Throughout the last period of the existence of the Russian Empire, its population continued to grow at a rapid pace. By the beginning of the 1880s it amounted to 84 million people, by the end of the 19th century (1897) - 128.9 million people, and by 1914 - 178.4 million people. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Most of its population (about 60%) lived in territories annexed to Russia after the beginning of the 18th century. In these territories, the population density was noticeably higher, which by 1897 amounted to 10, and by 1914 - 13.7 people per sq. km. (with the total population density throughout Russia at this time being 5.9 and 8.2 people, respectively). In European countries, the population density during this period was disproportionately higher, amounting in the 80s from 60 to 100, and by 1913 from 70 to 180 people per sq. km. The share of the urban population in Russia also remained low, which by 1890 amounted to 12.5% (with 32.5% in Austria, 37.4 in France, 47 in Germany and 72.1 in England).
By 1914, the share of the Russian population (Great Russians, Little Russians and Belarusians) accounted for two-thirds of the total population of the empire (66.7%), having decreased only slightly compared to the middle of the 19th century. Traditionally (since the end of the 18th century), the Poles remained the largest foreign national group, constituting 6.5% of the population. By this time, the share of Jews had increased very significantly - to 4.2%. Germans made up 1.4%, Finns - 1%, Lithuanians - 1%, Estonians and Latvians - 1.7%, Moldovans - 0.7%, of the most numerous baptized peoples of the Volga region, Mordovians accounted for 0.7 and Chuvash - 0.6 %, Christian peoples of Transcaucasia - Armenians 1.2%, Georgians - 1%. Among the Muslim peoples, the most noticeable group was the Tatars and Bashkirs living in the Volga region - 2.8%, then the Kazakhs (in the terminology of that time - Kyrgyz) - 2.7%, Caucasian Tatars (Azerbaijanis) - 1.2%, Uzbeks - 1, 2%. All other peoples made up 5.3% of the country's population.
During the second half of the 19th century. the social structure of the population of Russia underwent very significant changes, the general direction of which was the gradual elimination of class differences, although formally the classes (or “states,” as they were usually called in legislation) continued to exist until the end of November 1917. With the growth of both vertical and horizontal mobility, class affiliation increasingly became inconsistent with socio-professional status, which over time acquired the main significance for the individual, while class affiliation faded into the background.
In 1856, the class of ranks conferring hereditary nobility was raised in military service to the 6th (colonel) and in the civil service to the 4th (actual state councilor); for obtaining personal nobility, the conditions did not change - it was given to all officer ranks and civilian ranks, starting from the 9th grade. This procedure for obtaining nobility by rank remained until 1917. In 1900, the right to receive hereditary nobility under the Order of St. Vladimir of the 4th degree was abolished, and since this order of the 3rd degree (as well as the Orders of Anna and Stanislav of the 1st degree degrees) could only be awarded to persons in ranks that already brought hereditary nobility, the opportunity to receive nobility by order remained only with the Knights of St. George. At the same time, the provisions on obtaining hereditary nobility by the descendants of personal nobles in the third generation were abolished. On the other hand, from 1874, all children of a person who had the right to this began to be elevated to hereditary nobility, regardless of the time of their birth. Since the children of majors and lieutenant colonels did not become hereditary nobles after 1856, they formed a special class of “staff officer children,” which included, until 1874, the children of colonels born before their fathers received this rank).
Despite the raising of the rank bar for access to the upper class, the influx into it remained very large, since both the number of civilian positions and the network of educational institutions increased rapidly. In 1875 -1896. according to ranks and orders, 39,535 people were confirmed in the rights of hereditary nobility (despite the fact that not all persons who had the right to this applied with the corresponding petition). The Russian nobility was one of the smallest in Europe, amounting to both at the beginning and even at the end of the 19th century. only 1.5% of the population (including a third - personal nobles), however, even under such conditions, it mostly consisted of recent commoners and their descendants, since it was replenished through service, and the number of the state apparatus and the officer corps was constantly growing . By 1857, the number of civil servants amounted to 118.1 thousand people. (including 86,066 ranking officials), in 1880 - 129 thousand, in 1897 - 144.5 thousand (including 101,513 ranking officials, in 1913 - 252.9 thousand. Number of officer corps in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries it was 30-40 thousand people, by 1914 - about 50 thousand. At the same time, in the 60s of the 19th century, 44% of officers were of non-noble origin, in the late 19th century - early. XX centuries, approximately half (in 1912, 53.6% of officers, and in the infantry - 44.3) came from the nobility, 25.7 - from the bourgeoisie and peasants, 13.6 - from honorary citizens, 3.6 - from the clergy and 3.5 - from merchants). The First had a very strong influence on the composition of the officer corps. World War: among officers produced in 1914 -1917. (and during this time about 260 thousand people were promoted to officers) up to 70% came from peasants, and only about 4-5% from nobles. Among the ranking officials there are no persons noble origin at the end of the 19th century was 70%, and at the beginning of the 20th century. - more than 80%.
By the beginning of the 20th century. noble families that could prove their belonging to the nobility before 1685 (recorded in the 6th part of the provincial genealogical books) made up a little more than a quarter of all families included in the genealogical books. If we take into account that many persons who received the right to hereditary nobility and did not have real estate were not recorded in the provincial registers (this in itself did not give any advantages), then we can assume that up to 90% or more of those who existed at the beginning of the 20th century . noble families arose in the 18th-19th centuries. as a result of service. Usually the process of transition to the upper class took place over two or three generations, sometimes slower, but often (in military service) faster.
At this time, the results of the approach to recruiting the upper class that were adopted at the beginning of the 18th century were fully reflected: combining the principle of hereditary privileged status and the principle of joining it on the basis of personal abilities and merits. Almost every educated person of any origin became first a personal and then a hereditary nobleman, and, as one of his contemporaries rightly noted, “the class rights assigned to the nobility were essentially the property of the entire contingent of, to a certain extent, enlightened people in Russia.” Russia was the only country where promotion to service upon reaching a certain rank or order occurred automatically. Moreover, if the noble status “according to the merits of the ancestors” required approval by the Senate (and evidence of noble origin was checked extremely meticulously), then a person who personally served the nobility by rank or order was recognized as a nobleman “by that very rank without special approval.” The nobility and ranks in Russia (unlike some countries) were never for sale (outside of service, they could only complain for their services in the development of art and industry).
Gradually, the nobility lost contact with the land and places of traditional residence (primarily personal nobles, who in the 60s ceased to be elected to bodies of noble self-government and local administration). The number of landowners in a comparable territory (early 18th century) by 1858, even before the reform of 1861, had decreased compared to 1833 from 72 to 65.5 thousand and amounted to the same number as in the 20s of the 18th century. V. The total number of the class with family members of both sexes reached by this time (excluding Poland and Finland) 888.8 thousand people, of which 31.1% belonged to the families of personal nobles, 16.6% - hereditary, but did not have land or serfs, 21.4% - who had up to 20 souls, 18.5% - who had from 20 to 100, and 12.4% - who had more than 100 souls. Throughout the country, the number of the upper class (including family members) in 1867 was 1,011,739 people. (including 653,758 hereditary and 357,981 personal), and in 1897 - 1,853,184 (1,221,939 and 631,245, respectively).
After the reform of 1861, that part of the nobility that still owned land property began to quickly lose it, and noble estates began to pass en masse into the hands of representatives of other classes. Even among hereditary nobles, the share of landowners, which was just over 80% before 1861, dropped to 56% by 1877, 40% by 1895, and 30% by 1905. In the total number of the estate, landowners accounted for only 29% by 1897 (compared to 63% before 1861) and by 1905 - 22%. Approximately 60% of landowners belonged to the late 19th and early 20th centuries. to the lowest stratum (those who had no more than 100 acres of land), a quarter to the middle (100-500 acres) and about 15% to the highest (more than 500 acres). By 1917, more than half of all the land that the nobles owned before 1861 had passed into the hands of other classes.
At the same time, the nobility lost its special rights and privileges. Back in 1801, they lost the exclusive right to own land, and in 1861, they lost the right to own serfs. In 1862 they lost the right to form the district police, and in 1864 - the monopoly on the formation of local government bodies, in 1863 - the privilege of exemption from corporal punishment (extended to other classes), in 1864 as a result judicial reform, their judicial rights were equalized with other classes, and in 1874, with the introduction of all-class military service, the nobles lost their last advantages - accelerated promotion to officers. It was lost by the nobility in the second half of the 19th century. and tax immunity, since since the 60s the principle of capitation taxation was replaced by an all-class income tax. Thus, from the last quarter of the 19th century. Almost all the special class rights of the nobility were eliminated, and for the last 40 years of the empire's existence, it continued to remain the highest class only in terms of formal status and social prestige.
The clergy also suffered noticeable erosion as a class during this period. This was mainly due to the fact that the reforms of the 60s of the XIX century. were accompanied by very serious legislative changes in relation to the clergy, which were directly aimed at transforming it from a closed class into a relatively open socio-professional group. Whereas by 1860, among priests, 49% were the children of priests, 17% were deacons, and 34% were clerics; among deacons, the figures were 9%, 17%, and 74%, respectively. In 1867, the hereditary transfer of church positions was strictly prohibited, as was the traditional family right to parish positions in general. The rule of marriages between representatives of the clergy within their own environment was also abolished. When bishops appointed priests, only the professional qualities of applicants were to be taken into account.
In 1869, the compulsory affiliation with the clerical rank of children of the clergy was eliminated; now they were actually excluded from it at birth and belonged to the class only if they themselves personally became priests or clergymen. At birth, the children of priests and deacons received hereditary rights, and the children of clerics received personal honorary citizenship, which encouraged them to receive a secular education and enter the civil service or become members of the liberal professions. Theological educational institutions became all-class. The children of the clergy, having been educated in seminaries, flocked en masse to civilian universities. For example, among students of Novorossiysk University in the 70s - 80s, representatives of the clergy made up the most representative group: in 1877 -1882 - up to 65%, and at the Faculty of History and Philology up to 100%, among graduates of the St. Petersburg Institute of History and Philology 57% came from the clergy.
Measures were also taken to emancipate the clergy, for whom restrictions on oral and printed statements were now eliminated, and their dependence on bishops was also significantly weakened (the latter were deprived of the right to transfer subordinates to remote parishes as a punishment, the right to prohibit resignation before the end of the 35-year term service while maintaining a pension and the right to prohibit a priest from voluntarily resigning his priesthood; as a punishment, the bishop could subject the priest only to penance), serious offenses of priests were considered only in the consistory court, and crimes - in national courts. In the 60s, consistories were already 79% composed of parish priests, not monastics. Monks also received the right to voluntarily renounce their rank with a return to their previous class (but without the return of ranks and awards received before monasticism) with some restrictions (deprivation of the right to public service and residence in the province where they were monastics).
However, in fact, the absolute majority of the clergy still came from their own class (by 1904, out of 47,743 priests, only 3% were people of secular origin), and if among seminarians the proportion of representatives of other classes from 1880 to 1914. increased from 8 to 16.4%, and theological schools - to 25.3%, then the majority of such persons were not included in the clergy. Moreover, among those who came from the clergy, even those who received a seminary education, the majority went into society (out of 2,187 seminary graduates in 1914, only 47.1% remained in the ecclesiastical department. The erosion of the clergy also caused a noticeable influx of its representatives into the revolutionary environment (making less than 1% of the population, the clergy provided 22% of the members of populist organizations).
The total number of clergy during this period remained at approximately the same level - in 1860 there were 114.5 thousand people (including 37.8 thousand priests), in 1880 - 92 .7 thousand (37 thousand priests), in 1904 - 106.6 thousand (47.7 thousand priests) and in 1913 - 111 thousand (50.4 thousand priests). Its structure, however, has undergone some changes: if in the 60-90s priests made up 30-40%, deacons - about 10%, and clergy - over half, then from the beginning of the 20th century. it was clearly established and did not change: in 1904 -1913. 45% of the total clergy were priests, 14% deacons and 41% clerics. The clergy continued to remain a highly educated class, no different in this from the nobility, and even partially surpassing it (since non-serving nobles, unlike officers and officials, had worse indicators); among the entire clergy, by 1897, 58.5 had secondary and higher education %. As a result of the development of the network of seminary education, by 1860 82.6% had it, by 1880 - 87.4%, by 1904 - 63.8% of priests, among deacons - 15.6, 12.7 and 2.2% respectively. The number of the class (black and white with male family members) in 1897 amounted to 240 thousand people (monastics still made up 10% of the total clergy). In total, with family members (including females), the clergy numbered 567 thousand people by 1858, 609 thousand by 1870, 501 thousand by 1897, and 607 thousand people by 1913 . In the 60s, it accounted for 1% of the country’s population, and from the end of the 19th century. and in 1913 - 0.5%.
The number of the entire urban class grew from the middle to the end of the 19th century. 2.5 times. By 1858 it numbered (without Poland and Finland) 2067.2 thousand people, by 1863 - 2341.6 thousand, by 1870 - 2979.4 thousand, by 1897 - 5101.4 thousand In its structure at this time the share of lower groups (burghers and guilds) increased, amounting to 90, 89.5, 92 and 95%, respectively, over the indicated years, and the share of higher groups decreased (merchants in 1858 amounted to 9.7% (in 1858). including 0.2% of the 1st and 0.5% of the 2nd guild), in 1863 10%, and in 1870 and 1897 - 7% and 2%, respectively; the share of honorary citizens during these years was 0. .5%, 0.8%, 1% and 3%). In 1866, the poll tax and the associated mutual responsibility of urban inhabitants were replaced by an individual income tax. The property stratification of the urban population was very large. Elections to city government bodies according to the regulations of 1870 provided for the division of the city population into three categories of qualified citizens, each of whom paid a third of all collected taxes (to be included in the lowest category, it was enough to own real estate or have a fishing certificate). The top third made up 0.4% of the total urban population, the middle - 1.8% and the bottom - 19.2%, the remaining 78.6% were unlicensed - they did not pay taxes, but also did not have voting rights.
Most quickly in the second half of the 19th century. The number of the class of honorary citizens grew, to which children of the clergy began to be classified by birth. If in 1858 there were 10.9 thousand people, and in 1863 17.8 thousand, then by 1870 their number had increased to 29 thousand, and by 1897 - to 156.6 thousand As for the merchants, in 1863 the 3rd guild was abolished, and the amount of capital required to register in the guild was increased. In addition, people of any class could now join the merchant class. However, this did not lead to an increase in the number of merchants. On the contrary, it has decreased. This was due to the fact that, firstly, some of the merchants simultaneously belonged to the class of honorary citizens (whose status was higher than that of merchants) and were listed in this group, and secondly, honorary citizenship for persons of lower classes was also much easier to acquire by receiving education, than to collect the capital necessary for registration in the guild. Therefore, if in 1858 there were 204.8 thousand merchants, and in 1863 235.7 thousand, then by 1870 their number decreased to 208.4 thousand, and by 1897 - almost doubled, amounting to 116.4 thousand people. Since 1898, belonging to the merchant class became purely prestigious, since the law on trade tax equalized all classes in relation to entrepreneurship, giving them equal rights in this area.
For the evolution of the peasant class, the manifesto of February 19, 1861, which abolished serfdom(by this time less than 40% of all peasants were serfs) and declared the landowner peasants to be free rural inhabitants with civil rights (freedom to enter into contracts, purchase real estate, conduct court cases, etc.). For the use of plots, peasants had to temporarily bear certain duties as a ransom. The size of allotments and duties in each individual case was determined once and for all by an agreement between the landowner and the peasants and was recorded in the charter, which was carried out by a specially created institute of peace intermediaries. The peasants paid about one-fifth of the ransom amount at a time, the rest was paid by the state, to which the peasants had to gradually return this amount over 49 years. In December 1881, a law was passed on the complete termination, from January 1, 1883, of temporarily obligatory relations between peasants and landowners, the mandatory redemption of plots and the reduction of redemption payments, and by the manifesto of November 3, 1905, from January 1, 1907, redemption payments of peasants were completely cancelled.
After the abolition of serfdom, various categories of peasants were legally equalized, but in property terms there were significant differences between them due to both social and territorial factors. Both the size of the land plot and the number of horses and livestock on the farm in different provinces could differ several times. In the densely populated western provinces, the average allotment was 4-5 dessiatines, while in the northern and eastern ones - up to 50; the number of horses in the Little Russian and Trans-Volga steppe provinces differed by 3-4 times. Thanks to the rapid population growth that occurred at this time, peasant farms became fragmented and smaller. The average land allotment per household in the provinces of European Russia, which was 17.8 dessiatines in the 60s, decreased to 13.3 dessiatines in the 80s, and to 9.4 dessiatines in the 90s.
In the social sense, the reform of 1861 gave impetus to the stratification of peasants, which had previously been restrained by the conditions of serfdom, and was not constant (over the course of a person’s life, the welfare of his household could, depending on the number of children and other factors, move from the category of poor to middle and wealthy and vice versa ) and manifested itself very weakly. Now the accumulated property began to be inherited, and wealthy households discovered a tendency towards heredity. On the other hand, the descendants of those who, due to laziness, drunkenness or other reasons, went bankrupt and became extremely poor, found it more difficult to improve their situation. But on the whole, despite the stratification that had begun, most of the peasantry by 1914 represented a more or less homogeneous mass, since the differences in the level of per capita income among them were relatively small.
A significant part of the peasants left the countryside, going to the cities, where they found work as workers in industrial enterprises or in the service sector. Even before the abolition of serfdom, some of even the serfs, who had amassed a fortune and bought their freedom, turned into entrepreneurs, acquiring the title of merchant. After 1861, such cases became more frequent, but in relation to the entire mass of the peasantry they accounted for only a few percent. The vast majority of peasants continued to remain in the rural community. The community was built on a combination of communal land use and individual farming by each of its members. Each yard was assigned a certain number of good and bad quality strips of land, which made it possible to obtain an average harvest each year. In 1868, individual responsibility was extended to communities of fewer than 21 male souls, marking the beginning of the abolition of mutual responsibility (which was finally abolished in 1903). In 1876, private redistributions of communal land were allowed to take place at any time. However, then until the beginning of the 20th century. The authorities did not encourage the separation of peasants from the community. In 1886, a law was passed according to which family divisions could only be made with the consent of the community; in 1889, peasant plots became inalienable, the transfer of allotment land into the hands of non-peasants was prohibited, and exit from the community became possible only by two-thirds of the votes of its members, in 1893 d. redistribution of land within the community is limited, the minimum interval between them is set at 12 years and the inalienability of peasant plots is reaffirmed; since 1894, exit from the community was conditioned by the repayment of redemption payments with the consent of the community.
Some of the peasants by the end of the 19th century. separated from the communities and owned their plots as private property. Among all private land owners, peasants made up 56.7% (23.8% - nobles, 2.6% - merchants and honorable citizens, 12% - burghers, 4.8% others), but they owned only 5.5% of such lands, and the overwhelming majority of peasant lands were lands of communities (peasant societies). In terms of total area by 1900, communal lands were one third larger than the lands owned by all private owners combined. Back in 1889, a resettlement law was adopted that limited unauthorized resettlement, but encouraged organized migration to Siberia; in 1896, a special Resettlement Directorate was created under the Ministry of Internal Affairs to encourage such resettlement.
At the beginning of the 20th century. The state policy regarding the issue of preserving the community changed dramatically, in which the position of the then Chairman of the Council of Ministers P.A. played a major role. Stolypin. According to the law of November 9, 1906, peasants were allowed to leave the community at any time with the right of private ownership of the land they cultivated; in June 1910, the possibilities for leaving the community were further expanded, and in May 1911, for this purpose, according to a new law even more favorable conditions were created regarding land management. 2.5 million peasants immediately wanted to take advantage of the right to leave, but the exit of these peasants to the cuttings was perceived unkindly by some community members and demanded great job according to demarcation, therefore the process was quite slow, and by 1914 only 13% of communal lands became private peasant property. Along with the adoption of this law, an active resettlement policy was launched to transfer those wishing to the outlying lands in Siberia and Central Asia. For the first years, settlers were exempt from taxes and received 15 hectares of land per capita or 45 per family; they were given an allowance of 200 rubles. and the move with all property to a new place of residence was ensured at government expense. The State Peasant Land Bank (was authorized to buy up landowners' lands, reselling them to peasants on preferential terms. It issued long-term loans of up to 90% of the value of land with an annual interest rate of 4.5% (the volume of loans issued increased from 222 million rubles in 1901. up to 1168 million rubles in 1912). All these measures led to an increase in peasant land ownership: if in 1894 there were 2 peasant tithes per noble, then by 1917 - 5.5.
During the political reforms of 1905-1906. there was a final equalization of rural inhabitants and other persons of the former tax status with the rest of the population. Already the new passport rules of 1895 greatly facilitated the movement of peasants around the country. Now, restrictions on their rights to enter the civil service, access to study at higher educational institutions, transition to the clergy and to become monastics have been finally abolished.
The reforms of the 60s made all individuals in the state subjects of civil law. At the same time, the concept of a legal entity was finally formed. Among legal entities there were public, private, associations of persons and institutions. Throughout the entire period, there was a rapid growth of societies and organizations (both commercial, industrial and cultural) with the rights of a legal entity, since all restrictions on their formation were lifted. Both individuals and legal entities were allowed to enter into any contracts that did not contradict the law with any conditions that did not violate public order. Absolutely all types of contracts known to world practice at that time were allowed. In 1870, a number of provisions were adopted detailing the legal status joint stock companies, as well as regulating the procedure for personal hiring and insurance. Not all transactions required notarization, but for some important species it was mandatory. The civil and legal activity of the population grew at a very rapid pace. From 1884 to 1913 the number of notarized acts increased by 5.5 times.
At this time, the last restrictions on the ownership of private property (previously maintained for some categories of the population) were abolished, and the law retained only those restrictions that were necessary to ensure freedom of property relations for other persons. The state also reserved the right to expropriate land for state needs. Inheritance during this period began to be carried out mainly by wills, and when inheriting by law, parents were finally excluded from the list of heirs. In the sphere of family and marriage relations, women's rights in terms of property ownership were somewhat expanded (the principle of separation of spouses' property was more clearly established), but a number of restrictions remained: in particular, wives could not get a job or issue bills of exchange without the consent of their husbands. Parental consent for marriage was no longer required, and the legal possibilities for divorce were somewhat expanded. Since 1902, illegitimate children, upon recognition by their father, were legitimized with the right to bear his surname and inheritance.
In 1864, the age of full sanity (responsibility for a crime) was lowered to 17 years, while the age of the offender 14-16 years was the basis for mitigation of punishment, and 10-13 years was recognized as the age of conditional sanity. But according to the Criminal Code of 1903, the age of full sanity was again raised to 21 years and the age limits for mitigation of punishment and conditional sanity were restored to the same as under the Code of 1845. In contrast to the Code of 1845, which recognized the state of intoxication as a mitigating circumstance ( it was equated to the unintentionality of the act), according to the Code of 1903, only complete intoxication was recognized as such, completely depriving a person of control over his behavior. The Code of 1903 was more compact, it had only 687 articles - 2.5 times less than in 1866 and 3.4 times less than in 1857. It doubled the number of articles protecting the rights of private persons; now they made up a third of all articles (25 related to crimes against faith, 52 to state crimes, 51 to official crimes, 329 to crimes against public interests and 201 to crimes against private individuals). The types of punishments also became fewer - only eight: 1) death penalty, 2) hard labor, 3) exile to a settlement, 4) imprisonment in a correctional house, 5) imprisonment in a fortress, 6) imprisonment in prison, 7) short-term arrest, 8) fine from 50 kopecks. up to 100 rub. For the privileged classes - nobles, clergy, merchants and honorary citizens, punishment of all types, except fortress, arrest and fine, was further aggravated by the deprivation of all rights of state. Contrary to popular ideas about the corruption that reigned in the courts at that time, the percentage of convicted defendants for all classes was almost the same (20% for nobles, 17 for clergy and merchants, 19 for burghers, 25 for peasants), and the percentage of those sentenced to more serious punishments for the upper classes (who theoretically had great opportunities for bribery) were approximately twice as large as for the lower ones (in the 60s, 4.4% of all convicted nobles, 3.9% of the clergy, 3% of honorary citizens, while only 1.4% of all convicted burghers, less than 2% of peasants and 1.6% of foreigners).
The death penalty was provided for military and state crimes and was used extremely rarely (since 1881, within the prison fence, and not in public), and most sentences were not carried out. For the entire period from 1826 to 1905. only less than 900 people were executed, and in 1905 -1913, despite the rampant mass terrorism in 1905 -1907. - less than 3 thousand. Corporal punishment was basically abolished back in 1863 and was left only for male peasants, up to 20 strokes of the rod, according to sentences of peasant volost courts (with exceptions covering about 40% of the village population: those who served in the army, those who had reached 60 years of age, the sick, etc. .d.) and prisoners and exiled convicts for violating order - with the sanction of the governor. In 1903 -1904. Corporal punishment was abolished for this category as well. In the 1880s, the only places of detention that remained were the correctional home, the fortress and the prison. By 1861, there were 31 thousand prisoners in Russia, by 1885 - 95 thousand, by 1913 - 169 thousand. Less than 30% of them were employed in the 80s, in the 1900s - about 60%. By 1897, 298.6 thousand exiles lived in Siberia. The duration of imprisonment was sharply reduced: if before 1903 the term of hard labor ranged from 4 to 20 years, then after that it was usually no more than 4 (since 1875 hard labor was concentrated on Sakhalin).
Social changes after the reform of 1861, the growth of urban population, the accumulation of a significant number of workers and lumpen population there caused a significant increase in crime (workers were the most criminal group: in 1897, numbering only 3.2 million people, they accounted for 30% of all convicted; being in the absolute majority peasants by class, they were 19 times more criminal than the peasants who remained in the village). Already in the first post-reform decade, the number of crimes per 100 thousand population almost doubled, amounting to 868, in subsequent years the growth was even more noticeable (in the 1880s - 1397, in the 1900s - 1332, in 1911 -1913 - 1719). If previously the majority (up to 70%) of crimes were crimes against the order of government and the interests of the treasury, now more than 85% were crimes against the person and property of private individuals. The average annual number of robberies and robberies compared to pre-reform times by the beginning of the 20th century. (1909-1913) increased by almost 50 times (73.1 thousand), bodily injuries - by 26 times, sexual crimes - by 24 times, thefts - by 8 times (151.2 thousand), murders - by 8 times (32.6 thousand). In 1899 -1908. for some types of these crimes (murder, bodily harm), the rates were even higher.
To a large extent, the increase in crime was facilitated by the ease of punishment and the practice of their application during this period. In 1910 -1913. 54.3% of all convicts at this time were sentenced to correctional sentences without deprivation of rights (including only 6.7% to imprisonment for a year or more), 37.3% - to correctional punishment with deprivation of rights (including only 14 % to imprisonment for a term of more than 2.5 years), and only 8% were sentenced to hard labor (including more than half for a term of up to 6 years, and only 1.4% of all convicts received more than 10 years of hard labor). The number of acquittals was very large, especially by jury trials. In 1873 -1883. the latter acquitted 38% of the defendants (in 1883 - even 43%), in 1887 -1891. - 36% (in Europe, juries acquitted only 15-25%) Crown courts issued a smaller, but also significant number of acquittals: in 1873 -1883. - 23%, in 1894 -1897. - thirty%. As a result, in terms of crime, Russia came closer to other European countries; now crime in Russia was only slightly lower (England - 1.2 times, France 1.9 times, Germany 2.4 times), whereas previously it was several times lower. once. The number of suicides continued to remain very low (5-10 times less than in other European countries ah), even with a downward trend towards the beginning of the 20th century: in the first half of the 70s there were 2.7 such cases per 100 thousand population, in the early 80s - 2.9, and in 1901 -1905. - 2.3. Whereas in all European countries it was growing all this time and at the beginning of the 20th century. was 17.6 in Austria-Hungary, 10.3 in England, 21.2 in Germany, 20.4 in France, 10.2 in the USA.
Development of education in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. progressed at a fairly fast pace, making a particularly huge leap at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1858, all-class and public girls' schools were opened. In the early 60s, the ongoing large-scale reforms in all areas could not but affect the education sector. According to the law of July 14, 1864, to coordinate issues related to the functioning of secondary and lower educational institutions, provincial, district and city school councils from representatives of the authorities, clergy and zemstvo began to be created everywhere. In 1869, the position of inspector of public schools was established, who was accountable to the provincial school council, and in 1874 - the position of director of public schools - the head of the educational department of all schools in the province, whose first assistant was the inspector of public schools. School councils were entrusted with the responsibility of meeting the needs of the population in primary education.
Educational institutions of the Ministry of Public Education, according to the charters of 1864, were divided into primary public schools (into which parish schools were transformed), 6-year district schools, pro-gymnasiums (grades 4-6) and 7-grade gymnasiums: classical and real. In 1872, classical gymnasiums became 8-grade, and real schools were renamed real schools with the same 7-year term. District schools were transformed into city schools in the same year. In 1874, a new regulation was adopted on primary schools, which became predominantly peasant schools. A significant number of educational institutions existed outside the system of the Ministry of Public Education. Since 1884, parochial schools have been under the jurisdiction of the Synod, and their direct management in each diocese was carried out by the diocesan council consisting of representatives of the clergy, the rector and teachers of the local theological seminary, as well as the director and inspector of public schools in the given province. The number of these schools for 1881 -1894. increased 8 times, and the number of their students - 10 times. In the mid-90s, there were 52 universities in Russia with 25,166 students, 177 men's gymnasiums, 58 pro-gymnasiums, 104 real schools, 55 seminaries, 105 theological schools, 163 women's gymnasiums, 30 women's gymnasiums of the Department of Empress Maria, 61 women's theological schools and 78,724 primary schools for 3,801,133 people.
In 1863, a new university charter was adopted, confirming university autonomy (all decisions were made by the faculty at the Academic Council); the charter of 1884 replaced the election of the rector, who now, like deans and professors, were appointed by the ministry, but in 1905 the autonomy of universities was restored. Universities usually had three faculties: physics and mathematics, history and philology, and medicine. Several more universities were opened during this period. In 1865, on the basis of the Richelieu Lyceum, founded in 1817, Novorossiysk University was opened in Odessa, and in 1888, Tomsk University was founded - the first in Siberia. Two more universities appeared at the beginning of the 20th century: Saratov University was opened in 1909, and in 1916, on the basis of the local branch of St. Petersburg University, Perm University (Warsaw University, evacuated to Rostov-on-Don, was transformed into Rostovsky). In 1908, the non-state Moscow People's University named after. A.L. Shanyavsky. The number of lyceums was added to the Lyceum opened in Moscow in 1868 in memory of Tsarevich Nicholas.
In Russia, men and women received education at all levels separately, and since women were not allowed into universities, separate higher educational institutions began to be created for them in the form of Higher Women's Courses. In 1872, Higher Women's Medical Courses were created in St. Petersburg, in the same year Moscow, and in 1876 - Kazan Higher Women's Courses appeared, in 1878 Bestuzhev Courses were opened in St. Petersburg and Kyiv Higher Women's Courses, and in the next year - Odessa. In 1897, the St. Petersburg Women's Medical Institute was opened, in 1904 - the Stebutov Higher Agricultural Courses (in St. Petersburg), in 1906 - Polytechnic Women's Courses (ibid.), in 1907 - the Higher Women's Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg, in 1907 Kiev, and in 1909 - Moscow Women's Medical Institutes, in 1910 - Odessa and Kharkov Higher Women's Medical Courses and in 1910 - Novocherkassk Higher Women's Courses, in 1911 Pedagogical Institute P.T. Shelaputin in Moscow.
Special higher education - technical, natural and humanitarian - received especially great development during this period. In addition to the existing technical universities, a network of polytechnic and technological institutes was developed: the Riga Institute was founded in 1862, the Kiev Institute in 1898, the St. Petersburg and Warsaw Institutes in 1902, and the Don Polytechnic Institute in 1907. In 1886, the Electrotechnical Institute opened in St. Petersburg, in 1885 the Kharkov Institute appeared, and in 1900, the Tomsk Institute of Technology. In 1896, the Moscow Institute of Railway Engineers was opened, in 1899 - the Ekaterinoslav Mining Institute. In 1865, the Petrovsky Agricultural and Forestry Academy was created in Moscow (later the Moscow Agricultural Institute), in 1900 - the New Alexandria Agricultural Institute, in 1911 - the Dairy Institute in Vologda, in 1912 - the Voronezh Agricultural Institute . In addition to Yuryevsky, Kharkov veterinary institutes were opened in 1862, and Kazan veterinary institutes in 1874. In 1885, the Clinical Institute was founded in St. Petersburg Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna.
In 1867, the St. Petersburg Historical and Philological Institute was created, which became the main supplier of personnel for the Ministry of Public Education, in 1877 - the St. Petersburg, and in 1907, the Moscow Archaeological Institute, in 1899 - the Oriental Institute in Vladivostok, and in 1908 - Practical Oriental Academy in St. Petersburg. Economic universities also appeared: in 1897 - Higher Economic Courses M.V. Pobedinsky in St. Petersburg, in 1903 the Moscow, and in 1908 - the Kiev commercial institutes, in 1910 - the private St. Petersburg Institute of Higher Commercial Knowledge. In 1862, the St. Petersburg Conservatory was founded, and in 1866, the Moscow Conservatory; in 1878, another music university was created in Moscow - the Music and Drama School of the Moscow Philharmonic Society. If universities were under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Education, then almost all specialized universities were under the jurisdiction of other ministries and departments. Technical universities have been allowed in since the 60s of the 19th century. before 1900 11,830, and for 1901 -1917. — 18,356 thousand engineers.
In 1908 elementary education became mandatory, and about 10 thousand primary schools began to open annually, of which by 1913 there were a total of more than 130 thousand. The budget of the Ministry of Public Education for 30 years from 1884 to 1914 increased more than 6 times (from 25, 2 to 161.2 million rubles), the number of students in primary schools subordinate to the ministry almost doubled (from 3,275,362 to 6,416,247 people), in secondary schools - more than tripled (from 224,179 to 733,367 people. ). In total, by 1914 there were 9,656 thousand primary and secondary school students in Russia. Over a quarter of a century (since 1890), it has increased almost 4 times, amounting to 60 people per 1000 population. According to the latter indicator, Russia still lagged behind the leading European countries (140-150 people), but this gap has increased since the mid-19th century. was rapidly declining.
At the beginning of the 20th century. The system of secondary educational institutions included gymnasiums, real schools, commercial schools and theological seminaries. Graduates of classical gymnasiums were admitted to universities without exams, and graduates of real schools were admitted to technical universities (to enter the university they had to pass an exam). Commercial schools, which arose at the very end of the 19th century, had an 8-year course and were mainly opened with funds from societies for the dissemination of commercial knowledge and private individuals (many gymnasiums and real schools were also private), their graduates had the same rights as graduates of real ones. schools who completed a full 4-year course of seminaries were equal to graduates of gymnasiums. By 1914, there were 508 men's gymnasiums, 319 real schools, more than 200 commercial schools and 450 specialized secondary schools (agricultural, forestry, land surveying, technical, railway, art, etc.). There were also 991 women's gymnasiums (44% of them private) and more than 80 women's diocesan schools. Graduates who graduated from the pedagogical (8th) class of the gymnasium were accepted into women's universities. There were also various secondary specialized educational institutions: pedagogical (teachers' institutes, teachers' seminaries), technical, medical, artistic (such as the Stroganov Central Art and Industrial School, the Central School technical drawing Baron A.L. Stieglitz).
By 1914, there were 105 higher educational institutions in Russia, with 127 thousand students studying. This was much more than in any European country (in Germany there were then 79.6 thousand students, in Austria-Hungary - 42.4 thousand, in France - 42 thousand), although back in 1890 Russia was somewhat behind according to these indicators, having 12.5 thousand students versus 13 thousand in England, 20 in France, 17.5 in Austria). The number of students per 10 thousand population in Russia was approximately equal to other European countries. By 1916, there were already 135,842 university students.
The rapid pace of the spread of education was accompanied by an explosive growth in published periodicals, and if previously these were mainly magazines, now newspapers are beginning to occupy an increasingly larger place locally. In the first 5 years of the reign of Alexander II, 142 new publications appeared (59 in 1858 alone) - more than twice as many as in the previous 15 years; in the 60s another 247 appeared, in the 70s - 196, in the 80s - 214, in 1891 -1894, until the end of the reign of Alexander III - another 92, that is, a total of 695 publications in Russian only. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Several thousand new publications appeared. Most of them were short-lived, being published for several years. Nevertheless, by 1913, 1,055 newspapers with a circulation of 3.3 million copies were published in Russia at a time (compared to 667 with a circulation of 0.9 million in 1890) and 1,472 magazines. This was less than in the largest European countries, since the literacy level of the population in Russia was lower (about 57% of the level of France, Germany and England), but in terms of book production Russia was far ahead of all countries in the world. In 1913, 30.1 thousand titles of books and pamphlets were published there, while in Germany - 23.2 thousand, in England - 12.4 thousand, in the USA - 12.2 thousand, in Japan - 9, 8 thousand. According to this indicator, Russia already in 1888 -1889. was ahead of almost all countries except Germany and France (in Russia then 7247 books were published, in England - 6330, in the USA - 4322, in France - 7350, in Germany - 15.5 thousand). The number of public libraries in Russia by 1913 exceeded 14 thousand, although back in 1880 there were only 145 of them (in England there were then 202, in the USA - 59, in France - 505, in Germany - 594).
Education was in fact the main factor in vertical social mobility. In no other country public service There were no such benefits for education as in Russia, and nowhere was such a large proportion of educated people in the public service. It was the level of education that served as the most important factor ensuring the speed of an official career in Russia. While all persons, regardless of origin (including nobles), were required to begin serving as clerks, graduates of classical gymnasiums could immediately receive the rank of 14th grade, and graduates of higher educational institutions could immediately receive the rank of 12th grade (graduated with the title of a full student) and even 10th grade (graduated with the title of candidate). Those who had a master's degree (as well as doctors upon entering the service) immediately received the rank of 9th class, and doctors - 8th class. The service advantages for educated people were so great (according to the law of 1834, the terms of promotion to the next ranks for people with higher education were more than half as long) that this caused concern for other areas of society. The Department of Laws in 1856 stated that this situation “has finally drawn all enlightened people into the civil service; an educated person now remains neither a merchant, nor a manufacturer, nor a landowner, they all go into service,” and that in this case, “Russia is not moving forward.” will go neither in trade, nor in industry, nor in improving agriculture.” Therefore, it was decided to cancel the accelerated rank promotion, leaving, however, benefits for receiving the first rank. Even before the military reform of 1874, privileges by education were more significant than privileges by birth. Persons who entered on the basis of origin served before promotion to officers: hereditary nobles - 2 years, children of personal nobles, honorary citizens, clergy, merchants, scientists and artists - 4 years, all others - 6 years. Whereas those who entered on the basis of education (regardless of origin) with higher education were promoted to officers after 2 months, with secondary education - after 1 year.
The vast majority of university graduates entered the public service. For example, of the graduates of the Nizhyn Lyceum, 70% were officials and 10% officers, only 6.8% did not serve, only 1.9% of the graduates of the Yuryev Veterinary Institute were never in the service, of the graduates of the St. Petersburg Historical and Philological Institute, almost 100% (and a quarter of them reached the “general” rank of actual state councilor). Therefore, the most educated group in Russia was the bureaucracy. For example, among the officials of the State Chancellery, 69% had higher, 17% secondary and 14% lower education, among the officials of the Office of the Empress Maria (in charge of charitable institutions there were more than 69% of people with higher, 22% secondary and 8% with lower education. In the humanities universities, which did not graduate directly into the service, but provided additional education, the vast majority studied officials and even officers who entered there on their own (about a quarter of the graduates of the St. Petersburg Archaeological Institute, up to half of the graduates of the Eastern Institute were officers).
But by the end of the 19th century. As a result of the rapid development of the network of secondary and higher educational institutions, quite a lot of educated people remained outside the service stratum. In general, there have always been much fewer officials in Russia than in any other European country. Per 1000 people There were less than 2 high-ranking officials in the population. In total (with clerks) in the middle of the 19th century. There were 2 officials per 1000 people in Russia versus 4.1 in England and 4.8 in France. In the second half of the 19th century. many more people were employed in various bodies of public self-government. Already by 1880, 52 thousand people were employed in the zemstvo service, and about 140 thousand were employed in city councils, i.e. more than in the entire crown administration, and about 180 thousand more were employed in the volost and rural peasant administration. But even taking into account all of them, there are significantly fewer managers in Russia than in other countries: in 1910, 6.2 people per 1000 were employed in all areas of management in Russia, while in England 7.2, in France - 17.6 , in Germany - 12.6, in the USA - 11.3.
By the beginning of the 20th century. Thanks to the spread of education and the processes of vertical mobility, a cultural layer was formed in Russia, which as a whole began to play the role that the entire nobility had previously played. This layer, being very different in origin, existed until the middle of the 19th century. entirely noble by class. Subsequently, some part of the educated layer remained outside the upper class (by the beginning of the 20th century, this layer, which, in addition to officers and bureaucrats, included a mass of privately practicing doctors, engineers, teachers, private employees, etc., amounted to approximately 3-3.5% of the population , and nobles, including personal ones - 1.5%); By origin, the composition of this entire stratum was more than 80% non-noble, but at least half of its members (among those in the civil service - 73%) officially belonged to the upper class.
The educated stratum largely reproduced itself, preserving the cultural traditions of its environment (along with the fact that most members of this stratum entered it through their own merits, their children almost always remained in its composition, receiving an appropriate education). However, it was constantly, and more and more, replenished with persons from the lower classes. Gymnasiums, where until 1863 there were almost no representatives of the lower classes (three quarters of their students were children of nobles and officials), gradually became all-class. In 1880 -1898. the share of children of nobles and officials decreased to 52%, and the share of hereditary nobles among students of gymnasiums and secondary schools by 1897 decreased to 25.6%. By 1914, the percentage of children of nobles and officials in gymnasiums dropped to 32.5. In universities, where in the mid-50s - early 60s, children of nobles and officials made up 65% and clergy 8%, by 1880 - only 46.6 and 23.4%, by 1895 - 45.4 and 4.9%, and by 1914 - 35.9 and 10.3%. At the same time, the share of hereditary nobles among university students (by 1897 - 22.8%) by 1914 was only 7.6%, while peasants 14.5%, and burghers 24.4% (in 1906 - respectively 11.8% and 6.2% and 24.3%). The proportion of people from the upper classes in other types of universities was even lower. In technical universities, hereditary nobles accounted for 9.7% by 1914, in veterinary universities - 5.8%, while peasants and burghers made up 54.1% and 23.7%, respectively. In the five technical universities of the Ministry of Public Education, there were then 26.5% of nobles and officials, 2% of clergy, 14% of merchants and honorary citizens, 31.5% of burghers, and 22% of peasants. At the Konstantinovsky Land Survey Institute in 1915, 33.6% of students were from peasants and 32.9% from burghers.
As a result of the fact that the nobility gradually lost real estate, and for the vast majority of people of all classes entering the public service, it was the only source of livelihood, the service stratum at the beginning of the 20th century. turned out to be minimally associated with real estate ownership. Already at the end of the 19th century, no more than a third of all hereditary nobles were landowners, and among those who served there were very few of them. In 1903, even among lieutenant generals, only 15.2% were landowners; among full generals, 58.7% did not have any property. In general, among the officers, only very few owned any real estate (among the army elite - officers of the General Staff Corps, 95% did not have any property). The same applies to an even greater extent to civil officials. Even among the top of the bureaucracy - the ranks of the first 4th classes, the percentage of people who did not have any real estate and lived only on salaries was 50% - in 1878 and 51.2% in 1902 (including among the ranks of the 4th class - 75.9%). In 1915, of the officials of the first 4 classes, only 12% had ancestral land, and in total those who had any property: land, house, dacha (including those who did not have it personally, but only with their wife or parents) were counted only 29.5%.
The average earnings of people in intellectual professions were 1000 - 1100 rubles. per year, although some of their categories (for example, teachers primary school) received approximately the same as workers (250-300 rubles). Majority senior officials received 2-6 thousand rubles per year, generals - 7-8 thousand, senior officers - 2-4.5 thousand, junior officers - 0.7 - 1.5 thousand. The salary of ministers was 22 thousand, chiefs main departments - 12 thousand, department directors - 8 thousand, their deputies - 5 thousand, members of the State Council 18 thousand, senators - 8 thousand, heads of railways - 12-15 thousand, governors - 10 thousand, vice -governors - 4.5 thousand, directors of gymnasiums - 3-4 thousand, secondary schools - 5.2 thousand, university professors - 3 thousand, technical universities - up to 5 thousand and above. Zemstvo doctors received 1.2-1.5 thousand, engineers in the private sector 2-4 thousand, high school teachers - 0.9 - 2.5 thousand. Lawyers earned 2-10 thousand rubles. per year, journalists of the provincial press - 0.6 - 1.2 thousand, artists 0.5 - 2 thousand, actors - 0.6 - 1.8 thousand (the most famous representatives of these professions received 12 thousand or more) . These incomes allowed the majority of people in the educated class to lead a quite prosperous life, rent an apartment and keep servants. But if in earlier eras practically the entire educated stratum or its absolute majority was in one way or another connected with state structures or even concentrated directly in the administrative apparatus and the armed forces, now, with its explosive expansion at the beginning of the 20th century, most of this stratum inevitably found itself outside the state sphere and became a breeding ground for anti-government propaganda of revolutionary parties.
2. The Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century: political, economic situation; political parties.
3. The first Russian revolution of 1905-1907.
Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
At the turn of the first and second half of the 19th century. became the Crimean (Eastern) War of 1853-1856. Nicholas the First died in 1855. His successor was Alexander II, Tsar Liberator(1855-1881). Alexander II was the eldest son of the tsar, he was being prepared to take the throne. Under the leadership of V.A. Zhukovsky, he was brought up in the spirit of lofty spiritual and moral interests, received an excellent education, knew five languages, military affairs, and at the age of 26 became a “full general.” After completing his studies, he traveled around Russia and many European countries. He had a broad outlook, a sharp mind, refined manners, was charming and kind person. He was distinguished by liberal views. Nicholas the First introduced him to the State Council and the Committee of Ministers, and entrusted him with the leadership of the Secret Committees for Peasant Affairs. By the time he ascended the throne, he was well prepared for government activities. Alexander II initiated reforms that put Russia on the path of capitalism. The main reason for the reforms was a defeat in the Crimean War. The war showed the degree of backwardness of the Russian recruit army and sailing fleet, weapons from the mass armies of European countries, and a new type of ships and weapons. To overcome Russia's new, humiliating position on the world stage, it was necessary to overcome backwardness in the military and economic spheres, which was impossible without reforms. Other reasons were the growing protests of the peasants, the tsar’s sympathy for the peasants under the impression of Turgenev’s “Notes of a Hunter,” and the educational system developed for the prince by Zhukovsky.
The first and most significant was agrarian reform of 1861. Its preparation took about 6 years. In 1856, speaking to the Moscow nobility, the Tsar said: “It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it begins to abolish itself from below.” Since 1857, the development of a plan for the emancipation of serfs was carried out by a secret committee, the work was headed by the tsar himself. In response to the appeal of the Lithuanian nobles, Alexander II announced a rescript addressed to the Vilna Governor-General V.I. Nazimov, who allowed the creation of committees in 3 provinces to develop projects for the liberation of peasants. In 1858, the Main Committee on the Peasant Question was created under the leadership of the Minister of Internal Affairs S.S. Lansky and provincial committees. In 1859, Editorial Commissions were created to consider projects submitted by provincial committees. The publication and discussion of any proposed projects for the liberation of peasants was allowed. The reform was based on the plan of the historian public school K.D. Kavelina. In January 1861, the reform project was transferred by the Main Committee to the State Council and approved by the Tsar. February 19, 1861 Alexander II signed Manifesto on the liberation of peasants “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom”, which included documents on the procedure for implementing reform at the local level. Former privately owned peasants entered the class of free rural inhabitants and received civil and economic rights. Main directions of reform: liberation of serfs from personal dependence; providing them with land for ransom; the landowners retaining at least 1/3 of the land they owned before the reform; allotment land was transferred to the ownership of the peasant community; provision of loans by the state to peasants to complete a redemption operation. Only peasants were allocated land; other categories of serfs were freed without allotments. Allotment size was determined in the provinces of different regions from 3 to 12 acres; if a peasant agreed to an allotment equal to ¼ of the required norm, it was given to him free of charge. The landowner had the right to reduce the size below the minimum standard if, if he followed the standards, he would have less than 1/3 of the land that he owned before the reform. The redemption act was recorded in charter, concluded between the landowner and the peasant, it recorded the location of the plots included in the allotment, their sizes, price, types of payments, etc. Before the drafting of the charter, agreements were established between the peasant and the landowner temporarily obliged relationship. The landowner was obliged to provide the peasant with land for use, and the peasants were obliged to perform any work and pay quitrent, i.e. the connection between them did not stop. An institute was created to assist the parties in drawing up charter documents and resolving any controversial issues global mediators. The peasant immediately had to pay the landowner 20-25% of the cost of the allotment; the state provided the remaining 75-80% to the peasants in the form of a loan, which was given for 49 years, repaid by annual payments from the peasants with an accrual of 6% per annum. Peasants had to unite rural societies. They introduced self management: matters were decided at village meetings, decisions were carried out by village elders, elected for three years. Rural societies of one locality constituted a rural volost, its affairs were in charge of a meeting of village elders and special elected officials from rural communities. Redemption payments were paid annually by the entire rural community. A peasant who did not want to buy the land and remain in his previous place of residence could not abandon his plot and leave without the consent of society. Such consent was given with difficulty, because society was interested in purchasing as much land as possible. The reform progressed very slowly. When concluding redemption acts in the black earth and non-black earth provinces, sections of land from the peasants prevailed, and in the steppe provinces, cut-offs prevailed. After the death of Alexander II, his successor in December 1881. issues a Law on the termination of temporary relations between peasants and landowners and on the compulsory purchase of land plots. It came into force on January 1, 1884, by which time 11-15% of peasants retained temporary obligations. The law slightly reduced the amount of redemption payments (in Great Russia - by 1 ruble per shower allotment, in Ukraine - by 16%). The law came into force in 1884. 1882 was founded Peasant Land Bank, which provided loans to peasants secured by property at 6.5% per annum. When payments were late, the plots were sold at auction, which led to the ruin of many peasants. IN 1885 was formed Noble Land Bank to support landowners in conditions of capitalist development, loans were issued at 4.5% per annum. The effect of the agrarian reform of 1861 extended to the landowner peasants of 47 provinces of Russia. In relation to other categories of dependent peasantry, on appanage and state peasants a similar reform was carried out in 1863 and 1866 gg. For outlying areas– even later, on the basis of special “Provisions” and for more favorable conditions. In comparison with the central provinces, we found ourselves in the most favorable conditions Right Bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus and especially Poland. In Poland (1864), peasants received plots without ransom; they were even cut off from part of the landowner's land, taking it away from the gentry, who took part in the uprising of 1863-1864. The peasants were in the worst position Georgia, from whom more than 40% of the land was cut off. In the North Caucasus, peasants lost almost all their land and paid a significant sum for personal liberation. In Russia, agrarian reform was carried out mainly according to the Prussian version, which ensured the slow development of capitalism in agriculture. Despite its limited features, this reform had exceptional value. Personal dependence, the almost slavish position of millions of the country's population, has disappeared. A labor market has emerged. Capitalism began to develop actively.
Zemstvo reform was carried out according to the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” of January 1, 1864. In a number of provinces of Russia, district and provincial Zemstvos – public bodies of local self-government. The main reason for their creation was the need to improve the life of the post-reform village in conditions where the small administrative staff on the ground was unable to cope with the problems on their own. The government handed over “less significant” matters to public local governments. Initially, zemstvos were created in 7 provinces, then their number constantly increased, until the liquidation of these bodies by the Soviet government. Competence of zemstvos: insurance of farms, creation of reserves of food and seeds, ensuring fire safety, creation of a health care and primary system, provision of veterinary care, combating epidemics, agronomic assistance, taking care of the condition of communications, building roads, bridges, taking care of the work of the post office, telegraph, economic support for prisons and charitable institutions, assistance in the development of local industry and trade. For their activities, zemstvos were allowed to impose taxes and duties on the population of counties, create zemstvo capital, and acquire property. Zemstvos had executive and administrative bodies. Administrative bodies – district and provincial zemstvo assemblies, as a rule, they were headed by provincial and district leaders of the nobility. Executive bodies – county (chairman and 2 members of the council) and provincial (chairman and 6-12 members of the council) zemstvo councils, their chairmen were elected. The chairman of the provincial zemstvo council was approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs, the district council - by the governor. The bourgeois content of the zemstvo reform was that representatives of zemstvos were elected by the population for a period of 3 years. Voters were divided into 3 curiae(groups) according to property qualifications. The 1st curia consisted of large landowners who had at least 200 acres and owners of large commercial and industrial enterprises and real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles. The large and partly middle bourgeoisie were represented among urban voters. The 3rd curia was represented by peasant societies; only landowners who had at least 10 acres of land or corresponding income from other property participated in their meetings for elections to zemstvos. For the 1st and 2nd curia the elections were direct, for the 3rd they were step-by-step: electors were elected at village assemblies, who at volost assemblies elected electors who elected councilors. Elections to the provincial zemstvo assembly took place at the district zemstvo assembly. The number of members to be elected was distributed in such a way as to ensure the predominance of representatives from landowners. The weak position of zemstvos manifested itself in the absence of an all-Russian central body coordinating their activities, they had a limited budget, did not have the right to publish reports of their meetings without permission, and were prohibited from engaging in political activities. In addition, after the zemstvo counter-reform of 1890, they were placed under the petty control of the local administration and were forced to annually report to the provincial authorities on expenses and justify the requested budget for the next year. Despite all the prohibitions, zemstvos began to organize congresses of their representatives, where they exchanged, published statements, and constantly communicating with peasants, taking care of the needs of the poor, representatives of zemstvos became imbued with sympathy for them, and at the beginning of the 20th century a new socio-political movement appeared - zemstvo liberalism. Meaning the activities of these bodies exceeded the expected results. They not only conscientiously performed the functions assigned to them, but also went beyond them, for example, they established schools for training teachers for zemstvo schools, sent promising peasant children to study at universities, created an ever-growing staff of zemstvo agronomists, experimental fields, and exhibitions of equipment. and etc.
Urban reform By " City regulations June 16, 1870." provided for the creation in cities all-class self-government bodies, whose representatives were elected from the population paying taxes and performing duties. To participate in elections, the urban population was divided into 3 curias based on property: large, medium and small owners. Each curia elected 1/3 of the city councilors Duma- administrative body. Their term of office is 4 years. Compound city government(permanent executive body) elected public councils from among themselves. They elected city head, who headed the council, his candidacy was approved by the governor or the Minister of Internal Affairs. The competence of city self-government bodies, operating principles, reporting, etc. were similar to zemstvo ones. Their activities were controlled by the “gubernatorial presence for city affairs,” chaired by the governor.
Judicial reform 1864 was the most consistent of the liberal-bourgeois reforms of the 19th century. The decree on it and the “New Judicial Charters” were approved by the tsar on November 20, 1864. The need to rebuild the judicial system was caused, first of all, by the abolition of serfdom and the liquidation of the feudal court. Principles new judicial system: lack of class, openness, competitiveness of the trial, introduction of the institution of jurors, independence and irremovability of judges. The whole country was divided into judicial districts and magistrates, their boundaries did not coincide with administrative ones in order to avoid pressure on judges from the administration. Tried minor civil and criminal cases magistrate's Court, cassation cases were considered by the congress of magistrates. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies and city dumas according to lists approved by the governor, and were finally approved by the Senate. A judge could not be dismissed or re-elected unless he committed a crime; however, it was possible to transfer him to another district. The main structural unit of the new judicial system was district Court with criminal and civil branches. Cases were considered by judges: the chairman and members of the court appointed by the government. On the most important matters in composition of the court included the chairman, members of the court and jurors drawn by lot from trustworthy citizens of the district. The hearing of the case took place in the presence of the accused (defendant) and the victim (plaintiff), his defense lawyer, prosecutor-prosecutor. The prosecutor and lawyer conduct a judicial investigation, on the basis of which the jury reaches a verdict (after a secret deliberation) on the guilt or innocence of the defendant, on the basis of which the court makes a verdict, imposing a penalty or releasing the defendant. Civil trials were held without a jury. Cassation cases were considered by the judicial chamber (9-12 district judges), the highest court was the Senate and its local departments. The lack of validity of the court was initially violated the existence of special systems of courts for a number of categories of the population. For peasants there was a special volost court; special court - consistory– for the clergy; dealt with the affairs of senior officials directly Senate; there were several ships for the military ( tribunal, court-martial, regimental court); for political processes were introduced military courts, special presences under the Senate and administrative punitive measures (without trial).
Before judicial reform, in 1863., were corporal punishment abolished for non-privileged classes, with the exception of peasants (rods were retained according to the verdicts of the volost courts), exiles, convicts and penal soldiers (rozgi).
Military reforms were actively carried out in 1862-1884, they were started by Minister of War D.A. Milyutin. The structure of the War Ministry was simplified, departments were enlarged. The country was divided into military districts, headed by district commanders, responsible for all matters (supply, manning, training, etc.), the military units of the district were subordinate to him. Since 1863, some soldiers have been discharged on indefinite leave, without waiting for the end of their 25-year service life; they have formed a reserve. IN 1874. was accepted new military regulations, was introduced universal conscription, conscription was abolished. Men of all classes who reached the age of 20-21 were required to undergo 6 years of active service in the ground forces and 7 years in the navy, then were transferred to the reserve for 9 years and 3 years, respectively. Given the large population of Russia, they were called up for service by lot, the rest formed the militia and underwent military training. Exempted from compulsory service the only breadwinners in the family, educated people, doctors, school and gymnasium teachers, artists of the imperial theaters, railway workers, confessors, as well as “foreigners” as unreliable. The conscription of persons who started commercial activities. For officer training a network of new educational institutions was introduced. The cadet corps, except for the Page, Finland and Orenburg, were closed, and instead they were created military schools(6 schools with 3-year training), their graduates received the rank of second lieutenant. The contingent for the schools was prepared military gymnasiums(18 gymnasiums with a 7-year term of study) and pro-gymnasium(8 with 4-year training). In 1882 they were all again converted into cadet corps, but on the basis of combining the programs of gymnasiums and military schools. To obtain higher military education, were created military academies and naval school. The academy accepted persons who graduated from a military school and served in the army for at least 5 years. In 1884 they were created cadet schools with a 2-year training, soldiers who showed ability to serve and completed their period of active service were accepted; graduates were not awarded an officer rank; they received it at their place of service when there was a vacancy. In the infantry, noble officers made up 46-83%, in the navy - 73%. The army was rearmed. As a result of the reforms, the army became more professionally trained, had a large reserve, and the leadership system became more effective.
Were held reforms in education and censorship. According to the “Regulations” of 1864, the initial public schools public organizations and individuals could open (with the permission of government bodies), the management of education (programs, etc.) was carried out by officials, school councils and boards of directors and inspectors of schools; The educational process was strictly regulated (instructions, etc.). Children of all classes, ranks and religions had the right to study. But the gymnasiums had high tuition fees. Classical gymnasiums with a 7-year term of study (since 1871 - with an 8-year term) they prepared students for entry into universities mainly for the training of officials. Real gymnasiums(later - real schools) with a 6-year course were designed to train personnel for industry and trade; their graduates were given access to higher technical educational institutions; they were not admitted to universities. The division of secondary schools into two types was aimed at teaching children of nobles and officials in classical schools, and children of the bourgeoisie in real schools. Introduction female gymnasiums laid the foundation for female secondary education. Women were not allowed into universities. In the field higher education significant changes have occurred. In the 1860s-1870s. Universities were opened in Odessa, Warsaw, Helsingfors (Finland), the Petrovsky Agricultural Academy in Moscow, the Polytechnic Institute in Riga, the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry in Alexandria (Ukraine), and higher courses for women in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan and Kyiv. IN 1863. a new one was introduced University Charter, restoring their autonomy. The immediate management of the university was entrusted to a council of professors, which elected the rector, deans and new teaching staff. But the activities of universities were supervised by the Minister of Education and the trustees of the educational district. Student organizations were not permitted. IN 1865. were introduced "Temporary rules on the press", which abolished preliminary censorship for periodicals and small books published in capital cities.
Members of revolutionary organizations made several attempts on the life of the Tsar-Liberator. After a bomb exploded in the Winter Palace, Alexander II created a Supreme Administrative Commission to lead the country, headed by Count M.T. Loris-Melikov, appointed Minister of Internal Affairs. This got the name “dictatorship of Loris-Melikov”, “dictatorship of the heart”. Loris-Melikov actively fought terrorism, abolished the Third Department, which had shown its inconsistency, and created in its place the Police Department, which was part of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Conservative ministers were removed from the government, supporters of reforms took their place, and at the same time a conservative, apologist for autocracy, K.P. Pobedonostsev, became the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod. Censorship was weakened, the tsar instructed Loris-Melikov to develop a reform program for the coming years. Projects have been prepared (Constitution of Loris-Melikov), but were not implemented. March 1, 1881 Alexander II was killed Narodnaya Volya.
He took the throne Alexander III, Tsar-Peacemaker(1845-1894, emperor since 1881). He was not prepared for kingship; he took the throne due to the death of his older brother. He received an education corresponding to the position of the Grand Duke, was a diligent student and pupil, was not stupid, but did not have mental acuity, and loved military affairs more than other subjects. Rough, rustic and unpretentious in Everyday life, he ruled as if “performing the duties of a king” with his characteristic conscientiousness. During his reign, Russia did not participate in wars. The Tsar believed that the country should deal with internal problems. By conviction, he was a conservative, a supporter of the “inviolability of autocracy,” as stated in the Manifesto of April 29, 1881, developed by Pobedonostsev. He rejected the petition for pardon of the March 1st soldiers. The reign of Alexander the Third marks transition to reaction and counter-reforms, aimed at partially rolling back the liberal reforms of its predecessor. After the Tsar’s Manifesto, all ministers who supported reforms resigned, and Pobedonostsev selected candidates for their places.
Started earlier than others judicial counter-reform. In August 1881 was published " Regulations on measures to protect state order and public peace“: governors were given the right to declare provinces “in a state of enhanced and emergency protection”, to transfer them to a military court “for state crimes or attacks on military officials, police and all officials in general”, to demand a closed trial. This provision, introduced for 3 years, was in effect until 1917. 1887 was published law restricting public hearings in court. The court was given the right to close doors to the public, which created opportunities for arbitrariness. For the same purpose, a number of changes were made to the provisions of the judicial reform. Since July 1889 law on zemstvo chiefs The magistrate's court was abolished, its functions were transferred to new judicial and administrative officials - district zemstvo chiefs. They had the right to suspend decisions of the volost court, appoint volost judges, impose fines and make administrative arrests. Supervision over the implementation of their decisions was carried out by provincial presences headed by the governor. Influenced by the workers' struggle the registration of all-Russian labor legislation has begun. In 1885, a law was passed banning night work for women and teenagers. In 1886, there was a law on the procedure for hiring and dismissal, on the regulation of fines and payment of wages, and the institution of factory inspectors was introduced to monitor its compliance. In 1887 - a law limiting the length of the working day in hazardous and physically difficult work.
Counter-reforms were also carried out in the region education and press. In 1882, the St. Petersburg Higher Women's Medical Courses were closed, and admission to other higher women's courses was stopped. " Temporary rules on press”, according to which newspapers that received “warnings” had to undergo preliminary censorship on the eve of release; a meeting of the ministers of education, internal affairs, justice and the Holy Synod was given the right to close the periodical and ban works that are not loyal to the authorities. The activities of the people were constrained reading room and libraries. Since 1888, a special department of the committee under the Ministry of Education revised the catalog of books in reading rooms; permission from the Ministry of Internal Affairs was required to open them, and managers were appointed with the consent of the governor. In the field of education, a policy was pursued to curtail the autonomy of educational institutions, narrow the access of the lower classes to education, and strengthen the influence of the church. The network of parochial schools was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Synod, short-term literacy schools were transferred to the jurisdiction of diocesan schools; In the schools of the Ministry of Public Education, the teaching of the “law of God” expanded. IN 1887. was published circular(nicknamed " law on cooks' children"), who proposed to admit into gymnasiums and pre-gymnasiums only the children of well-intentioned citizens who could create “the convenience they need for educational knowledge.” This reduced access to them for the children of “coachmen, footmen... and the like”, except for the especially gifted. Tuition fees were increased for the same purpose. IN 1884. a new one was published university charter. Each university was headed by a trustee and a rector appointed by the Minister of Public Education with broad administrative powers, and the rights of academic boards, councils and faculty meetings were narrowed. Professors were appointed by the minister, deans were appointed by the trustee of the educational district, who approved plans and programs, supervised the entire life of the university, could approve journals of council meetings, assign benefits, etc. The assistant to the rector in organizing supervision of students was the inspector. The position of students was regulated by rules. A certificate of conduct from the police was required for the applicant. Student meetings and speeches were prohibited, and uniforms were introduced. Tuition fees increased. The charter caused protests among students and professors. The answer is dismissal and expulsion. All measures were directed against access to higher education for people from raznochinsky backgrounds.
Government limited zemstvo and city self-government. Since 1889, peace mediators, their district congresses, and district presences on peasant affairs were replaced by district zemstvo chiefs, appointed from among the nobles and performing both judicial and administrative functions. They had the right to suspend decisions of the village assembly. IN 1890 d. adoption of a new " Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" the zemstvo counter-reform was carried out. The dependence of zemstvos on the administration increased; not a single resolution of the zemstvo assembly could come into force without its approval by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. The system for electing vowels has changed. Those elected from the volost were only candidates for vowels; from their list, the governor selected and appointed vowels to the zemstvo, taking into account the recommendations of the zemstvo chief. The number of vowels from peasants was reduced, from nobles it was increased while the total number of vowels was reduced. " City Regulations" 1892 provided voting rights mainly to owners of real estate, increased the property qualification, which significantly reduced the number of voters.
IN economics The government pursued a policy of supporting and developing domestic industry, trade, stabilizing the financial system and developing the capitalist sector in the countryside in the form of noble landownership. IN 1882 In 2009, the poll tax on landless peasants was abolished and the tax on former serfs was reduced by 10%. This law came into force in 1884. Finally the poll tax was abolished in 1885 g., it was replaced by other taxes. Creation of the Peasant Land (1882) and the Noble Land (1885) banks provided loans to land owners. Farm Labor Employment Law(1886) obliged peasants to sign a contract to work for landowners and established penalties for unauthorized departure from the employer. He contributed to the stabilization of the hired labor market in the village. In the context of growing “land hunger” in order to ease tension in the countryside in 1886 and 1893 gg. are published laws making it difficult to divide land allotment land (the consent of the senior family member and the peasant assembly is required) and redistribution of communal land (no more than once every 12 years); early redemption of plots is permitted with the consent of at least two-thirds of the village assembly; the sale of plots to persons who do not belong to the given rural community is prohibited. IN 1899 laws are made abolishing mutual responsibility communal peasants when collecting payments. The Minister of Finance took an active part in their development S.Yu.Witte, it was he who at the end of the 19th century. provided leadership economic policy, and from the beginning of the twentieth century. - all areas of government activity. S.Yu. Witte was a nobleman by birth and graduated from Novorossiysk University. He made a brilliant career in public service. He worked his way up from an employee in the office of the Odessa governor, a minor employee of the promising railway industry, to the Minister of Railways (from 1882), Minister of Finance (from 1882), Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers (from 1903) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (1905- 1906). He was distinguished by a sharp mind, independence of judgment, lack of servility and scrupulousness, and not refined manners. A monarchist by conviction, he considered Alexander the Third to be his ideal statesman, who in turn valued him highly. He proved himself as a skilled diplomat during the conclusion of the Portsmouth Peace, as a pillar of autocracy during the development of the Tsar's Manifesto on October 17, 1905. Even his enemies could not help but admit that everything he did contributed to the strengthening of Great Russia. Economic platform S.Yu.Witte: reduce the distance between Russia and developed European countries by attracting foreign capital, accumulating domestic resources, customs protection of domestically produced goods; take a strong position in the markets of the East; creation of a strong middle layer of good taxpayers in the person of peasant owners. The expansion of the railway network was considered a “cure for poverty.” S.Yu. Witte understood that Russia would not be able to catch up with advanced industrial countries in a short time, therefore, it was necessary to benefit from the existing potential. He is taking an active and quickly paying off construction of state railway lines in the European part of Russia, the Trans-Siberian Railway (1891-1905) for transporting goods from the Pacific Ocean and carrying out intermediary trade, the Chinese Eastern Railway (1897-1903). IN 1887-1894 gg. in Russia, customs duties on the import of iron, cast iron, and coal were increased; for manufactured goods they reached 30%. This was called " customs war" Germany increased grain duties, which was contrary to the interests of Russian exporters, in whose interests the changes were made domestic railway tariffs. On the western lines they were lowered, which made removal easier; in the southern and eastern regions they increased in order to prevent the import of cheap bread from the Volga region and the North Caucasus into the center. IN 1894 Mr. Witte concluded a mutually beneficial customs agreement with Germany. IN 1894-1895 he achieved ruble stabilization, and in 1897 introduced gold currency circulation, which increased the internal and external exchange rates of the ruble, ensured an influx of foreign capital, caused an increase in the price of export grain and discontent among exporters. Witte was a supporter of unlimited attracting foreign capital to industry, spread of foreign concessions, because The state did not have enough funds of its own, and landowners were reluctant to invest them in entrepreneurship. Active factory construction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. called " industrialization Witte" To replenish the treasury, he introduced state wine monopoly, which provided up to ¼ of budget revenues. Witte began work on agrarian question , achieved the elimination of mutual responsibility in the community, developed a reform to introduce private ownership of land by peasants, but did not have time to implement it, obviously considering it not a priority. IN 1897. was held for the first time in Russia general population census, its number was 125.6 million people. Largely as a result of the activities of S.Yu. Witte 1890s became a period of economic recovery in Russia: a record number of railway lines were built, the ruble was stabilized, industry was growing, Russia came out on top in the world in oil production, and in first place in Europe in the export of bread, which became its main article.
The situation in Russia in the second half of the 19th century remained extremely difficult: it stood on the edge of an abyss. The economy and finances were undermined by the Crimean War, and the national economy, shackled by the chains of serfdom, could not develop.
Legacy of Nicholas I
The years of the reign of Nicholas I are considered the most troubled since the Time of Troubles. An ardent opponent of any reforms and the introduction of a constitution in the country, the Russian emperor relied on an extensive bureaucratic bureaucracy. The ideology of Nicholas I was based on the thesis “the people and the tsar are one.” The result of the reign of Nicholas I was the economic backwardness of Russia from European countries, widespread illiteracy of the population and the arbitrariness of local authorities in all spheres of public life.
It was urgent to solve the following problems:
- In foreign policy, restore Russia's international prestige. Overcome the country's diplomatic isolation.
- In domestic policy, create all conditions for stabilizing domestic economic growth. Solve the pressing peasant issue. To overcome the gap with Western countries in the industrial sector through the introduction of new technologies.
- When solving internal problems, the government unwittingly had to collide with the interests of the nobility. Therefore, the mood of this class also had to be taken into account.
After the reign of Nicholas I, Russia needed a breath of fresh air; the country needed reforms. The new Emperor Alexander II understood this.
Russia during the reign of Alexander II
The beginning of the reign of Alexander II was marked by unrest in Poland. In 1863, the Poles rebelled. Despite the protest of the Western powers, the Russian emperor brought an army into Poland and suppressed the rebellion.
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The manifesto on the abolition of serfdom on February 19, 1861 immortalized the name of Alexander. The law equalized all classes of citizens before the law and now all segments of the population bore the same state duties.
- After a partial solution to the peasant question, local government reforms were carried out. In 1864, the Zemstvo reform was carried out. This transformation made it possible to reduce the pressure of the bureaucracy on local authorities and made it possible to solve most economic problems locally.
- In 1863, judicial reforms were carried out. The court became an independent body of power and was appointed by the Senate and the king for life.
- Under Alexander II, many were discovered educational institutions, Sunday schools were built for workers, and secondary schools appeared.
- The transformations also affected the army: the sovereign changed the 25 years of military service from 25 to 15 years. Corporal punishment was abolished in the army and navy.
- During the reign of Alexander II, Russia achieved significant success in foreign policy. The Western and Eastern Caucasus and part of Central Asia were annexed. Defeating Turkey in Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878, the Russian Empire restored the Black Sea fleet and captured the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits in the Black Sea.
Under Alexander II, industrial development intensified, bankers sought to invest money in metallurgy and in the construction of railways. At the same time, there was a certain decline in agriculture, as the liberated peasants were forced to rent land from their former owners. As a result, most of the peasants went bankrupt and went to the city to earn money along with their families.
Rice. 1. Russian Emperor Alexander II.
Social movements in the second half of the 19th century
The transformations of Alexander II contributed to the awakening of revolutionary and liberal forces in Russian society. The social movement of the second half of the 19th century is divided into three main currents :
- Conservative trend. The founder of this ideology was Katkov, later joined by D. A. Tolstoy and K. P. Pobedonostsev. Conservatives believed that Russia could develop only according to three criteria: autocracy, nationality and Orthodoxy.
- Liberal trend. The founder of this movement was the prominent historian B. N. Chicherin, later he was joined by K. D. Kavelin and S. A. Muromtsev. Liberals advocated for a constitutional monarchy, individual rights and the independence of the church from the state.
- Revolutionary movement. The ideologists of this movement were initially A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky and V.G. Belinsky. Later N.A. Dobrolyubov joined them. Under Alexander II, thinkers published the magazines Kolokol and Sovremennik. The views of the theoretical writers were based on a complete rejection of capitalism and autocracy as historical systems. They believed that prosperity for everyone would come only under socialism, and socialism would come immediately bypassing the stage of capitalism and the peasantry would help it in this.
One of the founders of the revolutionary movement was M.A. Bakunin, who preached socialist anarchy. He believed that civilized states should be destroyed in order to build a new world Federation of communities in their place. The end of the 19th century brought the organization of secret revolutionary circles, the largest of which were “Land and Freedom”, “Velikoross”, “People’s Retribution”, “Ruble Society”, etc. The introduction of revolutionaries into the peasant environment was advocated for the purpose of agitating them.
The peasants did not react in any way to the calls of the commoners to overthrow the government. This led to a split of revolutionaries into two camps: practitioners and theorists. Practitioners staged terrorist attacks and killed prominent government officials. The organization “Land and Freedom”, later renamed “People’s Will”, passed a death sentence on Alexander II. The sentence was carried out on March 1, 1881 after several unsuccessful attempts. The terrorist Grinevitsky threw a bomb at the Tsar's feet.
Russia during the reign of Alexander III
Alexander III inherited a state deeply shaken by a series of murders of prominent politicians and police officials. The new tsar immediately began to crush the revolutionary circles, and their main leaders, Tkachev, Perovskaya and Alexander Ulyanov, were executed.
- Russia, instead of the constitution almost prepared by Alexander II, under the rule of his son, Alexander III, received a state with a police regime. The new emperor began a systematic offensive against his father's reforms.
- Since 1884, student circles were banned in the country, since the government saw the main danger of free thought in the student environment.
- The rights of local self-government were revised. The peasants again lost their voice when choosing local deputies. The rich merchants sat in the city duma, and the local nobility sat in the zemstvos.
- Judicial reform has also undergone changes. The court has become more closed, judges are more dependent on the authorities.
- Alexander III began to instill Great Russian chauvinism. The emperor’s favorite thesis was proclaimed: “Russia for Russians.” By 1891, with the connivance of the authorities, pogroms of Jews began.
Alexander III dreamed of the revival of the absolute monarchy and the advent of the era of reaction. The reign of this king proceeded without wars or international complications. This allowed foreign and domestic trade to develop rapidly, cities grew, factories were built. At the end of the 19th century, the length of roads in Russia increased. The construction of the Siberian Railway began to connect the central regions of the state with the Pacific coast.
Rice. 2. Construction of the Siberian Railway in the second half of the 19th century.
Cultural development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century
The transformations that began in the era of Alexander II could not but affect various spheres of Russian culture in the second 19th century.
- Literature . New views on the life of the Russian population have become widespread in the literature. The society of writers, playwrights and poets was divided into two movements - the so-called Slavophiles and Westerners. A. S. Khomyakov and K. S. Aksakov considered themselves Slavophiles. Slavophiles believed that Russia had its own special path and there was and never will be any Western influence on Russian culture. Westerners, to whom P. Ya. Chaadaev, I. S. Turgenev, and historian S. M. Solovyov considered themselves, argued that Russia, on the contrary, should follow the Western path of development. Despite differences in views, both Westerners and Slavophiles were equally concerned further fate Russian people and government system countries. The end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries saw the heyday of Russian literature. Their best works write F. M. Dostoevsky, I. A. Goncharov, A. P. Chekhov and L. N. Tolstoy.
- Architecture . In architecture in the second half of the 19th century, ecleticism-mixing began to prevail various styles and directions. This affected the construction of new train stations, shopping centers, apartment buildings, etc. The design of certain forms in the architecture of a more classical genre has also developed. famous architect This direction was A.I. Stackenschneider, with the help of whom the Mariinsky Palace in St. Petersburg was designed. From 1818 to 1858, St. Isaac's Cathedral was built in St. Petersburg. This project was designed by Auguste Montferand.
Rice. 3. St. Isaac's Cathedral. St. Petersburg.
- Painting . Artists, inspired by new trends, did not want to work under the close tutelage of the Academy, which was stuck in classicism and was divorced from the real vision of art. Thus, the artist V. G. Perov focused his attention on various aspects of the life of society, sharply criticizing the remnants of the serfdom. The 60s saw the heyday of the work of the portrait painter Kramskoy; V. A. Tropinin left us a lifetime portrait of A. S. Pushkin. The works of P. A. Fedotov did not fit into the narrow framework of academicism. His works “Matchmaking of a Major” or “Breakfast of an Aristocrat” ridiculed the stupid complacency of officials and the remnants of serfdom.
In 1852, the Hermitage opened in St. Petersburg, where the best works of painters from all over the world were collected.
What have we learned?
From the briefly described article you can learn about the transformations of Alexander II, the emergence of the first revolutionary circles, the counter-reforms of Alexander III, as well as the flourishing of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century.
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Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
The Basmachi are members of armed gangs that were active in Central Asia in the first third of the 20th century.
Until 1917, the Basmachi were simple robbers who formed large gangs to carry out raids (which is confirmed by the linguistic roots of the word “Basmach”, which in Turkic means “to fly” or “raider”), but over time they began to be positioned as fighters against the colonial policy of tsarism in Central Asia and defenders of poor dekhkans, that is, Central Asian peasants. The anti-Russian orientation of the Basmachi movement was due to the fact that, in fact, the only obstacle to their criminal lawlessness was the Russian administration, along with the police and army.
This is where the roots of the nationalistic character of the formations of the desert robbers come, which had a more mercenary origin and was unlikely to be strongly connected with the increased national consciousness of the desert robbers. The events of February and October 1917 significantly changed the situation in the Central Asian region: against the backdrop of general destabilization, the beks and bai (local feudal lords), together with the Muslim clergy, launched a struggle against the power of the Bolsheviks, which immediately took armed forms, the beks and mullahs used as their main force namely gangs of Basmachi.
It is worth noting that the number of members of Basmachi gangs increased significantly in the post-revolutionary period; Central Asian feudal lords took the lead, and the Muslim clergy actively provided moral support to their formations, calling for a fight against infidels, i.e. infidels. The difficult socio-economic living conditions of the common people of Central Asia pushed farmers into becoming Basmachi. The largest Basmachi gangs could number over 5 thousand horsemen, many of them received both financial and advisory assistance from the British army and intelligence. There were also major operations by united gangs of Basmachi, carried out by tens of thousands of sabers with machine guns and artillery.
The large-scale involvement of regular Red Army units and active explanatory work with the local population allowed the Soviet authorities to liquidate most of the Basmachi gangs and push their remnants beyond the borders Soviet Union. Moreover, even before the mid-1930s. the undead Basmachi will unite into small gangs and, egged on by the British, organize provocations on the Soviet-Afghan border.
Bolshevism - name political doctrine and the movement that appeared in 1903 as a result of the application of Marxist ideas to Russian realities of a socio-political and economic nature.
The origin of the term is associated with the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, held in 1903. At this congress, the Social Democratic Party split into two parts during a dispute about the nature of membership in the party, the basis of its internal organization and the choice of revolution or evolution in as a means of achieving a given political goal.
One group, formed around V.I. Lenin (Ulyanov), advocated the creation of a political party, which should be built on the principle of democratic centralism, with active and fixed membership, as well as for revolutionary reconstruction Russian society on the principles of socialism. The second formed group was headed by Yu. O. Martov (Tsederbaum) and some other major party figures; its representatives defended the idea of transforming a social democratic party with a less strict format of membership and internal organization and considered only the evolutionary path of coming from a capitalist to a socialist society acceptable.
In the elections to the party’s governing bodies that followed at the same congress, representatives of Yu. O. Martov’s group took fewer seats than like-minded people of V. I. Lenin, the latter, in connection with these results, began to be called Bolsheviks. Ideological theoretical basis Bolshevism was made up of Marxism and subsequently Leninism, that is, the ideas put forward by V.I. Lenin.
The provisions of the teachings of K. Marx and F. Engels, which were developed for realities Western Europe with its developed industrial industry and a large proletariat, the political-economic concept of Bolshevism was transformed by Lenin and some other party theorists in accordance with the domestic political-economic reality, which was characterized by the presence of numerous feudal remnants and the predominantly agrarian nature of the economy and society. Bolshevism as a current of Russian political thought developed inextricably with political practice of the Bolshevik Party and taking into account the rich experience of the world revolutionary movement and the populist organizations that previously existed in the Russian Empire.
An important feature of Bolshevism was that if Marxism was created during the period of developed capitalism, then it had to fight imperialism, which had suddenly established itself in Russia. It was the Bolsheviks who created the so-called party of a new type, different from the political parties of the working class of the Second International.
From the moment of its formation, a party of the Bolshevik type takes into account the fact that it is being created to organize and lead a social revolution, which will culminate in the mandatory establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat as an integral stage on the path to building a socialist society. According to the Bolshevik leaders, their party had to take on the role of the vanguard of the working class in Russia and direct all the power of the domestic proletariat against tsarism, to accomplish the socialist revolution. In this regard, Lenin, having carefully analyzed the goals and objectives of the party, the set of possible methods and conditions of activity, persistently proposed building internal party governance based on the principle of democratic centralism, with strict regulation of issues of party membership, an integral condition of which, in Lenin’s opinion, is active participation in the activities of party organizations at various levels. Thus, the Bolsheviks, who saw their main goal as the accomplishment of a socialist revolution and coming to power in the country, managed to form a party of professional revolutionaries, which proved its political effectiveness during the events of 1917.
The Bolsheviks in no way wanted to make a sincere compromise with any other political movements and trends. They were characterized by the denial of the ideas of liberal populists, rejection of the provisions of “legal Marxism” and “economism”, the ideology of the Mensheviks, who represented the right wing of Russian social democracy, anarchists, Socialist Revolutionaries, and even more so the capitalist-oriented Octobrists, Cadets and various political parties of the bourgeois-nationalist character.
The Bolsheviks always took the position of pronounced internationalism in the sphere of relations with the proletariat of foreign countries, which was inextricably linked with the idea of world revolution, the elimination of capitalism and the socialist reorganization of the whole world inherent in Bolshevism in the initial period of its development.
For the victory of the socialist revolution, representatives of the Bolshevik Party were ready to do a lot, for example, during the First World War of 1914-1918. their party became the only political force in the country that put forward the slogan of the defeat of its government and the subsequent escalation of the imperialist war into revolution and civil war on Russian territory.
The Bolsheviks were active participants in the First Russian bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1905-1907, the bourgeois-democratic revolution of February 1917, and became the leading political force in the October Socialist Revolution of 1917, which they initiated. In order to gain power in the country and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat, the Bolshevik Party accumulated the negative energy of many layers of Russian society against the Provisional Government, namely: the working class, the peasantry, which demanded land, and ethnic communities, which demanded freedom of national self-determination.
October 1917 was marked by the victory of the socialist revolution and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat in part of the country, from that moment they began to build a socialist society in Russia. Thus, the first program of the Bolshevik Party, adopted in 1903, could be considered completed.
Subsequently, Bolshevik views on the socialist reconstruction of society were implemented within the framework of the policy of war communism, carried out by the Soviet state in 1919-1921, and after its failure, replaced by the New Economic Policy (NEP).
The Bolshevik Party became the recognized leader of the revolutionary organization of the working class around the world, which was determined by its desire to carry out a world revolution. Over time, the leaders of the Bolshevik Party would abandon the idea of a world revolution, replacing it with a statement about the possibility of building socialism in one particular country, numerous prerequisites for this were described by Lenin in his last works.
Since the late 1920s. and until 1956, the theoretical basis of Bolshevism, along with the works of Marx, Engels and Lenin, included the works of I.V. Stalin. Bolshevism acquired its organizational form in 1903, after the 2nd Congress of the RSDLP, when the RSDLP (b) was actually created - the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks), although this was officially consolidated only during the 7th Party Conference , which took place in April 1917. March 1918 was marked for the RSDLP (b) by renaming the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) - RCP (b).
In December 1925, the party changed its name again, becoming the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), or VKP(b). At the 19th Congress in 1952, the CPSU (b) was replaced by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), ideologically and theoretically based on communist ideology, which was later supplemented by the ideology of developed socialism and became the legal successor of the Bolshevik Party.
Bund is the name of a political party of petty-bourgeois nationalist orientation, created by representatives of the Jewish population of the western territories of the Russian Empire.
It is worth noting that in translation from Yiddish, Bund means “union”; the full name of the political organization in question is the General Jewish Labor Union in Lithuania, Poland and Russia. The social composition is predominantly craftsmen of Jewish origin.
The founding congress of the Bund took place in September 1897 in Vilna, where representatives of the majority of Jewish Social Democratic groups gathered. In the period from 1897 to 1901, the Bund adhered to social democratic ideas and even had the status autonomous organization as part of the Russian Social Democratic Party, which acquired at its first congress in March 1898.
Subsequently, having become quite zealous in their fight against state discrimination against the Jewish population, the Bundists began to increasingly express nationalist ideas, which alienated them from the RSDLP.
The central printed organs of the Bund include the newspaper “Yidisher Arberter” (“Jewish Worker”), which was published in Geneva by the foreign committee of the Bund, and “Arberter Shtime” (“Voice of the Worker”), illegally published on the territory of the Russian Empire. Due to ideological and organizational differences, the Bundists left the RSDLP, but in 1906, at the 4th Party Congress, they again found themselves in the ranks of the Social Democrats.
During the First World War 1914-1918. the Bundists were characterized by social-chauvinist ideas, and when the February Revolution 1917, they took a position of loyalty to the policies of the Provisional Government and condemnation of the desire to carry out a socialist revolution.
When the October Revolution of 1917 took place, the Bundists first demanded the creation of a government of a coalition nature, and then, after their 8th Congress, they took openly anti-Soviet positions. Many Bund figures left the country during the Civil War in Russia; in exile, most of the Bundists rethought their attitude towards Soviet power (due to the hopelessness of their situation) and at the 13th Bund conference, held in Minsk in March 1921, declared their entry into the Russian Communist Party of the Bolsheviks on a general basis. Thus, the Bund ceased to exist as an independent political organization in 1921.
The State Duma is the name of the highest legislative body first of the Russian Empire and then of the Russian Federation, operating from 1906 to 1917 and from 1994 to the present. The creation of the State Duma with legislative powers was preceded by the emergence of the so-called Bulygin Duma (named after the Minister of Internal Affairs A.G. Bulygin, who developed the project for its creation) with legislative advisory powers.
Both of the above bodies were the fruit of the First Russian bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1905-1907. The Emperor and his entourage, in order to calm the situation in the country, went to the creation of the Bulygin Duma, but under pressure from the revolutionary movement, which reached its apogee during the All-Russian political strike of October 1905, they were forced to issue the famous Manifesto on October 17, 1905, which not only granted basic civil rights and freedoms, but also contained a promise to establish a State Duma with legislative powers.
It is worth noting that it was decided to use the word “Duma” for the name of the country’s highest legislative body, which emphasized the connection with Russia’s past and the continuity of the political system (remember the legislative advisory Boyar Duma under the Russian Tsars). In order to realize the promise given to the people, Tsar Nicholas II signed the law on elections to the State Duma, issued on December 11, 1905. This legal act established the curial election system, which was also characteristic of the Bulygin Duma, with some, but quite significant, changes.
In particular, the composition of the city curia of voters was expanded, and a workers' curia was added to the previously existing city, landowner and peasant curia. The elections established by this law can be characterized as non-universal, unequal and indirect.
They were not universal, since people under the age of 25, women, representatives of some national minorities, as well as persons on active duty were not allowed to participate in the elections. military service. The elections were not direct, because a curial system of electors was in effect: each curia nominated electors from a certain number of voters.
One elector came from 2 thousand landowners, 4 thousand city dwellers, 30 thousand peasants and 90 thousand workers.
This distribution of electors also revealed the unequal nature of elections to the State Duma of the Russian Empire.
The term of office of parliamentarians elected to the State Duma was 5 years. The first elections to the State Duma took place in February-March 1906, as a result of which the First State Duma was convened consisting of 478 deputies (179 cadets, 63 autonomists, 16 Octobrists, 97 Trudoviks, 18 Social Democrats and 105 non-party members), the first chairman of the Russian The representative of the party of constitutional democrats, S. A. Muromtsev, became the speaker of parliament.
It is worth noting that the powers of the State Duma were significantly limited by the transformation of the State Council into the upper house of parliament, giving it the right to veto decisions made by the lower house.
Also, the Duma could not change the basic state laws (as amended on April 23, 1906). Before the revolution of 1917, four State Dumas operated successively in the Russian Empire, of which only the 3rd served its entire five-year term.
After the dissolution of the State Duma on February 25, 1917, on its basis, the Provisional Committee of the State Duma was created, which was subsequently transformed into the Provisional Government. The State Duma was revived again only in 1993, when at a national referendum on December 12, 1993, the current Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted, according to which the lower house of the Russian parliament is the State Duma of the Russian Federation, consisting of 450 deputies elected in popular, equal, direct elections in a secret ballot for a period of
4 years. Elections to it were held on the same day; the State Duma of the 1st convocation (or V State Duma) worked in 1994-1995. Subsequently, the Duma worked for 4 years, the last elections to the lower house of the national parliament (5th convocation) took place in December 2007.
Zubatovshchina is a common name in Russian historiography for the tactics of combating the revolutionary movement in the working environment, which was developed and actively implemented by S.V. Zubatov, who first headed the Moscow Security Department (1896-1902), and then the Special Department of the Police Department (1902-1903). gg.).
The essence of “Zubatovism” was the creation of legal workers’ organizations, which, through embedded agents, were completely controlled by the police. The most famous agent of “Zubatovism” is the St. Petersburg priest Gapon, who vilely led the people to a demonstration on Bloody Sunday, January 9, 1905.
Cossacks is the name of a semi-privileged military class that existed in the Russian Empire XVIII- beginning of the twentieth century. and gradually reviving in modern Russia as a unique ethnocultural community. The Cossacks trace their history back to the so-called free people, who were free from taxes and worked for hire in all kinds of trades or stood guard over the Russian borders.
The basis of the Cossacks at that time were service Cossacks, subdivided depending on the place of permanent deployment into city or regimental and stanitsa or guard. Defending cities and guard posts on the outskirts of the Russian state, they received from the authorities both a salary and land on the terms of local ownership. By social status they were close to groups such as Streltsy and Pushkars. In the 18th century part of the Cossacks became single-palaces, that is, they were transferred to the tax-paying estate, and the second part made up numerous Cossack troops (Orenburg, Siberian and a number of others).
It is worth noting that if before the 18th century. Since the main form of organization of life of the Cossacks was the Cossack community, then already under Peter I these communities were transformed into irregular Cossack troops and transferred under the control of the military department. The autonomy of the Cossacks in the sphere of management (the famous Cossack freemen) was gradually becoming a thing of the past, but the Cossacks were still in a more favorable position than the serfs and even the black-sown peasants, which explains their high level loyalty to the royal government.
At the beginning of the 20th century. the total number of the Cossack class in Russia was over 4.4 million people, over 285 thousand Cossacks were in military service, united in 11 Cossack troops: Amur, Astrakhan, Don, Transbaikal, Kuban, Orenburg, Semirechensk, Siberian, Terek, Ural and Ussuriyskoye, as well as in the Yeniseiskoye created in 1917 Cossack army and Yakut Cossack Regiment. Cossacks, as irregular cavalry, took part in almost all wars in Russia, during which they established themselves as brave and skilled warriors, reliably covered the country’s borders, actively participated in the development of new territories, and stood guard public order in the country together with the police and gendarmerie.
When the civil war unfolded in Russia, the Cossack class for the most part supported the counter-revolutionary forces, along with officers and cadets, forming the basis of many White Guard formations, and many Cossack atamans and generals became quite famous figures in the White movement (Dutov, Semenov and many others). After the victory of the Bolsheviks in the Civil War, repressions fell on the Cossacks, many of which were associated not with their active participation in this war, but with the resistance that they offered to the new orders introduced by the Bolsheviks on their lands.
In Soviet times, the cultural originality of the Cossacks manifested itself only within the limits of its consistency with socialist values. In modern Russia, there is a process of gradual revival of the Cossacks as a unique social community, which is an integral part of national history and culture
Black Hundreds is the name of members of extreme right-wing political organizations that formed and were active in the Russian Empire in the period from 1905 to 1917. The etymology of the word goes back to the phrase “Black Hundred,” which in Rus' denoted the tax-paying townspeople, thus right-wing radical organizations emphasized their closeness to ordinary Russian peoples. The Black Hundred parties, among which the “Union of the Russian People” and the “Union of the Archangel Michael” especially stand out, were characterized by monarchical ideas, Orthodox radicalism, anti-Semitism and great-power Russian chauvinism.
The Black Hundreds became famous for their loyalty to the tsarist regime, their counter-revolutionary attitude and numerous pogroms against Jews, which often took place with the tacit consent of the state.
1855 , February. Death of Nicholas I, accession to the throne of his son Alexander II.
1856 . The beginning of the expedition of P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, who for the first time scientifically explored the Tien Shan mountains.
1856. Founding of the Ust-Zeysky military post, since 1858 - the city of Blagoveshchensk.
1857. Founding of Maykop.
1858 , 16th of May. The Aigun Treaty with China, according to which Russia annexed the left bank of the Amur, and Primorye (the right bank of the Amur) remained in joint ownership.
1858 , May 30. Completion of the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg (Auguste Montferrand).
1858 . May 31. Foundation of the Khabarovka post in the Amur region - the future city of Khabarovsk.
1858 , June 11. Approval of the black-yellow-white banner as the state flag of the Russian Empire.
1859 , April. The entry of France and Sardinia into the war against Austria is the beginning of the unification of Italy. Main events: defeat of the Austrians at Solferino (24.6.1859); truce, according to which Austria ceded the Lombardy region to Sardinia (7.1859); annexation by Sardinia of the small states of Central Italy and part of the Papal States (by 3.1860); transfer of the border regions of Nice and Savoy by Sardinia to France (4.1860); landing of Giuseppe Garibaldi's detachment in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (6.1860); the defeat of the Pope's army by the Sardinian army and the occupation of most of his possessions (9.1860); annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to Sardinia (10.1860); proclamation of the Italian kingdom led by the Savoy dynasty (2.1861); Italian participation in the Austro-Prussian War, which led to the annexation of the Venetian region (1866); occupation of Rome and deprivation of the Pope of secular power (1870).
1859 , 25-th of August. The surrender of Shamil means the end of the annexation of Chechnya and Dagestan.
1860 , 2 June. Foundation of the Vladivostok post (since 1862 - a port, since 1880 - a city).
1860 , November 2. The Beijing Treaty with China, according to which Primorye was recognized as the possession of Russia.
1861 , February 4. The proclamation of the Confederate States of America was the beginning of the Civil War in North America (northern states against the slave-owning southern states), which ended in April 1865 with the defeat of the Confederacy and the abolition of slavery in the United States.
1861 , February 19. Alexander II signed a manifesto on the emancipation of serfs, according to which serfs partially received civil rights without land, until the full purchase of which they became “temporarily obligated.”
1861 . Creation of the secret revolutionary society “Land and Freedom” (self-liquidated in 1864).
1862 , summer. The creation of military districts on the western border is the beginning of military reform.
1862 , 8 September. Opening of the Conservatory in St. Petersburg - the first higher musical educational institution in Russia (A. G. Rubinstein).
1862 . The formation in St. Petersburg of a creative community of Russian composers who sought to embody the Russian national idea in music, known as the “Mighty Handful” (A. P. Borodin, M. A. Balakirev, M. P. Mussorgsky, Ts. A. Cui, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov).
1862. Otto von Bismarck (from 1871 - Reich Chancellor of the German Empire, until 1890) became the Minister-President and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Prussia, who achieved the unification of Germany under the supremacy of Prussia.
1863 , January. Beginning of the Polish uprising, suppressed in 1864
1863 , June 18. The introduction of a new university charter, which expanded the autonomy of higher education institutions.
1864 , 1st of January. Establishment zemstvos – local unclassified self-government in rural areas .
1864 , May 21st. The suppression of the last center of resistance in the western North Caucasus is the end of the Caucasian War.
1864 , July 19. Publication of regulations on primary public schools, which stimulated the expansion of the network of primary educational institutions.
1864 , November 19. Introduction of a new charter for secondary educational institutions ( gymnasiums with in-depth study of Latin and Ancient Greek, real schools with in-depth study of “natural” disciplines - mathematics, physics, etc. .).
1864 , 20 November. Judicial reform, which introduced the lack of status of the court, adversarial process, transparency and independence of judges.
1865 , April 6. Adoption of a new censorship charter, which partially abolished preliminary censorship in St. Petersburg and Moscow.
1865. Founding of Elista.
1866 , April. The first unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (D.V. Karakozov fired a pistol near the Summer Garden in St. Petersburg, but missed).
1866 . Publication of I. M. Sechenov’s book “Physiology of the Nervous System”.
1866 . The first performance on stage of a work (“Overture in F major”) by P. I. Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers in the history of music (1840–1893).
1867 , March. Treaty for the sale of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska to the United States of America.
1867 , May 25. The second unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (former Polish rebel A. Berezovsky fired a pistol at the World Exhibition in Paris, but missed).
1868 . Establishment of a protectorate over the Kokand and Bukhara khanates.
1868 . Publication of the article “A device for studying the decomposition of carbon dioxide,” with which the scientific activity of K. A. Timiryazev, one of the founders of plant physiology, began.
1868 , January 3. The announcement of the Japanese Emperor to restore the fullness of his power is the culmination of the Meiji Revolution, which abolished the power of the Tokugawa shoguns - the beginning of the modernization of Japan and the creation of modern economic and political systems.
1869 , February. Discovery by D. I. Mendeleev periodic law, on the basis of which he compiled the periodic table of chemical elements.
1869 . The opening of higher women's courses in Moscow and St. Petersburg is the beginning of higher women's education in Russia.
1869 , October 12. Transformation of the Warsaw Region established in 1862 high school at the University of Warsaw.
1870 . The beginning of the Franco-Prussian War, which led to the defeat of France and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, its declaration as a republic (III Republic, 4.9.1870) and the proclamation of the German Empire under the rule of the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty (18.1.1871).
1871. Foundation of the city of Ivanovo-Voznesensk (since 1932 - Ivanovo).
1872 . The beginning of the first of four expeditions of N. M. Przhevalsky to Central Asia, during which new species of mammals were discovered.
1873 . Acceptance of the Khanate of Khiva under the protectorate of Russia.
1874 . The introduction of universal conscription is the completion of military reform.
1874 , spring. The beginning of “going to the people” is the populists’ attempts to conduct revolutionary propaganda among the peasants.
1875 . An uprising in the Kokand Khanate against Russian rule, which led to the abolition of the Khanate and the inclusion of its territory into Russia (19.2.1876).
1875 , 25th of April. An agreement with Japan, according to which the Kuril Islands went to Japan, and Sakhalin was recognized as completely Russian.
1876 . Re-creation of “Land and Freedom” as a populist organization. 1876 , 11th of March. Inventor P. N. Yablochkov received a patent for the “Yablochkov candle” - the predecessor of the modern incandescent lamp.
1876 , December 6. The first political demonstration in Russia (at the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg).
1877 , February. “The Trial of 50,” at which a group of Moscow revolutionaries, including P. Alekseev, was convicted.
1877 , 12th of April. Manifesto on the beginning of the war with the Ottoman Empire. Main events: the passage of the Russian army across the Danube (6.1877); occupation of Northern Bulgaria (7.1877); the beginning of the siege of the Ottoman fortress of Plevna (1st assault - 8/7/1877); defense of the Shipka Pass (8.1877); capture by the Russian army of the Kars fortress in the Caucasus (10.1877); capitulation of Plevna (11/28/1877); the passage of the Russian army through the Balkans and the attack on Istanbul (12.1877–1.1878); signing of the truce in Adrianople (19.1.1878); the signing of the peace treaty in San Stefano, according to which Southern Bessarabia, the Caucasian fortresses of Kars, Ardahan, Bayazet and the port of Batum went to Russia, and the Ottoman Empire recognized the independence of Romania (it was given Dobruja - the area between the Danube and the Black Sea), Serbia (it was given region of the city of Nis), Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina (19.2.1878); The Berlin Congress (opened on June 13, 1878), at which the articles of the Treaty of San Stefano were partially revised (the territorial acquisitions of Russia were reduced - it was deprived of Bayazet - and Bulgaria - it was divided into two parts).
1877, October. The beginning of the “trial of the 193s”, in which many participants in the “going to the people” were convicted of revolutionary propaganda (1.1878).
1879 , April 2. The third unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (A.K. Solovyov fired five times from a revolver at Palace Square in St. Petersburg, but missed).
1879 , June. The split of “Land and Freedom” resulted in the emergence of “People’s Will”, whose goal was to provoke a revolution with high-profile terrorist acts, and “Black Redistribution”, whose supporters considered it necessary to continue propaganda.
1879 , November 19. The fourth unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (People's Volya blew up a railway track near Moscow, but the imperial train had already passed).
1880 , February 5th. The fifth unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (the People's Volunteer S.N. Khalturin carried out an explosion in the Winter Palace, but thanks to his delay, the emperor was not injured).
1880 , February 9th. Organization of the Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of State Order and Public Peace, designed to ensure counteraction to terrorists.
1880 , October. “The Trial of 16,” at which some of the Narodnaya Volya members were convicted.
1881 , March 1. The sixth attempt on Alexander II and his death at the hands of the Narodnaya Volya. Beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander III.
1881 , March. The trial of the murder of Alexander II: the trial of its organizers (including S. L. Perovskaya and A. I. Zhelyabov) and their execution (3.4.1881).
1881 , April 30. The publication by the new Emperor Alexander III of the manifesto “On the Inviolability of Autocracy,” which heralded the beginning of the “policy of counter-reforms.”
1881 , August 14. Publication of “Regulations on measures to preserve state order and public peace” to counter the revolutionary movement.
1882 , May 20. The final formation of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy), directed against Russia and France.
1882 , June 1st. The Law “On Minors Working in Plants, Factories and Manufactories,” which prohibited the work of children under 12 years of age and limited the work of children 12–15 years of age, was the beginning of factory legislation in Russia.
1883 , April 28. Official recognition of the trade white-blue-red flag as the “Russian flag”.
1883 , May 18. Establishment of the Peasant Land Bank to help peasants purchase land.
1883 , 26 of May. Consecration of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow (architect K. A. Ton).
1883 , September. Creation in emigration of the first Russian social democratic group “Emancipation of Labor”, headed by G. V. Plekhanov.
1884 , August 23. Introduction of a new university charter, abolishing the autonomy of universities.
1885 , March. Conflict with Great Britain due to clashes with Afghans in the Kushki region.
1885 . Populist Ya. V. Abramov’s promotion of the “theory of small deeds” in a series of articles in the Nedelya newspaper, according to which revolutionaries should abandon violent methods and engage in “simple honest deeds,” improving the situation in Russia with constant daily work.
1885 , June 3. Establishment of the Noble Land Bank to maintain landownership.
1885 , October 1. Entry into force of the law “On the prohibition of night work for minors and women in factories, factories and manufactories.”
1886 , June 3. The publication of a law regulating the relations between factory owners and workers.
1886 , november. Severance of relations with Bulgaria.
1887 , 1st of January. Termination of the collection of poll tax (partially retained in Siberia).
1887 , April. The trial of terrorists from Narodnaya Volya, who planned an attempt on the life of Alexander III on the anniversary of the assassination of Alexander II, and the execution of five of them, including A.I. Ulyanov (8.5.1887).
1887 , July 1. “Circular about cooks’ children,” which limited access to gymnasiums for the children of “coachmen, footmen, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like.”
1888 , September 13. Start of classes at Tomsk University - the first university in Siberia.
1889 , 28 January. The introduction of zemstvo district chiefs appointed by the administration, who replaced justices of the peace and received, in addition to the judiciary, significant administrative powers in relation to peasants.
1891 , May. Beginning of construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway - a strategic railway to the Pacific Ocean (completed by 1916).
1891 , August. The conclusion of a Russian-French alliance treaty directed against Germany.
1891 , autumn. The beginning of famine in a number of provinces of the Volga and Non-Black Earth regions.
1894 , The 20th of October. Death of Alexander III and accession to the throne of his son Nicholas II.
1895 , January 17. Policy statement of Nicholas II against the creation of an elected legislative body.
1895 , February 27. An agreement with Great Britain on the delimitation of the Pamirs, which completed the expansion of Russia's borders in Central Asia.
1895 , 11 April. Russian intervention in Japanese-Chinese relations (Japan was forced to return Port Arthur to China), which served as the beginning of Russian-Japanese contradictions.
1895 , 25th of April. Demonstration by A. S. Popov of the “lightning detector” he designed - the predecessor of the radio receiver.
1896 , 22nd of May. The consent of the Chinese government to the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER) is the beginning of Russia's penetration into Manchuria.
1897 , 28 January. The first All-Russian population census (125,640,021 people recorded).
1897 , 2 June. Adoption of a law limiting the working day at industrial enterprises to 11.5 hours (came into force on January 1, 1898).
1897 , August 29. Financial reform of S. Yu. Witte, within the framework of which gold backing of the ruble was introduced, and the right to issue (issue credit notes) was transferred to the State Bank.
1898 , 1 -March, 3rd. I (organizational) congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) in Minsk.
1898 , March 15th. The transfer by China to Russia of the lease of the ports of Port Arthur and Dalny, which in 1895 were supposed to go to Japan, is an aggravation of Russian-Japanese contradictions.
1898 , August 17. Appointment of General N.I. Bobrikov as Governor-General of Finland, who began the policy of Russification of Finland.
1899 . The beginning of the “Boxer Rebellion” against foreign influence in China, in the suppression of which Russia, along with other powers, participated, while occupying Manchuria.
1902 . The creation of a party of socialist revolutionaries (SRs), based on the populist tradition and setting socialist transformations in the countryside as its main goal.
1903 . The Second Congress of the RSDLP, at which a split occurred into the Bolsheviks (V.I. Lenin and other supporters of the creation of a centralized, disciplined party) and the Mensheviks.
1903 , 2 June. Workplace Accident Victims Compensation Act.
1904 , January 27. The attack of the Japanese fleet on Russian ships in Port Arthur and Chemulpo (the death of the Varyag) is the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War.
1904 , October. Physiologist I.P. Pavlov was the first Russian to receive the Nobel Prize “for his work on the physiology of digestion.”
1904 , november. Congress of opposition parties and movements in Paris.
1904 , november -December. The “banquet campaign” carried out by the liberal opposition, during which resolutions were adopted condemning the government, was the prologue to the revolution.
1905 , January 9. “Bloody Sunday” – the shooting of a workers’ demonstration in Petrograd – the beginning of the First Russian Revolution. Main events: strikes in different cities of the country in protest against the execution on January 9 (1.1905); the murder of the Moscow Governor-General, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, by a Socialist Revolutionary terrorist (4.2.1905); Nicholas II’s consent to convene a Duma with legislative functions (18.2.1905); mutiny on the battleship of the Black Sea Fleet "Potemkin" (6.1905); manifesto on the convocation of the State Duma (6.8.1905); all-Russian political strike (10.1905); manifesto on granting democratic freedoms and giving the Duma a legislative character (10/17/1905); manifesto on the abolition of redemption payments for land - the end of the reform of 1861 (11/3/1905); armed uprising in Moscow and soldier riots along the Trans-Siberian Railway (12.1905).
1905 , February. The defeat of Russian troops in the decisive battle of the Russo-Japanese War near Mukden.
1905 , 14 -May 15. Complete destruction of the Russian 2nd Pacific Squadron in the Battle of Tsushima.
1905 , September. The signing of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty with Japan, according to which Russia lost Port Arthur, Far and Southern Sakhalin, as well as control over the southern part of Manchuria.
1905 , October. The founding congress of the party of constitutional democrats (cadets) is the organizational form of the liberal opposition.
1906 , April 27. The beginning of the work of the State Duma of the first convocation, which began a policy of confrontation with the government and was dissolved in early July.
1906 , August 19. The law on military courts, which contributed to the speedy elimination of revolutionary unrest.
1906 , November 9. The law allowing the free exit of peasants from the community is the beginning of the Stolypin agrarian reform.
Khutor– a plot of land allocated from communal land, with a separate peasant estate .
Cut– a plot of land allocated from communal land without moving the estate .
1907 , February 20th. The beginning of the work of the State Duma of the second convocation, which continued the policy of confrontation with the government and was also dissolved on June 3, 1907.
1907 , June 3. “The Third June Coup” - the adoption of a new electoral law, according to which the number of “state-minded” deputies in the Duma increased.
1907 , June 7. Founding in St. Petersburg, on the initiative of the outstanding physiologist V. M. Bekhterev, the world's first Psychoneurological Institute.
1907, August 18. The Russian-British agreement that completed the creation of the Entente (the alliance of France, Great Britain and Russia against Germany).
1907 , Nov. 1. The beginning of the work of the State Duma of the third convocation, which chose a policy of cooperation with the government.
1908 , October 15. The start of distribution of "Ponizovaya Volnitsa" - the first Russian feature film.
1908 , 17 October. Biologist I. I. Mechnikov received the Nobel Prize “for his work on immunity.”
1911 , September 1. The murder of P. A. Stolypin is the end of the reform policy, which caused growing discontent among the liberal opposition.
1912 , June 23. Adoption of a law on compulsory health insurance for workers.
1912 , October 8. The beginning of the 1st Balkan War (Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece against the Ottoman Empire), which ended with the declaration of independence of Albania (11/28/1912) and the division of the European possessions of the Ottoman Empire between the allies, with most of Macedonia and all of Kosovo going to Serbia.
1912 , 15th of November. The beginning of the work of the State Duma of the IV convocation, which continued the policy of the III convocation.
1913 , June 29. The beginning of the 2nd Balkan War (Bulgaria against Serbia, Greece, Romania and the Ottoman Empire), which ended with the partial division of Bulgarian lands.
1914 , April 17. The adoption of Tuva (Uriankhai region) under the patronage of Russia, the founding of the city of Belotsarsk - modern Kyzyl.
Section III
Recent history