestrian statues, preserved from the times of the Roman Empire. The upper part of the hill is occupied by the Capitol Square. It was designed by Michelangelo by order of Pope Paul III himself. There are three palaces around the square - the New Palace, the Palace of Senators and the Palace of the Conservatives. In the very center of the square there is a copy of the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, it was gilded. There is an interesting belief that exists among the people: when this gilding returns to the possession of Marcus Aurelius, the end of the world will come.

One of the most recognizable landmarks in Rome is the Colosseum. It is presented in the form of a huge amphitheater, of which only the greatest ruins remain. Currently, it is called the Flavian Amphitheater, but people call it the Colosseum, apparently for the reason that the Colossus of Nero is located nearby (this is a huge statue reaching a height of 36 m).
Visitors to Rome should also take a look at the Palatine Hill. It was on the Palatine, according to stories, that Remus and Romulus were found. They say that this hill was the center of Rome during two different eras - the era of the king and the era of the emperors.
We smoothly move on to the Roman temples. It turns out that Rome is nicknamed the city of thousands of churches - every day, throughout the year, you can visit a new temple. There you have the opportunity to see works by Raphael, Bernini and Michelangelo. It is worth paying attention to such places as the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore, the Pantheon, the Church of San Giovanni and Laterano, as well as the Church of San Paolo Fuori le Mura (it is the largest after St. Peter's Basilica). Rome is the center of Christianity, which is why the fact that there is a synagogue there is somewhat strange. And it is located in the center of one of the old districts of the city, the ancient ghetto. The synagogue is the youngest and largest in Italy. Its construction dates back to the 20th century, and it was made in the Assyrian-Babylonian style, with a pavilion dome.
It is interesting to walk through the squares of Rome and admire the fountains. Thus, among the squares it is worth noting the Plaza de España, its name comes from the Spanish embassy, which was located here since 1647. This square is interesting because of the staircase of the same name, which leads to the church of Santa Trinita dei Monti and the embassy. Its construction dates back to 1723-1726. This square is still a favorite place for both residents of Rome and tourists. Piazza Navona is also quite interesting - so to speak, an ensemble of the Baroque period. The attraction of the square was the three fountains that are located on it - the Moor Fountain (the projection was carried out according to Bernini) and the River Fountain (in the form of a high rock, around which characters in the form of the Danube, Nile, Laplata and Ganges rivers are located).
Rome is rich in fountains, which vary in shape and size. Among such fountains, we can highlight the Triton, the Fountain dell'Acqua Paola, the Turtle Fountain and, of course, the most famous - the Trevi Fountain (translated as fountain of “crossroads”), made in the Baroque style. In its center is a sculptural composition by Bracci - the ocean (which is also Neptune), carried away by sea horses. If you spend a significant amount of time near the fountain, you can feel a musical effect, something like the babbling of a brook. The fountain is one of the most beautiful fountains in the world. They say that there is such a sign that if you throw a coin into this fountain, then a return to Rome is guaranteed.

Events and festivals

Various events are regularly held in Rome. Almost all of them are distinguished by their splendor and create an unsurpassed solemn atmosphere. Needless to say, the Romans are rightfully considered connoisseurs of fun. Various festivals take place here every year:

For film lovers, there is an annual film festival, Festival Internazionale del Film di Roma, held in the fall.
Music connoisseurs can visit a large-scale thematic festival. Here you can enjoy the performances of many artists. The event takes place every June.
Those who love rock music should definitely check out Postpay Rockin Roma. Held from July to August.
The International Folklore Festival in Rome falls from May 4 to May 7.
The Rome Europe Festival will be a revelation in the world of art. During the event, participants can learn about new products in the world of dance, music, and literature. The festival lasts 100 days, from September to December.
From July 15 to September 15, the Testaccio Village music festival takes place.

Among the outstanding dates and holidays dear to Rome are:

December 25 - Christmas, which Italians usually celebrate with their families;
December 31 is the New Year, which is already associated with noisy parties and fun;
On April 21, Rome annually celebrates the date of its founding;
From July 22 to July 29, the festival of Noatri takes place - a religious celebration in honor of the Madonna.

Any significant day is accompanied by sales and fun - they know how to organize celebrations here. For a tourist, any of the holidays and festivals will be a real discovery!

Restaurants and cafes in Rome

Italy is a country famous for its culinary masterpieces. Rome can satisfy absolutely any gastronomic preference. One of the most famous restaurants in the capital is Agata e Romeo (Via Carlo Alberto, 45). Here they serve dishes that are unusual for most people. You can even find caramelized tomatoes on the menu. Perfect for lovers of exotic cuisine. Il Convivio Troiani, a restaurant whose menu is filled with meat dishes and unusual desserts, is also famous for its uniqueness. The address of the establishment is Vicolo dei Soldati, 31. If you want to get acquainted with homemade dishes, welcome to Spinosi Alberto (Via del Mascherino, 60). The dishes of this restaurant are prepared here according to ancient traditional recipes; you should definitely try the pastries and fish. There is also a restaurant with vegetarian cuisine - Margutta Vegetariano - Ristor Arte. This establishment delights visitors with live music every weekend; the address is Via Margutta, 118. For seafood lovers, there is an excellent restaurant, La Rosetta (Via della Rosetta, 8-9). The La Taverna del Ghetto restaurant (Via del Portico d'Ottavia, 8) offers to enjoy traditional Italian food. The Gusto establishment, in addition to European dishes, also offers to visit its own pizzeria. As you know, pizza plays a special role in Italy. And Roman pizza is completely different from traditional thin dough pizzerias La Montecarlo (Vicolo Savelli 13), PizzaRe." In the latter you can try a real Neapolitan version of pizza - the address of the establishment is Via di Ripetta, 14. Rome is also rich in cafes. Many offer not only coffee and cocktails, but also delicious burgers. You should definitely visit Antico Caffè della Pace at Via della Pace, 3/7 - the establishment is dominated by 3 styles (Empire, Baroque, Art Nouveau), with views of the church and Piazza Santa Maria della Pace.

Shopping

The main streets for trading are Via del Babuino and Via del Corso. The easiest way to get here is by metro. The prices in the stores are quite reasonable, so shopping in this place will not leave anyone indifferent.
You can visit another shopping street - Via Nazionale attracts with many shops with a variety of goods. You can make profitable purchases in the boutiques of Bata, Falco, Nanini, Sisley, etc. Among them is a clothing salon for women with a non-standard figure - Elena Miro.
On Via Cola di Rienzo there are shops with any goods, most of which are shoes, jewelry, and high-quality branded bags.
On the streets next to Plaza de España there are shops with the most expensive things.

In Rome, there are periods of total price reductions, when discounts reach -70%; their sizes depend on the popularity of the brand and the territorial location of the store. Boutiques located in the central part of the city rarely significantly reduce prices even during sales periods. The sales season occurs twice a year - in winter and summer. Winter discounts occur from early January to mid-February. In summer, sales are observed from July to August. The degree of price reduction in a particular store can be determined by the window display - the more signs there are, the lower the prices! At any time of the year you can buy items from past designer collections at a discount of up to 70%. Such concessions are independent of general sales.

How to get to Rome?

The roads of all Europe lead to Rome. Isn't it? And the path to the ancient capital of civilization is quite varied for a tourist. When choosing a road travel option (bus or car), the journey will take on average more than a day, excluding customs crossings. The number of bus tours to Rome from the Russian Federation is large and varied, it can be either a direct flight or with transfers (it takes almost 2 times longer to get there). If you wish, you can join a tour with Catholics to the Vatican, often cooperating in groups to travel to the places where the Pope lives. The main, most convenient and fastest way to travel to the capital of Italy from the Russian Federation is by air. You can get there comfortably from the airports of major cities in the country:

Domodedovo, Vnukovo and Sheremetyevo in Moscow
Pulkovo in St. Petersburg
Koltsovo in Yekaterinburg, etc.

Most often, such flights are received by Ciampino Airport (named after Giovanni Battista Pastine) - the most progressive and practical airport in Rome, located 15 km from the capital. Convenience of baggage retrieval, comfortable waiting rooms, clear information board, pleasant, and most importantly fast service- all this will only lift your mood after the flight. For Russian tourist The choice when purchasing a flight to Rome is quite extensive. The price depends on the class of seat, the availability of transfers (often via Berlin, Warsaw or Prague), and the company providing the flight:

Aeroflot
S7 Airlines
Lufthansa
Turkish Airlines
Air France
Ural Airlines
Utair
Alitalia
Austrian Airlines
Belavia, etc.

Another modern Rome airport is Fiumicino. This is the Italian Leonardo da Vinci International Airport, located 35 km from the capital. From Fiumicino to Rome you can travel by train (Leonardo Express - departures twice an hour), by metro (dedicated line connects with the Rome metro), as well as by bus or taxi (all near the central exit from the airport). There is also a 3rd Urbe airport in Rome (Salaria, which is intended for charter flights).

Transport

The main Termini railway station in Rome is dotted with hotels, in case you didn't have time to get to the right place. Everything is nearby: the metro (two lines: Laurentina-Rebibbia and Battistini-Anagnina), bus and trolleybus stops located in Piazza dei Cinquecento. Please note that you should not count on the smooth flow of urban public transport. And if you choose a remote area to live, check the infrastructure features in that area. For example, you should not choose a hotel near the green metro line - it is not yet completed, and there is no possibility of transferring to other metro lines. Tourists can get to Rome Termini Central Station from the airport for 4 euros and spending only 30 minutes on the road. A taxi driver's service will cost more - on average 35 euros. It is also possible to order an individual transfer - this is an ordinary private driver with a comfortable car and fixed rate travel (you need to take care of this in advance). Another way to get to the Italian capital is by cruise. Having landed on land after a cruise trip, you need to travel approximately 100 km by land to get from Civitavecchia station to Rome. By train the ticket will cost 5-6 euros (3 hours of travel), by taxi - 120 euros (just over an hour). The ordered transfer will cost 5 euros cheaper for the same travel time spent. The most popular and convenient way to rent a car in Italy. In advance of your trip, you can order a car of any class, make, and even color. Online rental resources in Rome and throughout Italy will select a convenient place to start renting a car, which will be fully technically prepared for your arrival. One of the convenient functions of this car is a navigator, pre-configured for the desired language interface.

Accommodation

As in any other tourist city, prices for accommodation in Rome depend on the season. The highest prices will be in March-June, September-October, when the influx of city guests is greatest. There are several popular places for tourists to stay:

Center of the old city. Here, all the attractions are located within walking distance, the cost of accommodation will start from 100 €/day. But it is worth remembering that it is not always possible to buy a place in high season at a reasonable price - many people reserve places long before the trip. Good option accommodation - The Wesley Rome near Piazza Navona.
Prati, Vatican area. A respectable part of the city, here is the main shopping street of the capital - Via del Babuino. One of the most popular hotels is La Petit Maison Prés Du Vatican.
Termini station area. Not as respectable, but you can find more affordable housing options here. The transport infrastructure is well developed. Hotel Gea Di Vulcano, Sezar Rooms - accommodation options.
Trastevere is popular for its restaurants and picturesque ancient places. An excellent combination of service, comfort and price - in the hotels Trastevere Chic, Domus 78.
It is also possible to stay on the outskirts of the city, then you should pay attention to the location of the hotel. You will have to use public transport, so you should make sure there is a convenient connection. A cheaper option is to rent a bungalow at Camping Village Roma.

By booking a hotel room or apartment in advance (3-4 months before your planned trip), you can save a lot of money.

Connection

Compared to other European cities, mobile communications in Rome are quite expensive. 4 operators are considered the most popular in Italy:

Vodafone

There are also virtual operators CoopVoice, Noverca, Postemobile, A-Mobile, Tiscali. There are 2 options for using services - contract and prepayment. The most acceptable for tourists is the latter, which involves purchasing a card and withdrawing funds from it as you use it. Average cost The daily fee is about 2 euros. It is very easy to buy a SIM card from an Italian operator - in the nearest shopping center, department store or even tobacco kiosk. On average their cost is 10 euros. Internet in Rome is accessible and of high quality. You can use the services of the package, connect to a free Wi-Fi point, or visit an Internet cafe.

1. Plan your departure schedule in such a way that the risk of getting caught in traffic jams is minimal.

2. It is better to enter the capital from nearby cities before the lunch break (the risk of traffic congestion is reduced).

3. When purchasing a ticket for railway transport, pay attention to the train route markings. Tickets for flights with a long schedule cost more.

4. Municipal buses run at long intervals - this is important to take into account when planning your route.

5. Remember that tickets for public transport must be purchased in advance at designated places.

6. In addition to euros in Italy, you can also pay in dollars. There are currency exchange offices near most railway, auto and air ticket offices.

7. Even if you see “breakfast included” in a hotel, you shouldn’t expect luxurious dishes.

8. When renting an apartment, keep in mind that cleaning the premises is not included in the services.

9. When booking a room, pay attention to the specific location of the bathroom (in some hotels they are individual - your own bathroom in the room, but there are also shared ones - for several rooms or floors).

10. Those who love silence should prefer to stay in hotels located in quiet side streets.

11. Don't forget to constantly monitor the time difference! No one wants to be late for a pre-paid seat on a train or bus. If you have a watch with time synchronization using a navigator, then check only with it.

12. Don't carry huge amounts of cash in your pockets or bag - there are ATMs at every station.

13. Do you have a limited amount? Before visiting a restaurant, negotiate the amounts with the waiter in advance, ask about payment for the opportunity to “sit down”, keep an eye on the portions that are brought to you (in the menu it can be an amount for 100 grams, but they can bring you as many as 600).

14. If your knowledge of English is not at a high level, carry a dictionary with you or use a translator application on your phone.

15. When renting a car, do not forget to take several photos, especially if you notice any defects on it.

16. If you are going to the Vatican, then you need to cover your knees and shoulders, since shorts, miniskirts, sundresses and revealing tops are not allowed there.

17. When visiting the catacombs of St. Callistus, it would be a good idea to take a jacket or sweater with you, since it is quite cool there - about +15 degrees.

18. Shops mainly start working at 9:00 and finish at 20:00, there is also a break from 13:00 until 15:00 or until 16:00. On Sunday and Monday morning all shops are closed.

Traveling through one of the most unique European capitals is varied! Take these tips into account and then your trip can become a well-oiled clockwork mechanism for you without sudden unpleasant surprises.

Rome on the map, panorama

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In accordance with this, the financial administration of the empire was also divided: the aerarium remained under the jurisdiction of the Senate, but along with it, the imperial treasury (lat. fiscus) arose, into which revenues from the imperial provinces went. Augustus’s attitude towards the national assembly was simpler. The comitia formally exist under Augustus, but their electoral power passes to the emperor, legally - half, in fact - entirely. The judicial power of the comitia belongs to the judicial institutions or to the emperor as a representative of the tribunate, and their legislative activity belongs to the Senate. The extent to which the comitia lost their significance under Augustus can be seen from the fact that they quietly disappeared under his successor, leaving a trace only in the theory of popular supremacy as the basis of imperial power - a theory that survived the Roman and Byzantine empires and passed, along with Roman law, to Middle Ages.
Augustus's domestic policy was of a conservative-national character. Caesar gave the provincials wide access to Rome. Augustus took care to admit only completely benign elements into citizenship and into the Senate. For Caesar, and especially for Mark Antony, granting citizenship rights was a source of income. But Augustus, in his own words, was rather ready to allow “the treasury to suffer damage rather than lower the honor of Roman citizenship,” and according to this, he even took away from many the right of Roman citizenship that had been previously granted to them. This policy gave rise to new legislative measures for the manumission of slaves, which had previously been left entirely at the discretion of the master. “Complete freedom” (lat. magna et justa libertas), with which the right of citizenship was still associated, according to the law of Augustus could be granted only with known conditions and under the control of a special commission of senators and equestrians. If these conditions were not met, liberation was given only by the Latin right of citizenship, and slaves, subjected to disgraceful punishments, fell only into the category of provincial subjects.
Augustus made sure that the number of citizens was known, and renewed the census, which had almost fallen into disuse. In 28, there were 4,063,000 citizens capable of bearing arms, and 19 years later - 4,163,000. Augustus retained the deep-rooted custom of supporting impoverished citizens at state expense and sending citizens to colonies. But the subject of his special concerns was Rome itself - its improvement and decoration. He also wanted to revive the spiritual strength of the people, a strong family life and simplicity of morals. He restored temples that had fallen into disrepair and issued laws to put a limit to loose morals, to encourage marriage and the raising of children (Leges Juliae and Papia Poppeae, 9 AD). Special tax privileges were given to those who had three sons (lat. jus trium liberorum).
The fate of the provinces happens under him sharp turn: from the estates of Rome they become parts of the state body (lat. membra partesque imperii). The proconsuls, who were previously sent to the province for feeding (that is, administration), are now assigned a certain salary and their period of stay in the province is extended. Previously, the provinces were only the subject of extortions in favor of Rome. Now, on the contrary, they are given subsidies from Rome. Augustus rebuilds provincial cities, pays off their debts, and comes to their aid in times of disaster. The state administration is still in its infancy - the emperor has little means to collect information about the situation in the provinces and therefore considers it necessary to personally become acquainted with the state of affairs. Augustus visited all the provinces except Africa and Sardinia, and spent many years traveling around them. He arranged a postal service for the needs of the administration - a column was placed in the center of the empire (at the Forum), from which distances were calculated along the numerous roads leading from Rome to the outskirts.
The Republic did not know a standing army - the soldiers swore allegiance to the commander who called them under the banner for a year, and later - “until the end of the campaign.” From Augustus, the power of the commander-in-chief becomes lifelong, the army becomes permanent. Military service is determined at 20 years, after which the “veteran” receives the right to honorable leave and to be provided with money or land. Troops not needed within the state are stationed along the borders. In Rome there is a selected detachment of 6,000 people, recruited from Roman citizens (praetorians), 3,000 praetorians are located in Italy. The remaining troops are stationed along the borders. From those formed during civil wars Among the huge number of legions, Augustus retained 25 (3 died in the defeat of Publius Varus). Of these, 8 legions were stationed in Upper and Lower Germany (regions on the left bank of the Rhine), 6 in the Danube regions, 4 in Syria, 2 in Egypt and Africa, and 3 in Spain. Each legion consisted of 5,000 soldiers. A military dictatorship, no longer fitting within the framework of republican institutions and not limited to the provinces, is established in Rome - before it, the Senate loses its governmental significance and the people's assembly completely disappears. The place of comitia is taken by legions - they serve as an instrument of power, but they are always ready to be a source of power for those who are favored.

Caesar's heir, Augustus, took upon himself the task of doing in Germany what was done in Gaul by his uncle - conquering warlike and mobile tribes, providing Rome with a strong border and security from the north. From two sides - from the west, towards the Elbe, and from the south, towards the Danube - the adopted sons of the emperor Drusus the Elder and Tiberius led the Roman legions into the heart of Germany. But the plan was only half successful: the defeat of Publius Varus (9 AD) in the Teutoburg Forest forced Rome to abandon the idea of extending its rule to the Elbe and limit itself to the Rhine. In the south, where the Germans had not yet settled en masse, they managed to extend the border to the Danube and form new provinces: Raetia (with Vindelicia) and Noricum. More fierce was the resistance that the Romans met further in the east - in Pannonia, where Augustus had already fought, and in Dalmatia, where the Romans penetrated from Illyria. The decisive victory of Tiberius in the Dalmatian-Pannonian War (9 AD) secured Rome's border along the Danube from its source to its mouth and the organization three new provinces - Pannonia, Dalmatia and Moesia, which had previously been conquered by the proconsul of Macedonia.
Augustus closed the third concentric circle of Roman rule in the south. Egypt, pressed by Syria, held on to Rome and thereby avoided annexation by Syria, and then maintained independence thanks to its queen Cleopatra, who managed to charm Caesar and Mark Antony. The aged queen failed to achieve the same in relation to the cold-blooded Augustus, and Egypt became a Roman province. Likewise, in the western part of North Africa, Roman rule was finally established under Augustus, who conquered Mauretania and gave it to the Numidian king Juba, and Numidia was annexed to the province of Africa. Roman pickets guarded culturally occupied areas from desert nomads along the entire line from Morocco to Cyrenaica on the borders of Egypt.

Julio-Claudian dynasty: heirs of Augustus (14-69)

Flaws state system, created by Augustus, were discovered immediately after his death. He left unresolved the conflict of interests and rights between his adopted son Tiberius and his own grandson, a worthless young man, whom he imprisoned on the island. Tiberius (14-37), based on his merits, intelligence and experience, had the right to first place in the state. He did not want to be a despot: rejecting the title of master (dominus), with which flatterers addressed him, he said that he was a master only for slaves, for provincials - emperor, for citizens - citizen. The provinces found in him, as his haters themselves admitted, a caring and efficient ruler - it was not for nothing that he told his proconsuls that the good shepherd shears the sheep, but does not skin them. But in Rome the Senate stood before him, full of republican traditions and memories of past greatness, and relations between the emperor and the Senate were soon spoiled by flatterers and informers. Accidents and tragic entanglements in the family of Tiberius embittered the emperor, and then the bloody drama of political trials began, which went down in history as the “unholy war (Latin impia bella) in the Senate,” so passionately and artistically depicted in the immortal work of Tacitus, who branded the monstrous old man with shame on the island of Capri.
During the reign of Tiberius, early Christianity began to emerge in the province of Judea.
In place of Tiberius, whose last minutes are unknown to us exactly, the son of his nephew, the popular and mourned Germanicus, was proclaimed - Caligula (37-41), a rather handsome young man, but soon mad with power and reaching delusions of grandeur and frenzied cruelty. The sword of the praetorian tribune put an end to the life of this madman, who intended to erect his statue in the Jerusalem temple for worship with Jehovah. The Senate breathed freely and dreamed of a republic, but the Praetorians gave it a new emperor in the person of Claudius (41-54), the brother of Germanicus. Claudius was practically a toy in the hands of his two wives - Messalina and Agrippina, who covered the Roman woman of that time with shame. His image, however, is distorted by political satire, and under Claudius (not without his participation) both the external and internal development of the empire continued. Claudius was born in Lyon and therefore took the interests of Gaul and the Gauls especially close to his heart: in the Senate he personally defended the petition of the inhabitants of northern Gaul, who asked to make honorary positions in Rome available to them. Claudius converted the kingdom of Cotys into the province of Thrace in 46, and made Mauretania a Roman province. Under him, the military occupation of Britain took place, which was finally conquered by Agricola. Agrippina's intrigues, and perhaps even crime, opened the way to power for her son, Nero (54-68). And in this case, as almost always in the first two centuries of the empire, the principle of heredity brought harm to it. There was a complete discrepancy between the personal character and tastes of the young Nero and his position in the state. As a result of Nero's life, a military rebellion broke out; the emperor committed suicide, and in the subsequent year of the civil war, three emperors were replaced and died - Galba, Otho, Vitellius.

Flavian Dynasty (69-96)

Senate

The disappearance of state dualism, associated with the concept of the principate, was also accompanied by a change in the position and character of the Senate. The Principate, as the lifelong presidency of the Senate, although it represented a certain contrast to the Senate, was at the same time maintained by the Senate. Meanwhile, the Roman Senate gradually ceased to be what it had been before. He was once a corporation serving the aristocracy of the city of Rome and always resented the tide of elements alien to him; once Senator Appius Claudius swore to stab the first Latin who dared to enter the Senate; under Caesar, Cicero and his friends made jokes at the senators from Gaul, and when at the beginning of the 3rd century the Egyptian Keraunos entered the Roman Senate (history has preserved his name), there was no one in Rome to be indignant. It couldn't be otherwise. The richest of the provincials began to move to Rome long ago, buying up palaces, gardens and estates of the impoverished Roman aristocracy. Already under Augustus, the price of real estate in Italy increased significantly as a result. This new aristocracy began to fill the Senate. The time came when the Senate began to be called “the beauty of all provinces,” “the color of the whole world,” “the color human race" From an institution that under Tiberius constituted a counterweight to imperial power, the Senate became imperial. This aristocratic institution finally underwent a transformation in a bureaucratic spirit - it broke up into classes and ranks, marked by ranks (illiustres, spectabiles, clarissimi, etc.). Finally, it split into two - the Roman and Constantinople Senate: but this division was no longer significant for the empire, since the state significance of the Senate passed to another institution - the council of the sovereign or consistory.

Administration

Even more characteristic of the Roman Empire than the history of the Senate is the process that took place in the field of administration. Under the influence of imperial power, a new type of state is being created here, replacing the city power - city government, which was Republican Rome. This goal is achieved by bureaucratizing management, replacing the magistrate with an official. The magistrate was a citizen invested with power for a certain period and carrying out his duties as an honorary position. He had a well-known staff of bailiffs, scribes (apparitores) and servants. These were people he invited or even just his slaves and freedmen. Such magistrates are gradually being replaced in the empire by people who are in the constant service of the emperor, receiving a certain salary from him and going through a certain career, in a hierarchical order. The beginning of the coup dates back to the time of Augustus, who appointed salaries to the proconsuls and propraetors. In particular, Adrian did a lot to develop and improve the administration in the empire; under him, the bureaucratization of the court of the emperor, who previously ruled his provinces through freedmen, took place; Hadrian raised his courtiers to the level of state dignitaries. The number of servants of the sovereign is gradually growing: accordingly, the number of their ranks is increasing and a hierarchical system of management is developing, finally reaching the completeness and complexity that it represents in the “State Calendar of Ranks and Titles of the Empire” - Notitia dignitatum. As the bureaucratic apparatus develops, the entire appearance of the country changes: it becomes more monotonous, smoother. At the beginning of the empire, all the provinces, in relation to government, differ sharply from Italy and present great diversity among themselves; the same diversity is noticed within each province; it includes autonomous, privileged and subject cities, sometimes vassal kingdoms or semi-wild tribes that have preserved their primitive system. Little by little, these differences are blurred and under Diocletian, partly it is revealed, partly a radical revolution is carried out, similar to the one that was carried out French revolution 1789, which replaced the provinces, with their historical, national and topographical individuality, with monotonous administrative units - departments. Transforming the administration of the Roman Empire, Diocletian divides it into 12 dioceses under the control of individual vicars, that is, the emperor's governors; each diocese is divided into smaller provinces than before (ranging from 4 to 12, for a total of 101), under the control of officials of different titles - correctores, consulares, praesides, etc. As a result of this bureaucratization, the former dualism between Italy and provinces; Italy itself is divided into administrative units, and from Roman land (ager romanus) becomes a simple province. Rome alone still remains outside this administrative network, which is very significant for its future destiny. The bureaucratization of power is also closely related to its centralization. This centralization is especially interesting to observe in the field of legal proceedings. In a republican administration, the praetor independently creates the court; he is not subject to appeal and, using the right to issue an edict, he himself establishes the norms that he intends to adhere to in court. At the end of the historical process we are considering, an appeal is established from the praetor's court to the emperor, who distributes complaints, according to the nature of the cases, among his prefects. Thus the imperial power actually takes over the judicial power; but it also appropriates to itself the very creativity of law that the court applies to life. After the abolition of the comitia, legislative power passed to the Senate, but next to it the emperor issued his orders; over time, he arrogated to himself the power to make laws; Only the form of publishing them through a rescript from the emperor to the Senate has been preserved from antiquity. In this establishment monarchical absolutism, in this strengthening of centralization and bureaucracy one cannot help but see the triumph of the provinces over Rome and, at the same time, the creative power of the Roman spirit in the field of public administration.

Right

The same triumph of the conquered and the same creativity of the R. spirit can be noted in the field of law. In ancient Rome, law had a strictly national character: it was the exclusive property of some “quirites,” that is, Roman citizens, and therefore was called quirite. Nonresidents were tried in Rome by the praetor “for foreigners” (peregrinus); the same system was then applied to the provincials, of whom the Roman praetor became the supreme judge. The praetors thus became the creators of a new law - the law not of the Roman people, but of peoples in general (jus gentium). In creating this right, Roman jurists revealed general principles rights that are the same for all peoples, and they began to study them and be guided by them. At the same time, under the influence of the Greek philosophical schools, especially the Stoic one, they rose to the consciousness of natural law (jus naturale), emanating from reason, from that “higher law”, which, in the words of Cicero, arose “before the dawn of time, before the existence of any or the written law or constitution of any state.” Praetorial law became the bearer of the principles of reason and justice (aequitas), as opposed to the literal interpretation and routine of Quirite law. The city praetor (urbanus) could not remain outside the influence of praetorian law, which became synonymous with natural law and natural reason. Obliged to “come to the aid of civil law, supplement it and correct it for the sake of public benefit,” he began to imbue himself with the principles of the law of peoples, and, finally, the law of provincial praetors - jus honorarium - became “the living voice of Roman law.” This was the time of its heyday, the era of the great jurists of the 2nd and 3rd centuries Gaius, Papinian, Paul, Ulpian and Modestinus, which lasted until Alexander Severus and gave Roman law that strength, depth and subtlety of thought that prompted peoples to see in it “written reason”, and the great mathematician and lawyer, Leibniz - to compare it with mathematics.

Roman ideals

Just as the “strict” law (jus strictum) of the Romans, under the influence of the law of peoples, is imbued with the idea of universal reason and justice, in the Roman Empire the meaning of Rome and the idea of Roman dominion are inspired. Obeying the wild instinct of the people, greedy for land and booty, the Romans of the Republic did not need to justify their conquests. Livy also finds it completely natural for a people descended from Mars to conquer other nations, and invites the latter to obediently demolish Roman power. But already under Augustus, Virgil, reminding his fellow citizens that their purpose is to rule over peoples (tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento), gives this rule a moral purpose - to establish peace and spare the conquered (parcere subjectis). The idea of the Roman peace (pax romana) henceforth became the motto of Roman rule. It is exalted by Pliny, glorified by Plutarch, calling Rome “an anchor that forever sheltered in the harbor a world long overwhelmed and wandering without a helmsman.” Comparing the power of Rome to cement, the Greek moralist sees the significance of Rome in the fact that it organized a pan-human society amidst the fierce struggle of people and nations. This same idea of the Roman world was given official expression by Emperor Trajan in the inscription on the temple he erected on the Euphrates, when the border of the empire was again pushed back to this river. But the importance of Rome soon rose even higher. Bringing peace among the peoples, Rome called them to civil order and the benefits of civilization, giving them wide scope and without violating their individuality. He ruled, according to the poet, “not only with weapons, but with laws.” Moreover, he gradually called on all peoples to participate in power. The highest praise of the Romans and a worthy assessment of their best emperor lies in the wonderful words with which the Greek orator, Aristides, addressed Marcus Aurelius and his comrade Verus: “With you, everything is open to everyone. Anyone who is worthy of a magistracy or public trust ceases to be considered a foreigner. The name of the Roman ceased to belong to one city, but became the property of the human race. You have established the management of the world as if it were one family.” It is therefore not surprising that the idea of Rome as a common fatherland appeared early in the Roman Empire. It is remarkable that this idea was brought to Rome by immigrants from Spain, which gave Rome its best emperors. Already Seneca, Nero’s educator and during his childhood the ruler of the empire, exclaims: “Rome is, as it were, our common fatherland.” This expression was then adopted, in a more positive sense, by Roman jurists. “Rome is our common fatherland”: this, by the way, is the basis for the statement that someone expelled from one city cannot live in Rome, since “R. - the fatherland of all." It is clear why R.'s fear of dominion began to give way among the provincials to love for Rome and some kind of worship before it. One cannot read without emotion the poem of the Greek woman poet, Erinna (the only one from her that has come down to us), in which she greets “Roma, daughter of Ares,” and promises her eternity - or a farewell to Rome to the Gaul Rutilius, who kissed on his knees, with tears before our eyes, “sacred stones” of R., for the fact that he “created a single fatherland for many peoples”, for the fact that “Roman power became a blessing for those conquered against their will”, for the fact that “Rome turned the world into a harmonious community (urbem fecisti quod prius orbis erat) and not only ruled, but, more importantly, was worthy of rule.” Much more significant than this gratitude of the provincials who bless Rome for the fact that it, in the words of the poet Prudentius, “threw the vanquished into fraternal fetters,” is another feeling caused by the consciousness that Rome has become a common fatherland. Since then, as Am. Thierry, “a small community on the banks of the Tiber has grown into a universal community,” since the idea of Rome expands and is inspired and Roman patriotism takes on a moral and cultural character, love for Rome becomes love for the human race and the ideal that binds it. Already the poet Lucan, Seneca’s nephew, gives this feeling a strong expression, speaking of “sacred love for the world” (sacer orbis amor) and glorifying “the citizen convinced that he was born into the world not for himself, but for all this world.” . This common consciousness of a cultural connection between all Roman citizens gives rise in the 3rd century to the concept of romanitas, as opposed to barbarism. The task of Romulus’s comrades, who took away their neighbors, the Sabines, their wives and fields, thus turns into a peaceful universal task. In the field of ideals and principles proclaimed by poets, philosophers and lawyers, Rome reaches its highest development and becomes a model for subsequent generations and peoples. He owed this to the interaction of Rome and the provinces; but it was precisely in this process of interaction that the germs of the fall lay. It was prepared from two sides: by transforming itself into the provinces, Rome lost its creative, constructive power, ceased to be a spiritual cement connecting disparate parts; the provinces were too different from each other culturally; the process of assimilation and equalization of rights raised to the surface and often put national or social elements, not yet cultural or standing much below the general level.

Cultural transformation

Two institutions in particular acted harmfully in this direction: slavery and the army. Slavery produced freedmen, the most corrupt part of ancient society, who combined the vices of “slave” and “master” and were devoid of any principles and traditions; and since these were capable and necessary people for the former master, they played a fatal role everywhere, especially at the court of the emperors. The army accepted representatives of physical strength and brute energy and brought them quickly - especially during unrest and soldier uprisings to the pinnacle of power, accustoming society to violence and admiration for force, and the rulers to disdain the law. Another danger threatened from the political side: the evolution of the Roman Empire consisted in the creation of a single coherent state from regions of heterogeneous structure, united by Rome with weapons. This goal was achieved by the development of a special government body - the world's first bureaucracy, which kept multiplying and specializing. But, with the increasingly military nature of power, with the increasing predominance of uncultured elements, with the developing desire for unification and equalization, the initiative of the ancient centers and centers of culture began to weaken. In this historical process a time appears when the rule of Rome had already lost the character of the crude exploitation of the republican era, but had not yet taken on the deathly forms of the later empire.
The second century is generally recognized as the best era of the Roman Empire, and this is usually attributed to the personal merits of the emperors who reigned then; but it is not just this accident that should explain the significance of the era of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, but the balance established then between opposing elements and aspirations - between Rome and the provinces, between the republican tradition of freedom and the monarchical order. It was a time that can be characterized by the beautiful words of Tacitus, who praises Nerva for “being able to connect things before ( olim) incompatible ( dissociabiles) - principle and freedom." In the 3rd century this became impossible. Amid the anarchy caused by the willfulness of the legions, bureaucratic management developed, the crown of which was the Diocletian system, with its desire to regulate everything, define the duties of everyone and chain him to his place: the farmer - to his “block”, the curial - to his curia, the artisan - to his workshop, just as the edict of Diocletian specified a price for every product. It was then that the colonat arose, this transition from ancient slavery to medieval serfdom; the former division of people into political categories - Roman citizens, allies and provincials - was replaced by a division into social classes. At the same time, the end of the ancient world came, which was held together by two concepts - an independent community ( polis) and citizen. The polis is replaced by a municipality; honorary position ( honos) turns into conscription ( munus); the senator of the local curia or curial becomes a serf of the city, obliged to answer with his property for the lack of taxes until ruin; along with the concept of polis The citizen, who previously could have been a magistrate, a warrior, or a priest, disappears, but now becomes either an official, or a soldier, or a clergyman ( clericus). Meanwhile, the most important revolution in terms of its consequences took place in the Roman Empire - unification on religious grounds (see The Birth of Christianity in the Roman Empire). This revolution was already being prepared on the basis of paganism by uniting the gods into a common pantheon or even through monotheistic ideas; but this unification finally took place on the basis of Christianity. The unification in Christianity went far beyond the boundaries of the political unification familiar to the ancient world: on the one hand, Christianity united the Roman citizen with the slave, on the other hand, the Roman with the barbarian. In view of this, the question naturally arose whether Christianity was the cause of the fall of the Roman Empire. The rationalist Gibbon in the 18th century resolved this question in an unconditionally affirmative sense. True, Christians, persecuted by pagan emperors, were averse to the empire; It is also true that after its triumph, persecuting the pagans and splitting into hostile sects, Christianity separated the population of the empire and, calling people from the worldly kingdom to God, distracted them from civil and political interests.

Constantine I

Diocletian's artificial tetrarchy did not last long; The Caesars did not have the patience to wait peacefully for their rise in Augusta. During the lifetime of Diocletian, who retired in 305, a war broke out between rivals.
Proclaimed Caesar by the British legions in 312, Constantine defeated his rival, the last protege of the Roman Praetorians, Caesar Maxentius, under the walls of Rome. This defeat of Rome opened the way to the triumph of Christianity, with which the further success of the winner was associated. Constantine not only gave Christians freedom of worship in the Roman Empire, but also recognition of their church by government authorities. When the victory at Adrianople in 323 over the Augustus of the East, Licinius, freed Constantine from his last rival, the Christian Church became a new support for his autocracy. Having replaced the tetrarchy of Diocletian with the organization of four prefectures, Constantine completed the administrative transformations of his predecessor in that special political style, which later became known as Byzantine, with numerous court positions and new titles. How much and in what sense the imperial power itself has changed since Diocletian is best evidenced by the Council of Nicaea convened by Constantine. The meaning that the pagan emperor borrowed from the title of “chief pontifex” had a local Roman national character and was insignificant in comparison with the position that Constantine occupied after the adoption of Christianity. The new empire also needed a new capital; it became the city of Constantine. Thus, what was dreamed of by the contemporaries of Caesar and Augustus, which Horace spoke with alarm in his odes, came true: the emergence of a new Rome in the Far East, the successor to the ancient city of Romulus. Constantine's position was so strengthened that he became the founder of the dynasty.

Empire after Constantine (337-395)

After his death (), power passed to his three sons: Constantius received Constantinople and the eastern prefecture, Constantius received the Illyrian prefecture and Italy, Constantine II received the prefecture of Gaul and Africa. The first task of the new emperors was the extermination of relatives. The civil strife between Constantine and Constant and the uprising, in which the victor died, united all power in the hands of Constantius. IN

Rome is an important transport hub, a financial and commercial center and an international fashion center, as well as the center of national cinema. Industrial complexes occupy territories mainly in the south and east of the city, including enterprises in such industries as electronics, book publishing, the chemical industry, telephone production, textiles and food. But the main significance of Rome is that it is governmental, administrative and state center. The main employer in the city is the service sector.

Nutrition

In the city, every gourmet and fast food lover will find an establishment to their liking. After all, Italy is a recognized country of culinary specialists, and Rome is its capital. One of the famous restaurants in the city is Agata e Romeo, where you will be offered completely unique dishes: spiced rabbit, tomatoes in caramel glaze, cucumber sherbet and quite a lot more big list culinary exotica. The Il Convivio restaurant also offers its visitors a unique menu, where you can try exotic meat dishes and desserts, ricotta and stuffed pumpkin flowers, and also check out the restaurant’s rich wine list.

You can try classic home cooking at the Spinosi Alberto restaurant. Specialties include traditional homemade cakes and fish prepared according to an ancient recipe.

Vegetarians will fall in love with Margutta Vegetariano-RistorArte, where they play on weekends live music. Seafood lovers should visit La Rosetta restaurant and order their fish platter. The menu of the family restaurant Vicolo delle Grotte consists of European cuisine. La Taverna del Ghetto restaurant serves the best traditional Italian cuisine.

The Gusto restaurant is divided into a pizzeria and a restaurant serving European cuisine. And in the Glass Hostaria restaurant you will enjoy not only excellent Italian cuisine, but also interesting modern design.

Transport

Rome has two metro lines, six tram lines and many bus routes. All city public transport belongs to one company, so single travel tickets apply to all types of transport. Night buses (with the index N) run from midnight to 5.30 am. A map of bus routes can be purchased at the ATAS information office, for example at the office window in Piazza dei Cinquecento or Stazione Termini.

When entering a bus or tram, do not forget to punch your ticket. If the device does not work, write the date and time of boarding on the ticket with a pen. Try to buy travel tickets in advance, as drivers do not always sell them.

The cost of a ticket for one trip lasting up to 75 minutes is 1 €, and during this time you can ride on several routes (for example, changing a bus to a tram). In Rome, you can purchase one-day, three-day and weekly passes. They cost 4.1€, 11€ and 16€ respectively. There are travel passes for a longer period, but for this you will have to issue a special certificate.

Don’t be surprised if a taxi driver passes by with a wave of his hand, the fact is that in Rome they stop only in specially designated places. So you still have to look for a taxi stop.

Purchases

Antiques are sold on the streets near Piazza Navona and on Via dei Coronari. Fashionable (expensive) clothes - mainly in shops around the Spanish Steps, as well as on Via Condotti, somewhat cheaper clothes on Via del Corso or Via Frattina; second hand - on Via del Governo Vecchio. The market at Campa de Fiori is especially good.

Safety

The capital of Italy is considered a safe city; troubles rarely happen to tourists here. You can safely walk around the historical part of Rome both day and night. But still, do not forget about the basic rules of caution.

The biggest danger comes from pickpockets and shippatores (thieves on mopeds), who snatch bags from passersby as they move. You can come across such robbers in the area of Termini Station and other crowded places: at the Colosseum, on the Spanish Steps, at the Trevi Fountain. They act very professionally - you definitely won’t be able to react in time. Their objects are handbags, cameras, video cameras. Try to hold or hang such things in front, and not on your shoulder.

Pickpockets pull out wallets, take off watches and jewelry. Therefore, try to leave valuables at the hotel. In addition, pickpockets often ply their trade on public transport, and the most popular routes among them are buses No. 40 and No. 64, which go from St. Peter's Basilica to Termini Station.

Also, do not forget your bags on the seats of cars - this is a very big temptation for street thieves.

Beware of the little gypsies, they have also been trained to work professionally. While some will distract you, others will quickly “cleanse” you.

It is recommended to travel around Rome on foot, since attractions are located literally at every step. At the same time, it would be a good idea to have a phrasebook with you, since local residents are not very good at dealing with foreign languages. It is better to change money at large banks or at a hotel.

When visiting the Vatican, be sure to wear closed clothing - short skirts, shorts, as well as clothes with a deep neckline and short sleeves will not let you through.

In cafes and restaurants, you are expected to tip 10% of the total order.

From 13:00 to 16:00 the vast majority of government offices and shops are closed for lunch.

Hotel deals

How to get to Rome

By plane. Many airlines have direct flights from Moscow to Rome (travel time is about three and a half hours; a round-trip ticket will cost about 10,000 - 15,000 rubles).

By car. From Moscow to Rome - 3047 km. You will have to travel through Belarus, Poland, the Czech Republic (you will need a transit visa) and Austria. There may be hours-long queues and unpleasant inspections at the borders, and traveling with Russian license plates through Poland is not always safe.

A visa for motorists is issued in the same way as for everyone else. Car insurance (“green card”) is required; it can be purchased from the same company as the medical policy. The registration certificate and driver's license must be of international standard.

Rome (capital) Rome (capital)
Ruma, capital of Italy. Located on the river. Tiber, in the historical region of Lazio. One of the oldest cities in the world rich in historical and cultural monuments, called the “eternal city”. The Vatican is located within the borders of Rome. According to ancient legend, it was founded in 754/753 BC. e. It was named after one of the mythological founders of the city - Romulus. Ancient Rome is the capital of Ancient Rome, the largest city of antiquity. Since 756 the capital of the Papal States. It experienced its greatest cultural flourishing during the Renaissance and Baroque eras. The almost three thousand year history of Rome has shaped its unique architectural appearance. An important role in the uniqueness of Rome is played by its picturesque location on the hills, the abundance of majestic ancient ruins, ceremonial palaces, temples and architectural ensembles different eras, a variety of squares with fountains, monuments and decorative sculpture. The boundaries of the central part of the modern city coincide with the ancient Roman Aurelian Wall (272, partially preserved), and many streets coincide with ancient Roman roads. Having developed on the Capitoline and Palatine hills, the ancient Roman city spread to the neighboring hills (Esquiline, Aventine, Viminal, Caelius, Quirinapus), the lowland to the bend of the Tiber (Campus Martius) and spread to its right bank (the modern district of Trastevere). Its public centers were the Capitol and the ensembles of the Roman Forum (from the 6th century BC; includes the temples of Castor and Pollux, from 484 BC, Antoninus and Faustina, 141, the Basilica of Maxentius, or Constantine, around 315, triumphal arches of Titus, 81, and Septimius Severus, 203) and imperial forums: Julius Caesar, Augustus, Nerva, Trajan (111-114, architect Apollodorus of Damascus; with Trajan’s Column). The most important ancient monuments outside the forums: the temples of Vesta and Fortuna Virilis in the Bull Market (1st century BC), Venus and Roma (135-307), the Pantheon; mausoleums of Caecilius Metella, Eurysac (both - mid-1st century BC), Cestius ("Pyramid of Cestius"; 12 BC), Hadrian (135-140; in the Middle Ages turned into Castle Sant'Angelo) ; Theater of Marcellus (44 BC - 13 AD), Colosseum; baths of Caracalla (206-17) and Diocletian (now the National Roman Museum; 306); triumphal column Marcus Aurelius (176-193), triumphal arch of Constantine (315); Hadrian's Bridge (Sant'Angelo; 136), Claudius' Aqueduct (38-52 AD), etc.; Via Appia (312 BC). On the Palatine there are the ruins of the house of Livia (late 1st century BC), the Flavian palace (1st century), etc.
In the VI-IX centuries. The city's territory was shrinking, ancient monuments were being destroyed. The separated centers of medieval Rome were the Capitol, where the city government was located, and the residences of the bishop (and then the pope) Lateran and Vatican. Residential medieval neighborhoods were concentrated on the opposite bank of the Tiber from the Vatican, near Christian basilicas and lived-in ancient buildings, interspersed with wastelands, gardens and swamps. Among the early Christian monuments of Rome: the catacombs of San Sebastiano (crypt - I-II centuries), Domicilla (I-IV centuries), Callixtus (II-III centuries); basilicas (rebuilt until the 18th century) San Giovanni in Laterano (311-314), San Lorenzo fuori le Mura (330; mosaic - VI century), Santa Maria Maggiore (third quarter of the IV century; mosaic - V and XIII centuries), Santi Giovanni e Paolo (about 400; frescoes - XII century), Santa Maria in Cozmedin (rebuildings of the VIII and XII centuries), Santa Maria in Trastevere (1140; on the site of a church of the IV century. ; mosaic - P. Cavallini), Santa Maria in Aracheli (rebuilding 1250); centric churches of Santa Costanza (IV century; mosaic - IV-V centuries), San Clemente (two-tier; lower church - IV century), San Stefano Rotondo, Santa Maria Antiqua (frescoes - VI-VIII centuries. ) - both 6th century. Of the few Gothic buildings, the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva (from 1280; facade - 1453) stands out.
From the beginning of the 16th century. Rome was decorated with buildings and ensembles designed, according to the plans of the popes, to revive the greatness of ancient Rome. Renaissance construction began at the Vatican and on the opposite bank of the Tiber, developing towards Piazza Navona and the Capitol. The grandiose Cathedral of St. was built in the Vatican. Peter (1506-1614, architects D. Bramante, Michelangelo, G. della Porta, G. Vignola, C. Maderna, etc.), the dome of which became the main architectural accent in the panorama of Rome. The business center of Renaissance Rome was located in the area of the Ponte Sant'Angelo, where in the 1540s. The first three-ray composition of streets radiating from San Celso Square was planned. Among the buildings of the Renaissance: Palazzo Venice (from 1452, apparently according to the plans of L. B. Alberti or B. Rossellino), Cancelleria (1485-1511, architect A. Bregno, from 1499 - Bramante), Farnese (1513-34, architect A. da Sangallo the Younger, from 1546 - architect Michelangelo), Vidoni-Caffarelli (around 1515-20, architect Raphael); Villa Farnesina (1509-11, architect B. Peruzzi; frescoes by Raphael, Giulio Romano, etc.), Madama (from 1517, architects Raphael, A. da Sangallo the Younger); the churches of San Pietro in Montorio (1480s, architect B. Pontelli; in the courtyard - Tempietto, 1502, architect Bramante), Santa Maria della Pace (1480s, architect Pontelli; courtyard - 1500-04, architect Bramante; facade - 1656, architect Pietro da Cortona), Santa Maria del Anima (early 16th century, architects G. da Sangallo and Bramante), Sant'Eligio degli Orefici (1509, design by Raphael). From the second quarter of the 16th century. Mannerist features appeared in some buildings (Palazzo Massimo alle Colonna, 1536, architect Peruzzi; Villa Giulia, now a museum, 1550-55, architects Vignola, B. Ammanati, G. Vasari). Techniques that anticipate the urban planning of the 17th-18th centuries are characteristic of the ensemble of the Piazzale Capitol created by Michelangelo near the Roman Forum, the new secular center of the city, in which there was a desire to emphasize the connection of the papal capital with ancient Rome (since 1546; includes the Palazzo dei Senatori, Palazzo dei Senatori, rebuilt by Michelangelo Conservatory, the main building of the Capitoline Museums, as well as the antique equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, bronze). Under Sixtus V (1585-90), straight streets were laid, connecting the most important early Christian basilicas and linking the city's districts into a single system. The most important Baroque ensembles include Piazza del Popolo (XVI-XVII centuries; completed in 1816-20, architect J. Valadier) with an ancient Egyptian obelisk at the convergence point of the three-ray system of highways and 3 churches, pl. St. Peter (Piazza San Pietro; 1657-63, architect L. Bernini), Piazza Navona (XVII century), Piazza di Spagna (Plaza di Spagna; staircase - 1725, architects A. Specchi and F. de Sanctis). Among the monuments of Baroque architecture: Palazzo Quirinale (from 1574, architects F. Ponzio, Maderna, Bernini, etc.), Laterano (1586-90, architect D. Fontana), Borghese (1590-1615, architects M. Longhi the Elder, F. Ponzio), Barberini (1625-63, architects Maderna, F. Borromini, Bernini), Falconieri (1639-41, architect Borromini), Doria Pamphili (now art gallery; XVII-XVIII centuries, architects A. del Grande and others); Villa Borghese (now a museum; early 17th century), etc.; churches of Il Gesu (1568-84, architect Vignola; façade -1575, architect G. Della Porta), San Luigi dei Francesi (1518-88; facade - 1589, architect G. della Porta), Sant'Andrea della Balle (1591 -1663, architects Olivieri, Maderna, C. Rainaldi), San Carlo alle Cuatro Fontane (1634-67) and Sant Ivo alla Sapienza (1642-60; both architect Borromini), Sant'Andrea al Quirinale (1653-58 , architect Bernini). Lush palaces, parks and churches, unexpectedly opening squares and viewing platforms, spatial accents in the form of stairs, obelisks, fountains (Four Rivers, Trevi, etc.) and decorative sculptures contribute to the perception of the baroque architecture of Rome (which largely determined the appearance of the center of the modern city ) spectacular fascination.
With the transformation of Rome into the capital of Italy in 1871, its growth became especially intense; The Prati area near the Vatican, the eastern and southeastern areas were built mainly with apartment buildings. Most of the Roman villas were included within the city, and many of their parks became public. In accordance with the master plan of 1873, new arteries were laid (Corso Vittorio Emanuele, Via Nazionale), numerous buildings and ensembles of a pompous and eclectic character were built (monument to Victor Emmanuel II, 1885-1911, architect G. Sacconi, sculptors A. Zanelli and E. Chiaradia). The civic center of Rome moved to Piazza Colonna.
In the 30s an attempt was made to return Rome to its “imperial greatness”: the complex of the failed World Exhibition was built (the area of the World Exhibition, EUR, from 1937, architects M. Piacentini and others), new highways were laid (Via dei Fori Imperiali, Via di Conciliazione), in connection with which valuable historical quarters (Borgo district) were demolished. Buildings of the 30s. designed in the neoclassical style (sports complex Foro Italico, 1928-34, architects M. Piacentini, G. Pagano, etc.). After the Second World War 1939-45, the city's territory expanded rapidly in all directions. The Via Olimpica highway, built for the 1960 Olympic Games, connecting Foro Italico with the EUR area, as well as the eastern and southern sections of the ring highway, a number of tunnels and intersections on 2 levels, partially facilitated the solution of transport problems. areas of old buildings are preserved as much as possible in their original condition; only individual buildings are erected here, often organically connected with the historical environment (Termini Station, 1938-50, architects F. Mazzoni, E. Montuori, etc.; British Embassy, 1970, architect B. Spence). The buildings of the architect and engineer P. L. Nervi stand out: the Sports Palace (1958-60, together with the architect M. Piacentini), the Olympic Village (finished in 1960) with the Palazzetto (Small Palace of Sports; 1957, together with the architect A. Vitellozzi) and Flaminio stadium (1959, together with engineer A. Nervi). New construction is developing mainly in the periphery. the EUR area turned into the 60-70s. to the major business center of Rome, growing further to the southwest. Many residential areas of Rome are poorly connected to the center and the main places of employment. The solution to this problem is to help create (by master plan 1964) “service axis”, that is, a system of highways tangential to the city, connecting with the EUR 2 new public centers planned in the areas of Centocella and Pietralata. Museums: Vatican Museums ( cm. Vatican), Capitoline Museums, Lateran Museums, National Roman Museum (Thermal Museum), Villa Giulia Museum, Borghese Museum and Gallery, National Gallery of Modern Art, National Museum folk arts and traditions, National Cabinet of Engravings, Gallery Doria Pamphilj, Gallery Colonna, Gallery Pallaviccini, etc.
Literature: N.P. Vrunov, Rome. Architecture of the Baroque era, M., (1937); Insolera I., Roma moderna, Un secolo di storia urbanistica, Torino, 1962; (Villavecchia R.), Rome, Gen., 1963 (The Nagel travel guide series).
(Source: Popular art encyclopedia." Ed. Polevoy V.M.; M.: Publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1986.)

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Roman Empire ( ancient rome) left an imperishable mark in all European lands where his victorious legions set foot. The stone ligature of Roman architecture has been preserved to this day: walls that protected citizens along which troops moved, aqueducts that delivered fresh water to citizens, and bridges thrown across wild rivers. As if all this were not enough, the legionnaires erected more and more structures - even as the borders of the empire began to recede. During the era of Hadrian, when Rome was much more concerned with consolidating the lands than with new conquests, the unclaimed combat prowess of soldiers, long separated from home and family, was wisely directed in another creative direction. In a sense, everything European owes its birth to the Roman builders who introduced many innovations both in Rome itself and beyond. The most important achievements of urban planning, which had the goal of public benefit, were sewerage and water supply systems, which created healthy living conditions and contributed to the increase in population and the growth of the cities themselves. But all this would have been impossible if the Romans had not invented concrete and did not begin to use the arch as the main architectural element. It was these two innovations that the Roman army spread throughout the empire.

Since stone arches could withstand enormous weight and could be built very high - sometimes two or three tiers - engineers working in the provinces easily crossed any rivers and gorges and reached the farthest edges, leaving behind strong bridges and powerful water pipelines (aqueducts). Like many other structures built with the help of Roman troops, the bridge in the Spanish city of Segovia, which carries a water supply, has gigantic dimensions: 27.5 m in height and about 823 m in length. Unusually tall and slender pillars, made of roughly hewn and unfastened granite blocks, and 128 graceful arches leave the impression of not only unprecedented power, but also imperial self-confidence. This is a miracle of engineering, built about 100 thousand years ago. e., has stood the test of time: until recently, the bridge served the water supply system of Segovia.

How did it all start?

Early settlements on the site of the future city of Rome arose on the Apennine Peninsula, in the valley of the Tiber River, at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. According to legend, the Romans descend from Trojan refugees who founded the city of Alba Longa in Italy. Rome itself, according to legend, was founded by Romulus, the grandson of the king of Alba Longa, in 753 BC. e. As in the Greek city-states, in the early period of the history of Rome it was ruled by kings who enjoyed virtually the same power as the Greek ones. Under the tyrant king Tarquinius Proud, a popular uprising took place, during which the royal power was destroyed and Rome turned into an aristocratic republic. Its population was clearly divided into two groups - the privileged class of patricians and the class of plebeians, which had significantly fewer rights. A patrician was considered a member of the most ancient Roman family; only the senate (the main government body) was elected from the patricians. A significant part of its early history is the struggle of the plebeians to expand their rights and transform members of their class into full Roman citizens.

Ancient Rome differed from the Greek city-states because it was located in completely different geographical conditions- a single Apennine peninsula with vast plains. Therefore, from the earliest period of its history, its citizens were forced to compete and fight with neighboring Italic tribes. The conquered peoples submitted to this great empire either as allies, or were simply included in the republic, and the conquered population did not receive the rights of Roman citizens, often turning into slaves. The most powerful opponents of Rome in the 4th century. BC e. there were Etruscans and Samnites, as well as separate Greek colonies in southern Italy (Magna Graecia). And yet, despite the fact that the Romans were often at odds with the Greek colonists, the more developed Hellenic culture had a noticeable impact on the culture of the Romans. It got to the point that the ancient Roman deities began to be identified with their Greek counterparts: Jupiter with Zeus, Mars with Ares, Venus with Aphrodite, etc.

Wars of the Roman Empire

The most tense moment in the confrontation between the Romans and the southern Italians and Greeks was the war of 280-272. BC e., when Pyrrhus, the king of the state of Epirus, located in the Balkans, intervened in the course of hostilities. In the end, Pyrrhus and his allies were defeated, and by 265 BC. e. The Roman Republic united all of Central and Southern Italy under its rule.

Continuing the war with the Greek colonists, the Romans clashed with the Carthaginian (Punic) power in Sicily. In 265 BC. e. The so-called Punic Wars began, lasting until 146 BC. e., almost 120 years. Initially, the Romans fought against the Greek colonies in eastern Sicily, primarily against the largest of them, the city of Syracuse. Then the seizure of Carthaginian lands in the east of the island began, which led to the fact that the Carthaginians, who had a strong fleet, attacked the Romans. After the first defeats, the Romans managed to create their own fleet and defeat the Carthaginian ships in the battle of the Aegatian Islands. A peace was signed, according to which in 241 BC. e. all of Sicily, considered the breadbasket of the Western Mediterranean, became the property of the Roman Republic.

Carthaginian dissatisfaction with the results First Punic War, as well as the gradual penetration of the Romans into the territory of the Iberian Peninsula, which was owned by Carthage, led to a second military clash between the powers. In 219 BC. e. Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barki captured the Spanish city of Saguntum, an ally of the Romans, then passed through southern Gaul and, having overcome the Alps, invaded the territory of the Roman Republic itself. Hannibal was supported by part of the Italian tribes who were dissatisfied with the rule of Rome. In 216 BC. e. in Apulia, in the bloody battle of Cannae, Hannibal surrounded and almost completely destroyed the Roman army, commanded by Gaius Terentius Varro and Aemilius Paulus. However, Hannibal was unable to take the heavily fortified city and was eventually forced to leave the Apennine Peninsula.

The war was moved to northern Africa, where Carthage and other Punic settlements were located. In 202 BC. e. The Roman commander Scipio defeated Hannibal's army near the town of Zama, south of Carthage, after which peace was signed on terms dictated by the Romans. The Carthaginians were deprived of all their possessions outside Africa and were obliged to transfer all warships and war elephants to the Romans. Having won the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic became the most powerful state in the Western Mediterranean. The Third Punic War, which took place from 149 to 146 BC. e., came down to finishing off an already defeated enemy. In the spring of 14b BC. e. Carthage was taken and destroyed, and its inhabitants.

Defensive walls of the Roman Empire

The relief from Trajan's Column depicts a scene (see left) from the Dacian Wars; legionnaires (they are without helmets) are constructing a camp camp from rectangular pieces of turf. When Roman soldiers found themselves in enemy lands, the construction of such fortifications was common.

“Fear gave birth to beauty, and ancient Rome was miraculously transformed, changing its previous - peaceful - policy and began hastily erecting towers, so that soon all seven of its hills sparkled with the armor of a continuous wall.”- this is what one Roman wrote about the powerful fortifications built around Rome in 275 for protection against the Goths. Following the example of the capital, large cities throughout the Roman Empire, many of which had long since “stepped over” the boundaries of their former walls, hastened to strengthen their defensive lines.

The construction of the city walls was extremely labor-intensive work. Usually two deep ditches were dug around the settlement, and a high earthen rampart was piled between them. It served as a kind of layer between two concentric walls. External the wall went 9 m into the ground so that the enemy could not make a tunnel, and at the top it was equipped with a wide road for patrolmen. The inner wall rose a few more meters to make it more difficult to shell the city. Such fortifications were almost indestructible: their thickness reached 6 m, and the stone blocks were fitted to each other with metal brackets - for greater strength.

When the walls were completed, construction of the gates could begin. A temporary wooden arch - formwork - was built over the opening in the wall. On top of it, skilled masons, moving from both sides to the middle, laid wedge-shaped slabs, forming a bend in the arch. When the last - the castle, or key - stone was installed, the formwork was removed, and next to the first arch they began to build a second one. And so on until the entire passage to the city was under a semicircular roof - the Korobov vault.

The guard posts at the gates that guarded the peace of the city often looked like real small fortresses: there were military barracks, stocks of weapons and food. In Germany, the so-called one is perfectly preserved (see below). On its lower beams there were loopholes instead of windows, and on both sides there were round towers - to make it more convenient to fire at the enemy. During the siege, a powerful grate was lowered onto the gate.

The wall, built in the 3rd century around Rome (19 km long, 3.5 m thick and 18 m high), had 381 towers and 18 gates with lowering portcullis. The wall was constantly renewed and strengthened, so that it served the City until the 19th century, that is, until artillery was improved. Two thirds of this wall still stands today.

The majestic Porta Nigra (that is, the Black Gate), rising 30 m in height, personifies the power of imperial Rome. The fortified gate is flanked by two towers, one of which is significantly damaged. The gate once served as an entrance to the city walls of the 2nd century AD. e. to Augusta Trevirorum (later Trier), the northern capital of the empire.

Aqueducts of the Roman Empire. The road of life of the imperial city

The famous three-tier aqueduct in Southern France (see above), spanning the Gard River and its low-lying valley - the so-called Gard Bridge - is as beautiful as it is functional. This structure, stretching 244 m in length, supplies about 22 tons of water daily from a distance of 48 km to the city of Nemaus (now Nimes). The Garda Bridge still remains one of the most wonderful works of Roman engineering art.

For the Romans, famous for their achievements in engineering, the subject of special pride was aqueducts. They supplied ancient Rome with about 250 million gallons of fresh water every day. In 97 AD e. Sextus Julius Frontinus, superintendent of Rome’s water supply system, rhetorically asked: “Who dares to compare our water pipelines, these great structures without which human life is unthinkable, with the idle pyramids or some worthless - albeit famous - creations of the Greeks?” Towards the end of its greatness, the city acquired eleven aqueducts through which water ran from the southern and eastern hills. Engineering has turned into real art: It seemed that the graceful arches easily jumped over obstacles, besides decorating the landscape. The Romans quickly “shared” their achievements with the rest of the Roman Empire, and remnants can still be seen today numerous aqueducts in France, Spain, Greece, North Africa and Asia Minor.

To provide water to provincial cities, whose population had already exhausted local supplies, and to build baths and fountains there, Roman engineers laid canals to rivers and springs, often tens of miles away. Flowing at a slight slope (Vitruvius recommended a minimum slope of 1:200), the precious moisture ran through stone pipes that ran through the countryside (and were mostly hidden into underground tunnels or ditches that followed the contours of the landscape) and eventually reached the city limits. There, water flowed safely into public reservoirs. When the pipeline encountered rivers or gorges, the builders threw arches over them, allowing them to maintain the same gentle slope and maintain a continuous flow of water.

To ensure that the angle of incidence of water remained constant, surveyors again resorted to thunder and horobath, as well as a diopter that measured horizontal angles. Again, the main burden of work fell on the shoulders of the troops. In the middle of the 2nd century AD. one military engineer was asked to understand the difficulties encountered during the construction of the aqueduct in Salda (in present-day Algeria). Two groups of workers began to dig a tunnel in the hill, moving towards each other from opposite sides. The engineer soon realized what was going on. “I measured both tunnels,” he later wrote, “and found that the sum of their lengths exceeded the width of the hill.” The tunnels simply did not meet. He found a way out of the situation by drilling a well between the tunnels and connecting them, so that the water began to flow as it should. The city honored the engineer with a monument.

Internal situation of the Roman Empire

The further strengthening of the external power of the Roman Republic was simultaneously accompanied by a deep internal crisis. Such a significant territory could no longer be governed in the old way, that is, with the organization of power characteristic of a city-state. In the ranks of the Roman military leaders, commanders emerged who claimed to have full power, like the ancient Greek tyrants or the Hellenic rulers in the Middle East. The first of these rulers was Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who captured in 82 BC. e. Rome and became an absolute dictator. Sulla's enemies were mercilessly killed according to lists (proscriptions) prepared by the dictator himself. In 79 BC. e. Sulla voluntarily renounced power, but this could no longer return him to his previous control. A long period of civil wars began in the Roman Republic.

External situation of the Roman Empire

Meanwhile, the stable development of the empire was threatened not only by external enemies and ambitious politicians fighting for power. Periodically, slave uprisings broke out on the territory of the republic. The largest such rebellion was a rebellion led by the Thracian Spartacus, which lasted almost three years (from 73 to 71 BC). The rebels were defeated only by the combined efforts of the three most skilled commanders of Rome at that time - Marcus Licinius Crassus, Marcus Licinius Lucullus and Gnaeus Pompey.

Later, Pompey, famous for his victories in the East over the Armenians and the Pontic king Mithridates VI, entered the battle for higher authority in the republic with another famous military leader - Gaius Julius Caesar. Caesar from 58 to 49 BC e. managed to capture the territories of the northern neighbors of the Roman Republic, the Gauls, and even carried out the first invasion of the British Isles. In 49 BC. e. Caesar entered Rome, where he was declared a dictator - a military ruler with unlimited rights. In 46 BC. e. in the battle of Pharsalus (Greece) he defeated Pompey, his main rival. And in 45 BC. e. in Spain, under Munda, he crushed the last obvious political opponents - the sons of Pompey, Gnaeus the Younger and Sextus. At the same time, Caesar managed to enter into an alliance with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, effectively subordinating her huge country to power.

However, in 44 BC. e. Gaius Julius Caesar was killed by a group of Republican conspirators, led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Civil wars in the republic continued. Now their main participants were Caesar's closest associates - Mark Antony and Gaius Octavian. First, they destroyed Caesar’s killers together, and later they began to fight each other. Antony was supported by the Egyptian queen Cleopatra during this last stage of the civil wars in Rome. However, in 31 BC. e. In the Battle of Cape Actium, the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra was defeated by the ships of Octavian. The Queen of Egypt and her ally committed suicide, and Octavian, finally to the Roman Republic, became the unlimited ruler of a giant power that united almost the entire Mediterranean under his rule.

Octavian, in 27 BC. e. who took the name Augustus “blessed”, is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, although this title itself at that time meant only the supreme commander in chief who won a significant victory. Officially, no one abolished the Roman Republic, and Augustus preferred to be called princeps, that is, the first among senators. And yet, under Octavian’s successors, the republic began to increasingly acquire the features of a monarchy, closer in its organization to the eastern despotic states.

The empire reached its highest foreign policy power under Emperor Trajan, who in 117 AD. e. conquered part of the lands of Rome's most powerful enemy in the east - the Parthian state. However, after the death of Trajan, the Parthians managed to return the captured territories and soon went on the offensive. Already under Trajan's successor, Emperor Hadrian, the empire was forced to switch to defensive tactics, building powerful defensive ramparts on its borders.

It was not only the Parthians who worried the Roman Empire; Incursions by barbarian tribes from the north and east became more and more frequent, in battles with which the Roman army often suffered severe defeats. Later, Roman emperors even allowed certain groups of barbarians to settle on the territory of the empire, provided that they guarded the borders from other hostile tribes.

In 284, the Roman Emperor Diocletian carried out an important reform that finally transformed the former Roman Republic into an imperial state. From now on, even the emperor began to be called differently - “dominus” (“lord”), and a complex ritual, borrowed from the eastern rulers, was introduced at court. At the same time, the empire was divided into two parts - Eastern and Western, at the head of each of which was a special ruler who received title of Augustus. He was assisted by a deputy called Caesar. After some time, Augustus had to transfer power to Caesar, and he himself would retire. This more flexible system, along with improvements in provincial government, meant that this great state continued to exist for another 200 years.

In the 4th century. Christianity became the dominant religion in the empire, which also contributed to strengthening the internal unity of the state. Since 394, Christianity is already the only permitted religion in the empire. However, if the Eastern Roman Empire remained a fairly strong state, the Western Empire weakened under the blows of the barbarians. Several times (410 and 455) barbarian tribes captured and ravaged Rome, and in 476 the leader of the German mercenaries, Odoacer, overthrew the last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and declared himself ruler of Italy.

And although the Eastern Roman Empire survived as a single country, and in 553 even annexed the entire territory of Italy, it was still a completely different state. It is no coincidence that historians prefer to call him and consider his fate separately from history of ancient Rome.