In this chapter we will list the functions characters in the order in which it is dictated by the fairy tale itself.
For each function the following is given: 1) summary its essence, 2) an abbreviated definition in one word, 3) a conventional sign of it. (The introduction of signs will make it possible to subsequently compare the construction of fairy tales schematically). Examples follow. The examples for the most part do not exhaust our material. They are given as examples only. They are located in known groups. Groups are to definition as species are to genus. The main task is to distinguish genera. Consideration of species cannot be included in the tasks of general morphology. Species can be further subdivided into varieties, and this gives rise to taxonomy. The following arrangement does not serve such purposes. Giving examples should only illustrate and show the presence of a function as a certain generic unit. As already mentioned, all functions fit into one consistent story. The series of functions given below represents the morphological basis of fairy tales in general.
A fairy tale usually begins with some initial situation. Family members are listed, or future hero(for example, a soldier) is simply introduced by giving his name or mentioning his position. Although this situation is not a function, it still represents an important morphological element. Types of fairy tale beginnings can only be considered towards the end of the work. We define this element as the initial situation. symbol - i.
The initial situation is followed by the following functions:
I. One of the family members leaves home
(definition: absence, symbol e).
1) A person of the older generation may be absent. Parents go to work (Af. 113). “The prince had to go on a long journey, leave his wife in someone else’s arms” (265). “He (the merchant) somehow leaves for foreign countries” (197). Forms of absence are common: to work, to the forest, to trade, to war, “on business” (e1).
2) An intensified form of absence is the death of the parents (e2).
3) Sometimes people of the younger generation are absent. They go or go to visit (101), to fish (108), for a walk (137), to pick berries (224) Designation e3.
II. The hero is approached with a ban
(definition - prohibition, designation b).
1) “You couldn’t look into this closet” (159). Take care of your brother, don’t leave the yard" (113). “If Baba Yaga comes, don’t say anything, keep quiet” (106). “The prince persuaded her a lot, commanded her not to leave the high tower” (265), etc. The covenant is not leaving is sometimes intensified or replaced by putting the children in a hole (201). Sometimes, on the contrary, there is a weakened form of the prohibition, in the form of a request or advice: the mother persuades her son not to go fishing: “you are still young” (108), etc. A fairy tale usually. mentions the absence first, and then the ban. In fact, the sequence of events, of course, is the opposite. Prohibitions can be given without connection with the absence: do not pick apples (230), do not pick up the golden pen (169), do not open the box (219), do not. kiss sisters (219). Designation b1.
2) The inverted form of the prohibition is an order or proposal: bring breakfast to the field (133), take your brother with you to the forest (244). Designation b1:
Here a digression may be made for better understanding. The tale further gives a sudden (but still in a certain way prepared) onset of disaster. In this regard, the initial situation gives a description of a special, sometimes emphasized well-being. The king has a beautiful garden with golden apples; old people tenderly love their Ivashechka, etc. Agrarian prosperity represents a special form: a peasant and his sons have excellent haymaking. There are often descriptions of crops with magnificent shoots. This prosperity, of course, serves as a contrasting background for the subsequent disaster. The ghost of this misfortune is already invisibly hovering over the happy family. Hence the prohibitions - not to go out, etc. The very absence of elders prepares for this misfortune, it creates a convenient moment for it. After the departure or death of their parents, children are left to their own devices. The role of prohibitions is sometimes played by orders. If children are asked to go out into the field or into the forest, then following this order has the same consequences as violating the prohibition not to go into the forest or not to go into the field.
III. The ban is violated
(definition - violation, designation b).
Forms of violation correspond to forms of prohibition. functions II and III constitute a paired element. The second half can sometimes exist without the first. The princesses go to the garden (e3), they are late home. The prohibition on being late is omitted here. The executed order (b2) corresponds, as indicated, to the violated prohibition (b1).
A new face now enters the fairy tale, which can be called the hero’s antagonist (pest). His role is to disturb the peace of a happy family, cause some kind of misfortune, cause harm, damage. The hero’s opponent can be a snake, a devil, robbers, a witch, a stepmother, etc. How new characters generally appear during the action, we have highlighted this question in a special chapter. So, the pest entered the action. He came, crept up, flew in, etc. and begins to act.
IV. The antagonist is trying to conduct reconnaissance
(definition - scouting, designation c).
1) Scouting is aimed at finding out the whereabouts of children, sometimes precious objects, etc. Bear: “Who can tell me about the royal children, where did they go?” (201). Clerk: “Where do you get these semi-precious stones?” (197). The priest confesses: “Why did you manage to recover so quickly?” (258). Princess: “Tell me, Ivan the merchant’s son, where is your wisdom?” (209). “How does a bitch live?” thinks Yagishna.” She sends One-Eyed, Two-Eyed, Three-Eyed (100) on reconnaissance. Designation c1.
2) We have an inverted form of prying when a pest asks his victim. "Where is your death, Koschey?" (156). “What a fast horse you have! Can you get another horse somewhere that will run away from yours?” (160). Designation b2.
3) In some cases, scouting through other persons also occurs. Designation c3.
V. The antagonist is given information about his victim
(definition - issue, designation w).
1) The antagonist receives a direct answer to his question. The chisel answers the bear: “Take me out into the yard and throw me on the ground; where I stick, there will be a swarm” (201). To the clerk’s question about semiprecious stones, the merchant’s wife replies: “Yes, the chicken is bringing it to us” (197), etc. Here again we have paired functions. Often they are given in the form of dialogue. This includes, by the way, the dialogue between the stepmother and the mirror. Although the stepmother does not ask directly about her stepdaughter, the mirror answers her: “You are good, no doubt, but you have a stepdaughter, she lives with the heroes in a dense forest, and she is even more beautiful.” As in other similar cases, the second half can exist without the first. In these cases, extradition takes the form of a careless act. The mother calls her son home with a loud voice, and with this she reveals his presence to the witch (108). The old man received a wonderful bag. He treats his godfather from his bag, and thereby reveals the secret of his talisman to his godfather (187). Designation w1.
2-3) Reverse or other elicitation causes an appropriate response. Koschey reveals the secret of his death (136), the secret of the fast horse (159), etc. Designation w2 and w3.
VI. The antagonist tries to deceive his victim in order to take possession of him or his property
(definition - catch, designation g).
First of all, the antagonist or saboteur takes on someone else's appearance. The serpent turns into a golden goat (162), a beautiful youth (202). The witch pretends to be a “cordial old lady” (225). She imitates her mother's voice (108). The priest puts on a goatskin (258). The thief pretends to be a beggar (139). Then comes the function itself.
1) The saboteur acts through persuasion: the witch offers to accept the ring (114), the godfather offers to take a steam bath (187), the witch offers to take off her dress (259), and swim in the pond (265). Designation g1.
2) It works by direct application of magical means. The stepmother gives her stepson poisoned cakes (233). She sticks a magic pin into his clothes (233). Designation g2.
3) He acts by other means of deception or violence. The evil sisters line the window through which Finist must fly in with knives and points (234). The serpent shifts the shavings, showing the girl the way to her brothers (133). Designation g3.
VII. The victim succumbs to deception and thereby unwittingly helps the enemy
(definition - complicity, symbol g).
1) The hero agrees to all the persuasion of the antagonist, that is, he takes the ring, goes to steam, swim, etc. You can notice that prohibitions are always violated, deceptive offers, on the contrary, are always accepted and carried out. Designation g1.
2-3) He mechanically reacts to the use of magic and other means, i.e., he falls asleep, injures himself, etc. This function can exist separately. Nobody puts the hero to sleep, he suddenly falls asleep himself, of course, to make his job easier for the pest. Designation g2 and g3.
A special form of fraudulent offer and corresponding consent is a fraudulent contract. (“Give away what you don’t know in the house”). Consent under these conditions is forced, and the enemy takes advantage of some predicament of his victim. (The herd has fled; extreme poverty, etc.). Sometimes this predicament is deliberately caused by the enemy (The Bear Takes the Tsar by the Beard 201). This element can be defined as preliminary trouble. (Designation X. This sign creates a difference from other forms of deception).
VIII. An antagonist causes harm or damage to one family member
(definition - sabotage, designation A).
This function is extremely important, since it actually creates the movement of the tale. Absence, violation of a ban, extradition, success of deception prepare this function, create its possibility, or simply facilitate it. Therefore, the first seven functions can be considered as the preparatory part of the tale, while sabotage opens the plot. The forms of sabotage are extremely diverse.
1) He kidnaps a person (A1). The serpent kidnaps the king's daughter (131), the peasant's daughter (133). The witch kidnaps the boy (108). The older brothers kidnap the younger brother's bride (168).
2) He steals or takes away the magical remedy (A2). "The careless child" steals the magic casket (189). The princess steals the magic shirt (203). The peasant himself kidnaps the magic horse (138).
2-a) A special subcategory of this form is the forcible taking away of a magical assistant. The stepmother orders the wonderful cow to be slaughtered (100, 101). The clerk orders the slaughter of a wonderful chicken or duck (195, 197). Designation AII.
3) He plunders or spoils the crops (A3). The mare eats a haystack (105). The bear steals oats (143). The crane steals peas (186).
4) He steals daylight (A4). This case occurs only once (135).
5) He commits theft in other forms (A5). The object of theft is subject to the greatest fluctuations, and there is no need to register all forms. As will be seen later, the object of the theft does not affect the course of the action. Logically, it would be more correct to consider all theft in general as one form of initial sabotage, and to consider forms divided by objects not as categories, but as subcategories. But it is technically more convenient to single out several of the most important forms and generalize the rest. Examples:
The firebird steals golden apples (168). The mink beast eats animals from the royal menagerie every night (132). The general steals the (non-magic) sword of the king (259), etc.
6) He causes bodily harm (A6). The maid cuts out her mistress's eyes (127). The princess cuts off Katome's legs (195). Interestingly, these forms also represent (from a morphological point of view) theft. Eyes, for example, are put into a pocket by a maid and taken away, and subsequently obtained in the same way as other stolen objects and put back in their place. The same thing happens with a cut out heart.
7) He calls sudden disappearance(A7), Usually this disappearance is the result of the use of witchcraft or deceitful means. The stepmother puts her stepson to sleep. His bride disappears forever (232). The sisters place knives and needles in the girl’s window, where Finist is supposed to fly. He wounds his wings and disappears forever (234). The wife flies away from her husband on a carpet airplane (192). Tale No. 267 gives an interesting form. Here the disappearance is caused by the hero himself. He burns the casing of his enchanted wife - she disappears forever. A special case in fairy tale No. 219 can also be conditionally included here. A witch's kiss instills complete oblivion of the bride. In this case, the victim is the bride who loses her groom (AVII).
8) He demands or lures out his victim (A8). This form usually results from a fraudulent contract. The sea king demands the prince, and he leaves home (219).
9) He drives someone out (A9). The stepmother expels the stepdaughter (95). The priest expels his grandson (143).
10) He orders someone to be thrown into the sea (A10). The king puts his daughter and son-in-law in a barrel, and orders the barrel to be thrown into the sea (165). Parents drop their sleeping son out to sea on a boat (247).
11) He bewitches someone or something (A11). It should be noted here that the pest often causes two or three damages at once. There are forms that rarely occur independently and tend to be combined with other forms. Bewitchment also belongs to these forms. The wife turns her husband into a male dog and drives him out (i.e. A911; 246). The stepmother turns her stepdaughter into a lynx and banishes her (266). Even in cases where the bride is turned into a duck and flies away, there is essentially an exile, although it is not mentioned as such (264, 265).
12) He makes a substitution (A12). In most cases, this form is also accompanying. The nanny turns the bride into a duck and replaces her with her daughter (i.e. A1112; 264). The maid blinds the king's bride and impersonates the bride (A612; 127).
13) He orders to kill (A13). In essence, this form is a modified (intensified) expulsion. The stepmother orders the footman to kill his stepdaughter during a walk (210). The princess orders her servants to take her husband to the forest and kill him (192). Usually in these cases the presentation of the liver and heart of the murdered person is required.
14) He commits murder (A14). Usually it is also only an accompanying form of other types of incipient sabotage, serving to strengthen them. The princess steals her husband's magic shirt and kills him himself (i.e. A214; 208). The brothers kill the younger one and kidnap his bride (A114; 168). The sister takes the berries from her brother and kills him (244).
15) He imprisons, detains (A15). The princess imprisons Ivan in prison (256). The sea king keeps Semyon captive (256).
16) He threatens forced marriage (A16). The serpent demands a princess as his wife (125).
16a) The same thing between relatives: a brother demands a sister as a wife (114). Designation AXVI.
17) He threatens cannibalism (A17). The serpent demands the princess to be eaten (171). The snake devoured all the people in the village, and the same fate threatens the last surviving peasant (146).
17a) The same between relatives (AXVII): the sister seeks to eat her brother (92).
18) He torments at night (A18). The serpent (192), the devil (115) torments the princess at night. The witch flies to the girl and sucks her breast (193).
19) He declares war (A19). The neighboring king declares war (161). Similar: the serpent destroys kingdoms (137).
This exhausts the forms of sabotage within the selected material. However, not all fairy tales begin with harm. There are other beginnings that often give the same development as fairy tales that begin with the function of causing harm (A). Looking closely at this phenomenon, we can observe that these tales come from a certain situation of lack or deficiency, which causes searches similar to those of sabotage. Hence the conclusion that the shortage can be considered as a morphological equivalent, for example, of abduction. Consider the following cases: the princess steals Ivan's talisman. The result of this abduction is that Ivan lacks this talisman. And so we see that the fairy tale, omitting the sabotage, very often begins directly with the shortage: Ivan wants to have a magic saber or a magic horse, etc. Both the kidnapping and the shortage determine the next moment of the plot: Ivan goes on a quest. The same can be said about a kidnapped bride and a simply missing bride, etc. In the first case, a certain act is given, the result of which creates a shortage and causes a search; in the second case, a ready-made shortage is given, which also causes a search. In the first case, the shortage is created from the outside, in the second it is recognized from the inside.
We are fully aware that the terms lack and shortage are not entirely appropriate. But in Russian there are no words with which this concept could be expressed quite accurately and well. The word "disadvantage" sounds better, but it has a special meaning that for this concept doesn't fit. This shortage can be compared to zero, which in a series of numbers represents a certain value. This point can be recorded as follows:
VIII-a. One of the family members lacks something, he wants to have something
(definition - shortage, symbol a).
These cases are only difficult to group. It would be possible to break them down according to the forms of awareness of shortage (more on this on pp. 59–60), but here we can limit ourselves to distribution by objects of shortage. The following forms can be noted:
1) lack of a bride (or a friend, a person in general). This shortage is sometimes depicted very clearly (the hero intends to look for a bride), but sometimes it is not even mentioned verbally. The hero is single and goes to look for a bride - this begins the course of action (designation a1);
2) necessary, a magical remedy is needed, for example apples, water, horses, sabers, etc. (designation a2);
3) there is a lack of wonders (without magical powers), such as: firebirds, ducks with golden feathers, marvelous, etc. (designation a3);
4) specific form: the magic egg with the death of Koshchei (with the love of the princess) is missing - designation a4;
5) rationalized forms: lack of money, means of subsistence, etc.; designation a5, we note that such everyday principles sometimes develop absolutely fantastically;
6) various other forms; designation a6. Just as the object of theft does not determine the structure of the tale, the object of the shortage does not determine it either. Consequently, for general morphological purposes there is no need to systematize all cases; we can limit ourselves to the most important ones, generalizing the rest.
Here the question inevitably arises: but not all fairy tales begin with harm or with the beginning that has just been outlined. Thus, the tale of Emelya the Fool begins with the fool catching a pike, and not at all with sabotage or shortage. When comparing a larger number of fairy tales, it is discovered, however, that elements characteristic of the middle of a fairy tale are sometimes brought to the beginning, and we have such a case here. Capturing and sparing the animal is a typical middle element, as we will see below. In general, elements A or a are required for every fairy tale of the class being studied. There are no other forms of beginnings in a fairy tale.
IX. Trouble or shortage is reported, the hero is approached with a request or order, sent away or released
(definition - mediation, connecting moment, designation B).
This function introduces a hero into the tale. Upon closer analysis, it can be decomposed into its component parts, but for our purposes this is unimportant. The heroes of a fairy tale can be twofold:
1) If a girl is kidnapped and disappears from the horizon of her father (and with it from the horizon of the listener), and Ivan goes in search of the girl, then the hero of the fairy tale is Ivan, and not the kidnapped girl. Such heroes can be called seekers.
2) If a girl or boy is kidnapped or expelled and the fairy tale goes with the kidnapped, expelled person, without being interested in what happened to those who remained, then the hero of the fairy tale is the kidnapped, expelled girl (boy). There are no seekers in these tales. Such heroes can be called damaged heroes.
Whether fairy tales with certain heroes develop in the same way or not will be seen below. There are no cases in our material where a fairy tale follows both the seeker and the victim (cf. “Ruslan and Lyudmila”). There is a moment of mediation in both cases. The significance of this moment is that it causes the hero to be sent away from home.
1) A cry for help is issued followed by the dispatch of the hero (B1). The cry usually comes from the king and is accompanied by promises.
2) The hero is directly sent away (B2). The referral is given either in the form of an order or in the form of a request. In the first case, it is sometimes accompanied by threats, in the second - by promises, sometimes by both.
3) The hero is released from home (B3) In these cases, the initiative to leave often comes from the hero himself, and not from the sender. Parents give blessing. Sometimes the hero does not communicate his true goals. He asks to go for a walk, etc., but in reality he goes to fight.
4) Trouble is reported (B4). A mother tells her son about her daughter's abduction that happened before he was born, without asking him for help. The son goes on a quest (133). More often, however, the story of trouble comes not from parents, but from various old women, random people they meet, etc.
The four forms considered relate to seeker heroes. The following forms apply directly to victims. The structure of a fairy tale requires that the hero leave home at any cost. If this is not achieved through sabotage, then the fairy tale uses a connecting moment for this purpose.
5) The exiled hero is taken away from home (B5). The father takes his daughter, banished by her stepmother, to the forest. This form is very interesting in many ways. Logically, the father's actions are not necessary. The daughter could go into the forest herself. But the fairy tale requires sending parents at the connecting point. It can be shown that this form is a secondary formation, but this is not the purpose of general morphology. It should be noted that abduction is also applied to the princess requested by the serpent. In these cases, she is taken to the seaside. However, in the latter case, a cry is issued at the same time. The course of the action is determined by the cry, and not by the removal to the seaside, which is why the removal in these cases cannot be attributed to the connecting moment.
6) The hero doomed to death is secretly released (B6). The cook or archer spares the girl (boy), lets them go, and kills the animal instead in order to obtain their liver and heart as proof of the killing (210, 195). Above, moment B was identified as the factor causing the hero to be sent away from home. If the sending gives the need to go, then here the opportunity to go is provided. The first case is typical for the seeker hero, the second for the victim hero.
7) A plaintive song is sung (B7). This form is specific for murder (the surviving brother sings, etc.), bewitchment with expulsion, substitution. Thanks to this, the trouble becomes known and causes opposition.
X. The seeker agrees or decides to resist
(definition - beginning counteraction, designation C).
This moment is characterized, for example, by the following words: “Let us find your princesses,” etc. Sometimes this moment is not mentioned in words, but a volitional decision, of course, precedes the search. This moment is typical only for those fairy tales where the hero is a seeker. Exiled, killed, bewitched, replaced heroes have no volitional desire for liberation, and here this element is absent.
XI. The hero leaves home
(definition - sending, designation). This dispatch is something other than the temporary absence indicated above by the sign e. The dispatches of hero-seekers and heroes of victims are also different. The first have the goal of searching, the second open the beginning of that path without searching, on which various adventures await the hero. The following must be borne in mind: if a girl is kidnapped and a seeker comes after her, then two persons leave the house. But the path that the story follows, the path on which the action is built, is the path of the seeker. If, for example, a girl is expelled and there is no seeker, then the narrative follows the departure and adventures of the injured hero. The sign denotes the path of the hero, whether he is a seeker or not. In some fairy tales, the hero's spatial movement is absent. All the action takes place in one place. Sometimes, on the contrary, the sending is intensified, it is given the character of flight.
Elements ABC represent the beginning of a fairy tale. The course of action then develops.
A new person enters the fairy tale, who can be called the donor or, more precisely, the provider. Usually it is accidentally encountered in the forest, on the road, etc. (see Chapter VII - forms of appearance of characters). From him the hero - both the seeker and the victim - receives some remedy (usually magical), which allows him to subsequently eliminate the misfortune. But before the receipt of the magic remedy occurs, the hero undergoes some very different actions, which, however, all lead to the fact that the magic remedy falls into the hands of the hero.
XII. The hero is tested, interrogated, attacked, etc., which prepares for him to receive a magical remedy or assistant
(definition - the first function of the donor, designation D).
1) The donor tests the hero (D1). Yaga gives the girl homework (102). The forest heroes offer the hero to serve for three years (216). Three years of service with a merchant (everyday rationalization, 115). Serve transportation for three years without taking remuneration (128); listen to the playing of the harp without falling asleep (216). The apple tree, the river, and the oven offer very simple food (113). Yaga offers to lie with her daughter (171). The serpent offers to lift a heavy stone (128). This requirement is sometimes written on a stone; sometimes the brothers, having found a large stone, try to lift it themselves. Yaga offers to guard the herd of mares (159), etc.
2) The donor greets and questions the hero (D2). This form may be considered a weakened form of the test. Greeting and questioning are also present in the above forms, but there it does not have the character of a test, it precedes it. Here the test itself is absent, and questioning takes on the character of an indirect test. If the hero answers rudely, he receives nothing; if he answers politely, he is given a horse, a saber, etc.
3) A dying or deceased person asks to provide a service (D3). This form sometimes also takes on the character of a test. The cow asks: “Don’t eat my meat, collect my bones, tie them in a scarf, plant them in the garden and never forget me, water them every morning” (100). A similar request is made by the bull in fairy tale No. 201. We have a different form of funeral request in fairy tale No. 179. Here, a dying father invites his sons to spend three nights at his grave.
4) The prisoner asks for release (D4). The copper peasant is being held captive and asks to be released (125). The devil sits in the tower, asks the soldier to free him (236). The caught jug asks to be broken, that is, the spirit in the jug asks for release (195).
4a) The same, with the preliminary capture of the donor. If, for example, in fairy tale No. 123 a goblin is caught, then the act cannot be considered an independent function; it only prepares the subsequent request of the captive. Designation D4.
5) The hero is approached with a request for mercy (D5). This form could be considered a subcategory of the previous one. It is preceded by a capture, or the hero aims at the animal and wants to kill it. The hero catches a pike, she asks him to let her go. (166). The hero aims at the animals, they ask to be released (156).
6) The disputants ask to divide the spoils between them (D6). Two giants ask to share their stick and broom (185). The disputants' request is not always pronounced. Sometimes the hero own initiative offers a section (designation d6). Animals cannot share carrion. The hero shares it (162).
7) Other requests (D7). Strictly speaking, requests constitute an independent category, and their types form subcategories, but, in order to avoid an overly cumbersome designation system, we can conditionally consider all varieties as categories. Having identified the main forms, the rest can be generalized. - The mice ask to feed them (102). The thief asks the robbed to bring him the stolen goods (238). Next is a case that can be classified into two categories at once: Kuzinka catches a fox. The fox asks:
“Don’t kill me (request for mercy D5), fry a fatter chicken with butter for me” (second request D7). Since such a request is preceded by capture, we designate the entire case as D57. A case of a different nature, also with a previous threat or bringing the petitioner into a helpless state: the hero steals clothes from a bather, she asks to give them back. Sometimes there is simply a helpless state, without a spoken request. (The chicks get wet in the rain, the children torture the cat). In these cases, the hero has the opportunity to provide a service. Objectively, there is a test here, although subjectively it is not felt as such by the hero (designation d7).
8) A hostile creature is trying to destroy the hero (D8). The witch tries to put the hero in the oven (108). The witch tries to cut off the heroes' heads at night (105). The owner tries to give the guests at night to be eaten by rats (212). The sorcerer tries to harass the hero, leaving him alone on the mountain (243).
9) A hostile creature enters into a fight with the hero (D9). Yaga and the hero are fighting. Fighting in a forest hut with various forest inhabitants is very common. The fight has the character of a fight, a brawl.
10) The hero is shown a magical remedy and offered to exchange it (D10). The robber shows a club (216), the merchants show curiosities (212), the old man shows a sword (268). They are offered for exchange.
XIII. The hero reacts to the actions of the future donor
(definition - the hero’s reaction, symbol G).
In most cases, the reaction can be positive or negative.
1) The hero passes (fails) the test (G1).
2) The hero answers (does not answer) the greeting (G2).
3) He provides (does not provide) a service to the deceased (G3).
4) He releases the captive (G4).
5) He spares the one who asks (G5).
6) He makes a division and reconciles the disputants (G6). A request from disputants (or simply an argument without a request) more often provokes a different reaction. The hero deceives the disputants, forcing them, for example, to run after a fired arrow, and in the meantime he steals the disputed objects (GVI).
7) The hero provides some other service (G7). Sometimes these services correspond to requests, sometimes they are simply caused by the kindness of the hero. A girl treats passing beggars (114). A special subcategory could be formed by forms of a religious nature. The hero burns a barrel of incense for the glory of God. One instance of prayer may also be included here (115).
8) The hero saves himself from an assassination attempt by using the means of a hostile creature against him (G8). He puts the yaga in the oven, forcing her to show how to get in (108). The heroes secretly exchange clothes with the yaga's daughters, she kills them instead of the heroes (105). The sorcerer himself remains on the mountain where he wanted to put the hero (243).
9) The hero defeats (or does not defeat) a hostile creature (G9).
10) The hero agrees to the exchange, but immediately applies the magical power of the item to the giver (G10). The old man offers the Cossack a self-cutting sword in exchange for a magic barrel. The Cossack changes and immediately orders the sword to cut off the old man’s head, thus getting the barrel back (270).
XIV. The hero gets a magical remedy at his disposal
(definition - supply, receiving a magical remedy, designation Z).
The following can serve as magical means: 1) animals (horse, eagle, etc.); 2) objects that serve as magical helpers (a flint with a horse, a ring with fellows); 3) objects that have magical properties, such as clubs, swords, harps, balls and many others; 4) qualities bestowed directly, such as strength, the ability to turn into animals, etc. We call all these objects of transmission (for now conditionally) magical means. The forms of transfer are as follows:
1) The funds are transferred directly (Z1). Very often, such programs are in the nature of rewarding. An old man gives a horse, forest animals give their cubs, etc. Sometimes the hero, instead of receiving an animal at his disposal, receives the ability to turn into it (for details, see below, in Chapter VI). Some fairy tales end at the moment of awarding. In such cases, the gift represents some material value rather than a magical remedy (Z1). If the hero's reaction was negative, then the transfer may not occur (Zneg), or be replaced by cruel retribution. The hero is eaten, frozen, a belt is cut from his back, he is thrown under a stone, etc. (designation Zcontr).
2) The means is indicated (Z2). The old woman points out the oak tree under which there is a flying ship (144). The old man points out a peasant from whom you can take a magic horse (138).
3) The product is being manufactured (Z3). “The sorcerer went ashore, drew a boat on the sand and said: “Well, brothers, do you see this boat?” “We do!” “Get in it!” (138).
4) The product is bought and sold (Z4). The hero buys a magic chicken (195), a dog and a cat (190), etc. The intermediate form between purchase and production is custom-made. The hero orders a chain (105) from the forge. The designation for such a case is Z43.
5) The hero accidentally comes across the remedy (found by him) (Z5). Ivan sees a horse in the field and mounts it (132). He comes across a tree with magic apples (192).
6) The remedy suddenly appears by itself (Z6). Suddenly a staircase up the mountain appears (156). A special form of independent appearance is the growth from the ground (ZVI), and magic bushes (160, 101), twigs, a dog and a horse, and a dwarf can equally appear.
7) The drug is drunk or eaten (Z7). Strictly speaking, this is not a form of transmission, however, it can be conditionally coordinated with the above cases. Three drinks give extraordinary strength (125). The eaten bird giblets give the heroes various magical qualities (195).
8) The funds are stolen (Z8). The hero steals the horse from the yaga (159). He steals the objects of the disputants (197). Application. magical means to the character who exchanged them, and the reverse taking of the given items can also be considered a special form of theft.
9) Various characters make themselves available to the hero (Z9). An animal, for example, can either give a cub, or it can itself offer its services to the hero. It is as if it gives itself. Let's compare the following cases. The horse is not always transmitted directly or in flint. Sometimes the donor provides only the spell formula with which the horse can be summoned. In the latter case, Ivan is actually given nothing. He only gets the right to an assistant. We have the same case when the petitioner gives Ivan the right to himself. The pike tells Ivan the formula with which it can be called (“just say: “according to the pike’s knowledge””, etc.). If, finally, the formula is omitted, and the animal simply promises “at some time I will be useful to you,” then we still have before us the moment when the hero receives at his disposal a magical remedy in the person of the animal. They then become Ivan's assistants (designation Z9?). It often happens that various magical creatures suddenly appear without any preparation, meet on the way, offer their help and are accepted as assistants (Z69). Most often, these are heroes with extraordinary attributes, or characters with various magical properties (Obyalo, Opivalo, Frost-Greskun).
Before continuing further registration of functions, the question may be raised: in what connection are the types of elements D (transfer preparation) and Z (transfer) found? It should only be noted that when the hero reacts negatively, only Zneg (the transfer does not occur) or Zcontr (the loser is severely punished) is encountered. In case of a positive reaction, the following compounds are found (see diagram):
From this diagram it is clear that the connections are extremely diverse and that, therefore, in general, a wide substitutability of some varieties with others can be recorded. But, if you look at the diagram more closely, you will notice that some connections are missing. This absence is partly due to insufficient material, but some connections would be illogical. Thus we come to the conclusion that there are types of connections. If we base the definition of types on the forms of transmission of the magical remedy, then we can identify two types of connections:
1) Theft of a magical remedy, associated with an attempt to destroy the hero (fry, etc.), with a request for division, with an offer of exchange.
2) All other forms of transmission and receipt associated with all other preparatory forms. A request for partition is of the second type if the partition is actually being made, but of the first if the disputants are deceived. Further, you can notice that the discovery, purchase and sudden independent appearance of a magical remedy or assistant most often occurs without any preparation. These are rudimentary forms. But, if they are still prepared, then in the forms of the second type, and not the first. In this regard, the question of the nature of the donors may be raised. The second type most often gives friendly donors (with the exception of those who give away a magical remedy involuntarily, after a fight), the first type gives hostile donors, or, in any case, deceived ones. These are no longer donors in the proper sense of the word, but characters who supply the heroes against their will. Within forms of each type, all connections are possible and logical, even if they are absent. So, for example, a searching or grateful donor can transfer the means, indicate, sell, make, can let the hero find it, etc. On the other hand, the means can only be stolen or taken away from a deceived donor. Outside of these types, connections are illogical. So, for example, it is illogical if the hero, having completed the difficult task of the yaga, then kidnaps her foal. This does not mean that there are no such connections in the fairy tale. They exist, but in such cases the narrator tries to further motivate the actions of his characters. Another example of an illogical connection, very transparently motivated: Ivan fights with an old man. Unintentionally, during the battle, the old man gives Ivan strong water to drink. This “accidentally” becomes clear if we compare this case with those fairy tales where the drink is given by a grateful or, in general, a friendly donor. Thus, we see that the illogicality of the connection does not stop the storyteller. If we go purely empirically, we will have to assert the replaceability of all varieties of elements D and Z relative to each other.
Some specific examples connections:
D1 G1 Z1. Yaga forces the hero to herd a herd of mares. The second task follows, the hero completes it, receives a horse (160).
D2 G2 Z2. The old man questions the hero. He answers him rudely and gets nothing. Then he returns and answers politely: he gets the horse (155).
D3 G3 Z1. A dying father asks his sons to spend three nights at his grave. The younger one fulfills the request and receives a horse (179).
D3 D3 ZVI The bull asks the royal children to slaughter it, burn it and sow its ashes on three beds. The hero does this. An apple tree grows from one bed, a dog from another, a horse from a third (202).
D1 D1 Z5 The brothers find a large stone. "Can't we move it?" (Test without tester). The elders cannot do this, the younger one moves the stone away, a basement is discovered under the stone, in the basement Ivan finds three horses (137).
This list can be continued ad libitum. It is only necessary to note that in such cases not only horses, but also other magical gifts can be transferred. Examples with horses are chosen here to highlight the morphological relationship more clearly.
D6 GVI Z8. Three disputants ask for the division of magical items. The hero forces the debaters to run away, meanwhile stealing objects (a hat, a carpet, boots).
D8 G8 Z8. The heroes end up with the yaga. She wants to cut off their heads at night. They give her her daughters. The brothers flee, the younger one steals a magic handkerchief (106).
D10 G10 Z8 The hero is served by the invisible spirit Shmat-Razum. Three merchants offer in exchange for him a box (garden), an ax (ship), and a horn (army). The hero agrees to the exchange, and then calls his assistant back (212).
We see that the replacement of some varieties by others within each type is indeed very widely practiced. Another question is whether known transmission objects are related to known forms transfers, i.e. isn’t a horse always given, and isn’t a flying carpet always stolen, etc.? Although our discussion concerns only functions as such, we can point out (without proof) that such a norm does not exist. The horse, which is most often given, is stolen in fairy tale No. 160. On the contrary, a magic handkerchief that saves people from pursuit, usually stolen, is given as a gift in fairy tale No. 159 and others. The flying ship is manufactured, indicated, donated, etc.
Let's return to listing the functions of the actors. After receiving a magical remedy, it should be used or, if a living creature falls into the hands of the hero, its direct assistance on the orders of the hero. With this, the hero outwardly loses all significance: he himself does nothing, the assistant does everything. Nevertheless, the morphological significance of the hero is very great, since his intentions create the core of the story. These intentions are manifested in the various orders that the hero gives to his assistants. Now a more precise definition of a hero can be given than was done above. The hero of a fairy tale is a character who either directly suffered from the action of a pest in the beginning (resp. feeling some shortage), or who agreed to eliminate the misfortune or shortage of another person. In the course of action, the hero is the person who is supplied with a magical agent (magical assistant) and uses or is served by it.
XV. The hero is transported, delivered or brought to the location of the subject of the search
(definition - spatial movement between two kingdoms, guidance; designation R).
Usually the object of search is “in another”, “different” kingdom. This kingdom can lie either very far horizontally, or very high or deep vertically. The connection methods may be the same in all cases, but there are specific forms for depths and heights.
1) He flies through the air (R1). On a horse (171), on a bird (210), in the form of a bird (162), on a flying ship (138), on a flying carpet (192), on the back of a giant or spirit (210), in a devil’s carriage (154) and etc. Flight on a bird is sometimes accompanied by a detail: it needs to be fed along the way, the hero takes a bull with him, etc.
2) He rides on land or water (R2). Riding a horse or a wolf (168). On the ship (247). The armless man carries the legless man (196). A cat swims across a river on the back of a dog (190),
3) He is being led (R3). The glomerulus points the way (234). The fox leads the hero to the princess (163).
4) They show him the way (R4). The hedgehog points the way to his kidnapped brother (113).
5) He uses fixed means of communication (R5). He climbs the stairs (156), finds an underground passage and uses it (141), walks along the back of a huge pike, as if on a bridge (156), lowers himself on straps, etc.
6) He follows bloody trails (R6). The hero defeats the inhabitant of the forest hut, he runs and hides under a stone. Following his footsteps, Ivan finds the entrance to another kingdom.
This exhausts the forms of movement of the hero. It should be noted that delivery as a special function is sometimes omitted. The hero simply gets to the place, i.e. the function R is a natural continuation of the function . In this case, the function R is not fixed.
XVI. The hero and antagonist come into direct combat
(definition - struggle, designation B).
This form should be distinguished from a struggle (fight) with a hostile donor. These forms can be distinguished by their consequences. If, as a result of a hostile meeting, the hero receives a means for further searches, then we have element D. If, as a result of victory, the very object of the search for which he was sent falls into the hands of the hero, then we have element B.
1) They fight in an open field (B1). This primarily includes a fight with a snake or with Miracle Yuda, etc. (125), as well as a fight with an enemy army, with a hero, etc. (212).
2) They enter into competition (B2). In humorous tales, the fight itself sometimes does not happen. After a squabble (sometimes completely similar to the squabble before the battle), the hero and the saboteur enter into a competition. The hero, using cunning, wins. - The gypsy puts the snake to flight by squeezing out a piece of cottage cheese instead of a stone, passing off a blow of a club to the back of the head as a whistle (148), etc.
3) They play cards (B3). The hero and the snake (devil) play cards (153, 192).
4) Tale No. 93 has a special form. Here the snake offers the hero: “Let Ivan Tsarevich come with me to the scales - who will outweigh whom.”
XVII. The hero is being tagged
(definition - branding, mark, designation K).
1) The mark is applied to the body (K1). The hero receives a wound during the battle. The princess wakes him up before the fight by stabbing him in the cheek with a knife (125). The princess marks the hero on the forehead with a ring (195). She kisses him, causing a star to light up on his forehead.
2) The hero receives a ring or towel (K2). We have a combination of two forms when a hero is wounded in battle, and the wound is bandaged with a handkerchief of a princess or king.
3) Other forms of branding (K3).
XVIII. The antagonist is defeated
(definition - victory, designation P).
1) He is defeated in open combat (P1).
2) He is defeated in a competition (P2).
3) He loses at cards (P3).
4) He loses at the weigh-in (P4).
5) He is killed without a preliminary fight (P5). The snake is killed while sleeping (141). Zmiulan hides in a hollow and is killed (164).
6) He is directly expelled (P6). The princess, possessed by the devil, wears an image around her neck. “The enemy’s power flew out like a club” (115).
Victory also comes in a negative form. If two or three heroes come out to fight, then one of them (the general) hides, and the other wins (Designation *P1).
XIX. The initial problem or shortage is eliminated
(definition - elimination of trouble or shortage, designation L).
This function forms a pair with sabotage (A). With this function the story reaches its peak.
1) The object of the search is abducted using force or cunning (L1). The heroes here sometimes use the same means that the pests use in the initial abduction. Ivan's horse turns into a beggar and asks for alms. The princess serves. Ivan runs out of the bushes, they grab her and carry her away (185).
1a) Sometimes loot is done by two characters, one of whom forces the other to loot. The horse steps on the crayfish and forces him to bring a wedding dress. The cat catches the mouse and forces it to bring a ring (190) (designation L1).
2) The search object is obtained by several characters at once, with a quick change of their actions (L2). Distribution is caused by a series of successive failures or attempts by the kidnapped person to escape. - Seven Semeons get the princess: the thief kidnaps her - she flies away as a swan; the archer shoots her down, another, instead of the dog, takes her out of the water, etc. (145). The egg is obtained in a similar way with the death of Koshchei. The hare, duck, fish run away, fly away, swim away, carrying away the egg. The wolf, the crow, the fish get it (156).
3) The search object is obtained using baits (L3). The shape, in other cases very close to L1. The hero lures the princess onto the ship with the help of golden things and takes her away (242). A special subcategory could be a lure in the form of an exchange offer. The blinded girl embroiders a wonderful crown and sends it to the villainous maid; in exchange for the crown, she gives her eyes, which are thus obtained back (127).
4) Extraction of what is sought is a direct result of previous actions (L4). If, for example, Ivan killed the snake and then marries the freed princess, then there is no booty as a special act, but there is booty as a function, as a stage in the course of action. The princess is not captured, not carried away, nevertheless she is obtained. It was obtained as a result of battle. Mining in these cases is a logical element. Loot can be obtained as a result of other actions, not just combat. So, Ivan can find the princess as a result of the guide.
5) The search object is obtained instantly by using a magical remedy (L5). Two fellows (they are from a magic book) deliver a deer with a whirlwind - golden antlers (212).
6) Poverty is eliminated by using a magic remedy (L6). The magic duck lays golden eggs (195). This also includes a self-assembled tablecloth and a horse scattering gold (186). We have a different form of self-assembled tablecloth in the image of a pike: “By pike command, by God’s blessing, be the table set and dinner ready” (167).
7) The search object is caught (L7). This form is typical for agricultural theft. The hero catches a mare stealing hay (105). He catches a crane stealing peas (187).
8) The bewitched person is disenchanted (L8). This form is typical of A11 (bewitchment). Disenchantment occurs either by burning the casing, or by using the formula: be a maiden again.
9) The dead person is revived (L9). The hairpin or dead tooth is removed from the head (202, 206). The hero is sprayed with living and dead water.
9a) Just as in reverse abduction one animal forces another to act, so here the wolf catches a raven and forces its mother to bring living and dead water (168). Such revival with preliminary water extraction can be classified as a special subcategory (Designation LIX).
10) The captive is freed (L10). The horse breaks the doors of the dungeon and releases Ivan (185). This form morphologically has nothing in common, for example, with the release of a goblin, since it creates a reason for gratitude and for the transfer of a magical remedy, and here the initial misfortune is eliminated. We have a special form of liberation in fairy tale No. 259. Here, the sea king always carries his captive ashore at midnight. The hero begs the sun to free him. The sun is late twice. For the third time, “the sun shone with its rays, and the king of the sea could no longer take it full.”
11) Sometimes the extraction of the search object is carried out in the same forms as the extraction of a magical remedy, i.e. it is given as a gift, its place is indicated, it is bought, etc. Designation of such cases: AZ1 - direct transfer, LZ2 - indication, etc. .d., as above.
XX. The hero returns
(definition - return, symbol ↓).
The return is usually carried out in the same forms as the arrival. However, there is no need to fix a special function here after the return, since the return already means overcoming space. This is not always the case when going there. There, after departure, a means is given (horse, eagle, etc.), and then flight or other forms of travel take place, but here return occurs immediately and, moreover, for the most part in the same forms as arrival. Sometimes the return has the character of an escape.
XXI. The hero is being persecuted
(definition - pursuit, pursuit, designation Pr).
1) The pursuer flies after the hero (Ex1). The snake catches up with Ivan (159), the witch flies after the boy (105), the geese fly after the girl (113).
2) He demands someone to blame (Pr2). This form is also most often associated with flight. The serpent's father sends a flying ship. They shout from the ship: “Guilty! Guilty!” (125).
3) He pursues the hero, quickly turning into various animals, etc. (Ex3). A form, in some stages also associated with flight. The sorcerer pursues the hero in the form of a wolf, a pike, a man, and a rooster (249).
4) The pursuers (snake wives, etc.) turn into tempting objects and stand in the way of the hero (Ex4). “I’ll run ahead and let it be a hot day, and I myself will become a green meadow: in this green meadow I will turn into a well, in this well a silver cup will float... Then it will tear them apart, poppy seed by grain” (136). The snakes turn into gardens, pillows, wells, etc. How they overtake the hero, the fairy tale does not say anything about this.
5) The pursuer is trying to absorb the hero (Ex5). The snake turns into a girl, seduces the hero, and then turns into a lioness and wants to swallow Ivan (155). The mother snake opens its mouth from heaven to earth (155).
6) The pursuer tries to kill the hero (Ex6). He tries to drive a dead tooth into his head (202).
7) He tries to gnaw the tree on which the hero is saved (Pr7 108).
XXII. The hero escapes persecution
(definition - salvation, designation Sp).
1) He is carried away through the air (sometimes he is saved by lightning fast flight - Sp1). The hero flies away on a horse (160), on geese (108).
2) The hero runs, and during his flight puts obstacles in the way of the pursuer (Sp2). He throws down the brush, comb, and towel. They turn into mountains, forests, lakes. Similar: Vertogor and Verto-oak turn up mountains and oaks, placing them in the path of the snake (93).
3) During the flight, the hero turns into objects that make him unrecognizable (Sp3). The princess turns herself and the prince into a well and a ladle, into a church and a priest (219).
4) The hero hides while fleeing (Sp4). A river, an apple tree, and a stove hide a girl (113).
5) He hides with the blacksmiths (Sp5). The snake demands someone to blame. Ivan hid with the blacksmiths, the blacksmiths grab her by the tongue and hit her with hammers (136). The incident in fairy tale No. 153 is undoubtedly connected with this form. The devils are put in a satchel by a soldier, taken to the forge and beaten with hammers.
6) He flees and quickly turns into animals, stones, etc. (Sp6). The hero runs in the form of a horse, a ruff, a ring, grain, and a falcon (249). Essential for this form is the transformation itself. Escape may sometimes be absent; such forms can be considered a subcategory. A girl is killed and a garden grows out of her. The garden is cut down, it turns to stone, etc. (127).
7) He avoids the temptation of converted snakes (Sp7). Ivan chops down a garden, a well, etc. Blood flows from them (137).
8) He does not allow himself to be swallowed (Sp8). Ivan jumps on his horse over the snake's mouth. He recognizes the lioness as a snake and kills her (155).
9) He escapes from an attempt on his life (Sp9). The animals remove the dead tooth from his head in time (202).
10) He jumps to another tree - Sp10 (108). Many fairy tales end with salvation from persecution. The hero arrives home, then, if the girl has been obtained, he gets married, etc. But this does not always happen. The fairy tale forces the hero to experience a new misfortune. His enemy appears again, Ivan’s booty is stolen, he himself is killed, etc. In a word, the basic sabotage is repeated, sometimes in the same forms as in the beginning, sometimes in others, new for this tale. This marks the beginning of a new story. There are no specific forms of repeated sabotage, i.e. we again have kidnapping, bewitchment, murder, etc. But there are specific saboteurs for this new misfortune. These are Ivan's older brothers. Shortly before arriving home, they take the loot from Ivan, sometimes killing him himself. If they leave him alive, then in order for a new quest to be created, it is necessary again to somehow lay a huge spatial line between the hero and the subject of his quest. This is achieved by throwing Ivan into the abyss (into a hole, into the underground kingdom, sometimes into the sea), where he sometimes flies for three whole days. Then everything is repeated all over again, that is, again a chance meeting with a donor, passing a test or rendering a service, etc., receiving a magical remedy and using it to return home to your kingdom. From this point on, the development is different than at the beginning, which we will come to below.
This phenomenon means that many tales consist of two rows of functions, which can be called moves. New trouble is created new move, and thus sometimes combined into one story a whole series fairy tales However, the development that will be outlined below, although it creates a new move, is a continuation of this tale. In this regard, we will subsequently have to raise the question of how to determine how many fairy tales there are in each text.
VIII b i s . The brothers steal Ivan's loot (they throw him into the abyss).
Sabotage is already designated by A. If the brothers kidnap the bride, we designate A1. If a magical remedy is stolen - A2. If the kidnapping is accompanied by murder - A114. The forms associated with being thrown into the abyss are denoted by *A1, *A2, *A2l4, etc.
X–XI b i s . The hero goes on a quest again (C see X–XI).
This element is sometimes omitted here, Ivan wanders around, cries and does not seem to think about returning. Element B (sending) in these cases is also always omitted, since there is no need to send Ivan, since the bride was kidnapped from him.
XII b i s. The hero again undergoes actions leading to his receiving a magical remedy. (D; see XII).
ХIIIb i s. The hero again reacts to the actions of the future donor (G; see XIII).
XIV b i s. The hero has a new magical remedy at his disposal (Z; see XIV).
XV b i s . The hero is delivered or brought to the location of the subject of the search (R; see XV). In this case, it is delivered home.
From this moment on, the development of the narrative is different, the fairy tale gives new functions.
XXIII. The hero arrives unrecognized home or to another country
(definition - unrecognized arrival, symbol X)
Two cases can be seen here. 1) Arrival home. The hero stops with some artisan: a goldsmith, a tailor, a shoemaker, and becomes his apprentice. 2) He arrives to another king, enters the kitchen as a cook or serves as a groom. Along with this, sometimes it is necessary to indicate simple arrival.
XXIV. The false hero makes unreasonable claims
(definition - unfounded claims, designation F).
If the hero arrives home, then the brothers make claims. If he serves in another kingdom, they are presented by a general or a water carrier, etc. The brothers pose as breadwinners, the general as the winner of the serpent. These two forms could be considered special categories.
XXV. The hero is given a difficult task
(definition is a difficult task, symbol 3).
This is one of the favorite elements of the fairy tale. Problems are also given outside of the connections just outlined, but these connections will occupy us somewhat below; For now, let’s deal with the tasks themselves. These tasks are so diverse that each would require a special designation. However, there is no need to go into these details yet. Since an exact distribution will not be given, we will list all cases of our material, roughly dividing them into groups. Test of food and drink: eat a certain number of oxen, cartloads of bread, drink a lot of beer (137, 138, 144). Trial by fire: wash in a hot cast iron bath. This form is always connected to the previous one. Separately: bathe in boiling water (169). Guessing tasks, etc.: ask an unsolvable riddle (239), tell, interpret a dream (241), say what the crows are cawing at the king’s window and drive them away (247), find out (guess) the signs of the king’s daughter (192). Selection tasks: out of twelve equal girls (boys), indicate the ones you are looking for (219, 227, 249). Hide and seek: hide so that it cannot be found (236). Kiss the princess in the window (172, 182). Jump onto the gate (101). Test of strength, dexterity, courage: the princess strangles Ivan at night or shakes his hand (198, 136); given the task of raising the severed heads of a serpent (171), riding a horse (198); milk a herd of wild mares (169). Defeat the heroic girl (202); defeat your opponent (167). Test of patience: spend seven years in the kingdom of tin (268). Delivery and manufacturing task: deliver medicine (123), deliver a wedding dress, ring, shoes (132, 139, 156, 169). Deliver the hair of the sea king (137, 240). Deliver the flying ship (144). Deliver living water (144). Place a regiment of soldiers (144). Harvest seventy-seven mares (169). Build a palace overnight (190) and a bridge to it (210). Bring “to my unknown as a mate” (192). Manufacturing tasks: sew shirts (104, 267), bake bread (267); As the third task in this case, the king proposes “who can dance better.” Other tasks: Pick berries from a known bush or tree (100, 101). Cross the pole over the pit (137). “Whose candle lights up by itself” (195).
How these tasks can be distinguished from other, very similar elements will be discussed below in the chapter on assimilation.
XXVI. The problem is being solved
(definition - decision, designation P).
The forms of the solution, of course, exactly correspond to the forms of the problems. Some problems are solved before they are asked, or before the asker demands a solution. So, the hero first learns to accept! princesses, and then the task is given. We will denote such cases of a preliminary decision with the sign *P.
XXVII. The hero will be recognized
(definition - recognition, designation Y).
He is recognized by a mark, by a brand (wound, star) or by an object given to him (a ring, a towel). In this case, recognition is a function corresponding to branding, with a mark. He is also recognized by solving a difficult problem (in this case almost always preceded by an unrecognized arrival), or recognition occurs immediately after a long separation. In this case, parents and children, brothers and sisters, etc. can recognize each other.
XXVIII. The false hero or antagonist is exposed
(definition - exposure, designation O).
This function is mostly related to the previous one. Sometimes it is the result of an unsolved problem (the false hero cannot lift the heads of the serpent). Most often it is given in the form of a story (“The princess told everything as it happened”). Sometimes all events are told from the very beginning in the form of a fairy tale. The pest is among the listeners, he reveals himself with exclamations of disapproval (197). Sometimes a song is sung telling the story of what happened and exposing the pest (244). There are other isolated forms of reproof (258).
XXIX. The hero is given a new look
(definition - transfiguration, designation T).
1) The new look is given directly by the magical action of the assistant (T1). The hero passes through the ears of a horse (cow) and receives a new, beautiful appearance.
2) The hero builds a wonderful palace (T2). He himself walks around the palace as a prince. A girl suddenly wakes up overnight in a wonderful palace (127). Although the hero in this case does not always change his appearance, still in these cases we see a transformation, special kind his.
3) The hero puts on new clothes (T3). The girl puts on a (magical) dress and headdress, and suddenly acquires a radiant beauty that everyone marvels at (234).
4) Rationalized and humorous forms (T4). These forms are partly explained by the previous ones as their transformations, partly they must be studied and explained in connection with the study of fairy tales and anecdotes from which they came. In these cases there is no actual change of appearance, but the appearance of it is achieved through deception. Examples: the fox leads Kuzinka to the king, says that Kuzinka fell into a ditch, asks for clothes. She is given royal clothes. Kuzinka enters in royal clothes and is mistaken for the prince. All similar cases can be formulated: false evidence of wealth and beauty, accepted as valid evidence.
XXX. The enemy is punished
(definition - punishment, designation N).
He is shot, expelled, tied to the tail of a horse, commits suicide, etc. Along with this, sometimes we have generous forgiveness (Hneg). Usually only the saboteur of the second move and the false hero are punished, and the first saboteur is punished only in cases where there is no battle or chase in the story. Otherwise, he is killed in battle, or dies during the chase (the witch bursts when trying to drink the sea, etc.).
XXXI. The hero marries and reigns
(definition - wedding, designation C**).
1) The bride and the kingdom are given either immediately, or the hero receives half the kingdom first, and after the death of his parents, that’s all (C**)
2) Sometimes the hero just gets married, but his bride is not a princess, and no accession to the throne occurs. Designation C*.
3) Sometimes, on the contrary, they only talk about reaching the throne. Designation C*.
4) If the fairy tale is interrupted shortly before the wedding by a new sabotage, then the first move ends with an engagement, a promise of marriage. Designation (c1).
5) The opposite case: a married hero loses his wife; As a result of the search, the marriage is renewed. Renewed marriage is denoted by c2.
6) Sometimes the hero, instead of the princess’s hand, receives a monetary reward or compensation in other forms (c3).
This is where the fairy tale ends. It should also be noted that some actions of fairy-tale heroes in some cases do not obey and are not determined by any of the above functions. There are very few such cases. These are either forms that cannot be understood without comparative material, or forms transferred from fairy tales of other categories (anecdotes, legends, etc.). We define them as unclear elements and denote them with N.
What conclusions can be drawn from these observations?
First, a few general conclusions.
We see that, indeed, the number of functions is very limited. Only thirty-one functions can be noted. Within the framework of these functions, the action of absolutely all the fairy tales of our material develops, as well as the action of very many other fairy tales of the most various peoples. Further, if we read all the functions in a row, we will see how, with logical and artistic necessity, one function follows from another. We see that, indeed, no function excludes the other. They all belong to one rod, and not to several rods, as noted above.
Now a few specific, albeit very important, conclusions.
We see that a very large number of functions are arranged in pairs (prohibition-violation, scouting-extradition, fight-victory, pursuit-rescue, etc.). Other functions can be arranged in groups. So - sabotage, sending, the decision to counteract and sending from home (A B C) make up the plot. The test of the hero by the donor, his reaction and reward (D G Z) also form a whole. Along with this, there are single functions (absence, punishment, marriage, etc.).
For now we simply note these particular conclusions. The observation that functions are arranged in pairs will be useful to us. Our general conclusions will also be useful to us.
We must now move on to fairy tales, to individual texts. The question of how this scheme is applied to texts, what individual tales are in relation to the scheme, can only be resolved by analyzing the texts. The opposite question - the question of what this scheme is in relation to fairy tales - can be resolved now. It is a unit of measurement for individual fairy tales. Just as matter can be applied to a meter and this determines its length, fairy tales can be applied to a diagram, and this determines them. From the application different fairy tales The relationship of fairy tales to each other can also be determined in relation to this scheme. We already foresee that the question of the kinship of fairy tales, the question of plots and variants, thanks to this, may receive a new solution.
Vladimir Propp
Morphology of a "magic" fairy tale
(Collected works)
Morphology of a fairy tale
Historical roots fairy tale
Russian fairy tale
Russian heroic epic
Russian agricultural holidays
Poetics of folklore
Problems of comedy and laughter
Stories. Diary. Memories
Moscow Labyrinth
V.Ya.Propp
(Collected works)
[to see the text online I had to replace some characters in the book:
1) I replaced the up arrow with an open curly brace (
2) I replaced the down arrow with a closed curly brace)
3) I replaced the underlining of characters with an overline in one case with a regular underline,
In graphic files, accordingly, everything is like in a book.
All comments to the first and second work are located at the end of the second work (i.e. in “Historical roots of a fairy tale”).
The insert with the diagrams is at the end of the first one (i.e. here).
I will repeat in this book (as well as in homo ludens) that graphic files in browsers look worse than they are, so by saving the html in Word.doc you can calmly look at them. Write about errors either in my guestbook or, because . Maxim already has enough worries]
MORPHOLOGY OF A MAGICAL TALE 5
Preface 5
I. To the history of the issue 6
II. Method and material 18
III. Functions of actors 23
IV. Assimilation. Cases of double morphological meaning of one function 51
V. Some other elements of the tale 54
A. Auxiliary elements for connecting functions with each other 54
B. Auxiliary elements for triplings 56
C. Motivations 57
VI. Distribution of functions among actors 60
VII. Ways to include new faces in the course of action 64
VIII. On the attributes of characters and their meaning 66
IX. Fairy tale as a whole 69
A. Ways of combining stories 69
B. Analysis Example 73
C. Question of classification 75
D. On the relationship of particular forms of structure to the general structure 79
E. Question about composition and plot, about plots and options 87
Conclusion 89
APPENDIX I 91
APPENDIX II 97
APPENDIX III 103
NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL DIAGRAMS 104
APPENDIX IV 108
Appendix V Transfer of the numbering of pre-revolutionary editions of Afanasyev's fairy tales to the numbering of post-revolutionary editions
Schemes for analysis of fairy tales Beginning Ending
Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp. Morphology of a fairy tale. Historical roots of fairy tales. (Collected works of V. Ya. Propp.) Comments by E. M. Meletinsky, A. V. Rafaeva. Compilation, scientific editing, textual commentary by I. V. Peshkov. - Publishing house "Labyrinth", M., 1998. - 512 p.
For the first time, the famous dilogy about a fairy tale is published as a single work (according to the author’s intention). Extensive commentary articles, a bibliography, a name index, and an index of characters turn the book into a textbook and reference book on fairy tales, and the unusually wide coverage of humanitarian material, the depth of its mastery and an intelligible style of presentation have long ago introduced its constituent works into the global cultural fund of a modern educated person.
Morphology of a MAGICAL TALE
Preface
Morphology still needs to be legitimized as a special science, making as its main subject what is treated in others on occasion and in passing, collecting what is scattered there, and establishing a new point of view that allows us to easily and conveniently consider the things of nature. The phenomena she deals with are highest degree significant; those mental operations with the help of which it compares phenomena are in accordance with human nature and are pleasant to it, so that even a failed experiment will still combine benefit and beauty.
The word morphology means the study of forms. In botany, morphology is understood as the study of the constituent parts of a plant, their relationship to each other and to the whole, in other words, the study of the structure of the plant.
Nobody thought about the possibility of the concept and term morphology of a fairy tale. Meanwhile, in the folk field, folk tale consideration of forms and establishment of patterns of structure is possible with the same accuracy with which the morphology of organic formations is possible.
If this cannot be asserted about the fairy tale as a whole, in its entire volume, then in any case this can be asserted about the so-called fairy tales, about fairy tales “in the proper sense of the word.” The real work is dedicated to them only.
The experience offered is the result of quite painstaking work. Such comparisons require some patience from the researcher. But we tried to find a form of presentation that would not overly tempt the reader’s patience, simplifying and shortening where possible.
The work went through three phases. Initially, this was a broad study with a large number of tables, diagrams, and analyses. It turned out to be impossible to publish such a work due to its large volume. A reduction was undertaken, designed to minimize volume while maximizing content. But such an abbreviation summary it would be too much for the shoulder
to the first reader: it looked like a grammar book or a harmony textbook. The form of presentation had to be changed. True, there are things that are impossible to express popularly. They are also in this work. But still, it seems that in its present form the work is accessible to every fairy tale lover, if only he himself wants to follow us into the labyrinth of fairy-tale diversity, which will ultimately appear before him as a wonderful uniformity.
In the interests of a more concise and lively presentation, much that a specialist would have valued had to be sacrificed. In its original form, the work covered, in addition to those parts given below, also the study of the rich field of attributes of the characters (that is, the characters as such); she dealt in detail with the issues of metamorphosis, that is, the transformation of a fairy tale; large ones were included comparison tables(only their titles remain in the appendix), the entire work was preceded by a more rigorous methodological outline. It was intended to provide a study not only of the morphological, but also of the completely special logical structure of the fairy tale, which prepared the way for the historical study of the fairy tale. The presentation itself was more detailed. The elements which are here only highlighted as such have been subjected to detailed consideration and comparison. But the selection of elements constitutes the axis of the entire work and predetermines the conclusions. An experienced reader will be able to complete the sketches himself.
I was completely convinced that a general type based on transformations ran through all organic beings, and that it could be clearly observed in all parts on some average section.
First of all, let's try to formulate our task. As already mentioned in the preface, the work is devoted to fairy tales. The existence of fairy tales as a special category is allowed as a necessary working hypothesis. For now, fairy tales are understood as fairy tales, identified by Aarne-Thompson as Nos. 300–749. This is a preliminary, artificial definition, but subsequently the opportunity will arise to give a more precise definition based on the conclusions obtained. We undertake a cross-plot comparison of these tales. For comparison, we identify the component parts of fairy tales according to special techniques (see below) and then compare the fairy tales according to their component parts. The result will be morphology, i.e., a description of the tale according to its component parts and the relationship of the parts to each other and to the whole.
By what methods can an accurate description of a fairy tale be achieved? Let's compare the following cases:
1. The king gives the daredevil an eagle. The eagle carries the daredevil to another kingdom (Aph. 171).
2. Grandfather gives Suchenka a horse. The horse takes Suchenko to another kingdom (132).
3. The sorcerer gives Ivan a boat. The boat takes Ivan to another kingdom (138).
4. The princess gives Ivan a ring. The fellows from the ring take Ivan to another kingdom (156); etc.
In the above cases, there are constant and variable quantities. The names (and with them the attributes) of the characters change, but their actions do not change, or functions. Hence the conclusion is that fairy tales often attribute the same actions to different characters. This gives us the opportunity to study a fairy tale based on the functions of the characters.
We will have to determine to what extent these functions really represent repeated, constant values of the tale. The formulation of all other questions will depend on the resolution of the first question: how many functions is known to the fairy tale?
The study will show that the repeatability of the functions is amazing. So, Baba Yaga, and Morozko, and the bear, and the goblin, and the mare’s head test and reward the stepdaughter. Continuing observations, we can establish that the characters of a fairy tale, no matter how diverse they are, often do the same thing. The very way of performing functions can change: it is a variable quantity. Morozko acts differently than Baba Yaga. But the function as such is a constant quantity. For the study of fairy tales, the important question is what the fairy-tale characters do, and the question of who does it and how they do it are questions only for incidental study.
The functions of the actors are those components that can be replaced motives Veselovsky or elements Bedier. Let us note that the repetition of functions under different performers has long been noticed by historians of religion in myths and beliefs, but has not been noticed by historians of fairy tales. Just as the properties and functions of gods are transferred from one to another and, finally, even transferred to Christian saints, in the same way the functions of some fairy tale characters switch to other characters. Looking ahead, we can say that there are extremely few functions, but there are extremely many characters. This explains the dual quality of a fairy tale: on the one hand, its amazing diversity, its diversity and colorfulness, on the other, its no less amazing monotony, its repetition.
So, the functions of the characters represent the main parts of the tale, and we must first of all highlight them.
To highlight functions, they must be defined. The definition must come from two points of view. First, the definition should in no way be taken into account by the performing character. The definition is most often a noun expressing an action (prohibition, questioning, flight, etc.). Secondly, action cannot be defined outside of its position in the course of the narrative. It is necessary to take into account the value that this function has in the course of action.
So, if Ivan marries a princess, then this is completely different from a father’s marriage to a widow with two daughters. Another example: if in one case the hero receives one hundred rubles from his father and subsequently buys himself a prophetic cat with this money, and in another case the hero is awarded money for perfect heroism and the fairy tale ends there, then we have before us, despite the identical actions (transfer of money ), morphologically different elements. Thus, the same actions can have different meaning and vice versa. A function is understood as an act of an actor, defined in terms of its significance for the course of action.
The above observations can be briefly formulated as follows:
I. The constant, stable elements of a fairy tale are the functions of the characters, regardless of who and how they are performed. They form the main components of a fairy tale.
II. The number of functions known to a fairy tale is limited.
If the functions are isolated, then another question arises: in what grouping and in what sequence do these functions occur? First of all, about consistency. It is believed that this sequence is random. Veselovsky says: “The choice and order of tasks and meetings (examples of motives - V.P.)… presupposes an already known freedom" (Veselovsky 1913, 3). Shklovsky expressed this idea even more sharply: "It is completely incomprehensible why, when borrowing, the random (Shklovsky's discharge - V.P.) sequence of motives. In witness testimony, it is the sequence of events that is most distorted" (Shklovsky 1925, 23). This reference to witness testimony is unsuccessful. If witnesses distort the sequence, then their story is useless, but the sequence of events has its own laws, and similar laws have fictional story. Theft cannot occur before the door is broken. As for the fairy tale, it has its own completely special, specific laws. The sequence of elements, as we will see below, is strictly the same. Freedom in sequence is limited to very narrow limits that can be given exactly. We get the third main thesis of our work, which is subject to further development and proof:
III. The sequence of functions is always the same.
It should be noted that this pattern applies only to folklore. It is not a feature of the fairy tale genre as such. Artificially created fairy tales are not subject to it.
As for the grouping, first of all it should be said that not all fairy tales provide all the functions. But this does not change the law of consistency at all. The absence of some functions does not change the routine of others. We will dwell on this phenomenon later, but for now we will deal with groups in the proper sense of the word. The very formulation of the question raises the following assumption: if the functions are isolated, then it will be possible to trace which tales give the same functions. Such tales with the same functions can be considered of the same type. On this basis, an index of types can subsequently be created, built not on plot features, which are somewhat vague and vague, but on precise structural features. Indeed, this will be possible. But if we further compare structural types with each other, we get the following, completely unexpected phenomenon: functions cannot be distributed among rods that exclude each other. This phenomenon in all its concreteness will appear before us in the next and in last chapters. In the meantime, it can be explained as follows: if we denote the function that occurs everywhere in the first place by the letter A, and the function that (if there is one) always follows it by the letter B, then all the functions known in the fairy tale will be placed in one story, none of them falls out of series, none excludes the other or contradicts it. Such a conclusion could no longer be predicted. One should, of course, expect that where there is function A, there cannot be known functions belonging to other stories. It was expected that we would receive several rods, but there is only one rod for all fairy tales. They are of the same type, and the compounds mentioned above are subtypes. At first glance, this conclusion seems absurd, even wild, but it can be verified in the most accurate way. This uniformity represents a very complex problem that will have to be discussed further. This phenomenon will raise a number of questions.
Morphology of a fairy tale
Vladimir Propp
Morphology of a "magic" fairy tale
(Collected works)
Morphology of a fairy tale
Historical roots of fairy tales
Russian fairy tale
Russian heroic epic
Russian agricultural holidays
Poetics of folklore
Problems of comedy and laughter
Stories. Diary. Memories
Moscow Labyrinth
V.Ya.Propp
(Collected works)
[to see the text online I had to replace some characters in the book:
1) I replaced the up arrow with an open curly brace (
2) I replaced the down arrow with a closed curly brace)
3) I replaced the underlining of characters with an overline in one case with a regular underline,
in another case, I also added hc (top line) in the superscript hc.
In graphic files, accordingly, everything is like in a book.
All comments to the first and second work are located at the end of the second work (i.e. in “Historical roots of a fairy tale”).
The insert with the diagrams is at the end of the first one (i.e. here).
I will repeat in this book (as well as in homo ludens) that graphic files in browsers look worse than they are, so by saving the html in Word.doc you can calmly look at them. Write about errors either in my guestbook or [email protected], because Maxim already has enough worries]
Table of contents
MORPHOLOGY OF A MAGICAL TALE 5
Preface 5
I. To the history of the issue 6
II. Method and material 18
III. Functions of actors 23
IV. Assimilation. Cases of double morphological meaning of one function 51
V. Some other elements of the tale 54
A. Auxiliary elements for connecting functions with each other 54
B. Auxiliary elements for triplings 56
C. Motivations 57
VI. Distribution of functions among actors 60
VII. Ways to include new faces in the course of action 64
VIII. On the attributes of characters and their meaning 66
IX. Fairy tale as a whole 69
A. Ways of combining stories 69
B. Analysis Example 73
C. Question of classification 75
D. On the relationship of particular forms of structure to the general structure 79
E. Question about composition and plot, about plots and options 87
Conclusion 89
APPENDIX I 91
APPENDIX II 97
APPENDIX III 103
NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL DIAGRAMS 104
APPENDIX IV 108
INSERT
Appendix V Transfer of the numbering of pre-revolutionary editions of Afanasyev's fairy tales to the numbering of post-revolutionary editions
Schemes for analysis of fairy tales Beginning Ending
Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp. Morphology of a fairy tale. Historical roots of fairy tales. (Collected works of V. Ya. Propp.) Comments by E. M. Meletinsky, A. V. Rafaeva. Compilation, scientific editing, textual commentary by I. V. Peshkov. - Publishing house "Labyrinth", M., 1998. - 512 p.
For the first time, the famous dilogy about a fairy tale is published as a single work (according to the author’s intention). Extensive commentary articles, a bibliography, a name index, and an index of characters turn the book into a textbook and reference book on fairy tales, and the unusually wide coverage of humanitarian material, the depth of its mastery and an intelligible style of presentation have long ago introduced its constituent works into the global cultural fund of a modern educated person.
Morphology of a MAGICAL TALE
Preface
Morphology still needs to be legitimized as a special science, making as its main subject what is treated in others on occasion and in passing, collecting what is scattered there, and establishing a new point of view that allows us to easily and conveniently consider the things of nature. The phenomena with which she deals are extremely significant; those mental operations with the help of which it compares phenomena are in accordance with human nature and are pleasant to it, so that even a failed experiment will still combine benefit and beauty.
Goethe.
The word morphology means the study of forms. In botany, morphology is understood as the study of the constituent parts of a plant, their relationship to each other and to the whole, in other words, the study of the structure of the plant.
Nobody thought about the possibility of the concept and term morphology of a fairy tale. Meanwhile, in the field of folk tales, consideration of forms and establishment of structure patterns is possible with the same accuracy with which the morphology of organic formations is possible.
If this cannot be asserted about the fairy tale as a whole, in its entire volume, then in any case this can be asserted about the so-called fairy tales, about fairy tales “in the proper sense of the word.” The real work is dedicated to them only.
The experience offered is the result of quite painstaking work. Such comparisons require some patience from the researcher. But we tried to find a form of presentation that would not overly tempt the reader’s patience, simplifying and shortening where possible.
The work went through three phases. Initially, this was a broad study with a large number of tables, diagrams, and analyses. It turned out to be impossible to publish such a work due to its large volume. A reduction was undertaken, designed to minimize volume while maximizing content. But such an abbreviated, condensed presentation would be beyond the capabilities of some
5
to the first reader: it looked like a grammar book or a harmony textbook. The form of presentation had to be changed. True, there are things that are impossible to express popularly. They are also in this work. But still, it seems that in its present form the work is accessible to every fairy tale lover, if only he himself wants to follow us into the labyrinth of fairy-tale diversity, which will ultimately appear before him as a wonderful uniformity.
In the interests of a more concise and lively presentation, much that a specialist would have valued had to be sacrificed. In its original form, the work covered, in addition to those parts given below, also the study of the rich field of attributes of the characters (that is, the characters as such); she dealt in detail with the issues of metamorphosis, that is, the transformation of a fairy tale; Large comparative tables were included (only their headings remained in the appendix), and the entire work was preceded by a more rigorous methodological outline. It was intended to provide a study not only of the morphological, but also of the completely special logical structure of the fairy tale, which prepared the way for the historical study of the fairy tale. The presentation itself was more detailed. The elements which are here only highlighted as such have been subjected to detailed consideration and comparison. But the selection of elements constitutes the axis of the entire work and predetermines the conclusions. An experienced reader will be able to complete the sketches himself.
I. TO THE HISTORY OF THE ISSUE
The history of science always takes very important view at the point where we are; We value, however, our predecessors and to a certain extent thank them for the service they rendered us. But no one likes to consider them as martyrs, whom an uncontrollable attraction led into dangerous, sometimes almost hopeless, situations; and yet, among the ancestors who laid the foundation for our existence, there is often more seriousness than among the descendants who outlive this heritage.
Goethe.
In the first third of our century, scientific literature about fairy tales was not very rich. In addition to the fact that few works were published, bibliographic summaries showed the following picture: most of the texts were published, there were quite a lot of works on specific issues and relatively few works general. If they were, then in most cases they were not of a strictly research nature, but of a philosophical and amateurish nature.
6
They were reminiscent of the works of erudite natural philosophers of the last century, while we needed accurate observations, analyzes and conclusions. This is how Prof. characterized this situation. M. Speransky: “Without stopping at the conclusions obtained, scientific folk science continues its research, considering the collected material is still insufficient for a general construction. Thus, science again turns to collecting material and processing this material in the interests of future generations, and what will these generalizations be? , and when we will be able to do them is unknown" (Speransky 400).
What is the reason for this impotence, this dead end into which the science of fairy tales found itself stuck in the 1920s?
Speransky blames this on the lack of material. But many years have passed since the above lines were written. During this time, the major work of I. Bolte and G. Polivka, entitled “Notes on the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm” (Bolte, Polivka), was completed. Here, for each fairy tale in this collection, options from all over the world are summarized. The last volume ends with a bibliography, which contains sources, i.e., all collections of fairy tales and other materials containing fairy tales known to the authors. This list covers about 1200 names. True, among the materials there are also random, small materials, but there are also major collections, such as “A Thousand and One Nights” or the Afanasyevsky collection with its 400 texts. But that's not all. Huge number The fairy-tale material has not yet been published, some of it has not even been described. It is kept in the archives of various institutions and private individuals. Some of these collections are available to the specialist. Thanks to this, the Bolte and Polivka material can be increased in some cases. But if this is so, then how many fairy tales do we have at our disposal in general? And further: how many researchers are there who have covered at least one printed material?
Under such conditions, it is completely unnecessary to say that “the collected material is still insufficient.”
So, it's not about the amount of material. The point is different: in the methods of study.
While the physical and mathematical sciences have a coherent classification, a unified terminology adopted by special congresses, a methodology that has been improved by continuity from teachers to students, we do not have all this. The diversity and colorful variety of fairy-tale material lead to the fact that clarity and accuracy in posing and solving questions is achieved only with great difficulty. This essay does not aim to give a coherent account of the history of the study of the fairy tale. This is impossible in a short introductory chapter, and there is no great need for this, since this story has already been told many times. We will only try to critically illuminate attempts to resolve several basic problems of fairy tale studies and, at the same time, introduce the reader to the circle of these problems.
There can hardly be any doubt that the phenomena and objects around us can be studied either from the point of view of their composition and structure, or from the side of their origin, or from the side of the processes and changes to which they are subject. It is also completely obvious and does not require any proof that the origin of any phenomenon can be discussed only after the phenomenon has been described.
Meanwhile, the study of the fairy tale was carried out mainly only genetically, for the most part without attempts at a preliminary systematic description. ABOUT historical study We will not talk about fairy tales for now, we will only talk about their description - because talking about genetics without specially covering the issue of description, as is usually done, is completely useless. It is clear that before elucidating the question of where a fairy tale comes from, it is necessary to answer the question of what it is.
Since the tale is extremely diverse and, apparently, cannot be studied in its entirety at once, the material should be divided into parts, that is, classified. Correct classification is one of the first stages of scientific description. The correctness of further study also depends on the correctness of the classification. But, although classification forms the basis of any study, it itself must be the result of a certain preliminary study. Meanwhile, we see just the opposite: most researchers begin with classification, introducing it into the material from the outside, and not deducing it from the material essentially. As we will see later, classifiers often violate the simplest rules of division. Here we find one of the reasons for the impasse that Speransky talks about.
Let's look at a few samples.
The most common division of fairy tales is into fairy tales with wonderful content, everyday fairy tales, and fairy tales about animals*. At first glance, everything seems correct. But the question inevitably arises: don’t fairy tales about animals contain an element of the miraculous, sometimes very to a large extent? And vice versa: don’t animals play a very important role in wonderful fairy tales? Can such a sign be considered sufficiently accurate? Afanasiev, for example, classifies the tale of the fisherman and the fish as
________________
*Suggested by W. F. Miller. This classification essentially coincides with the classification of the mythological school (mythical, about animals, everyday).
8
fairy tales about animals. Is he right or wrong? If wrong, then why? Below we will see that the fairy tale with the greatest ease attributes the same actions to people, objects and animals. This rule is mainly true for so-called fairy tales, but it also occurs in fairy tales in general. One of the most famous examples in this regard is the tale of dividing the harvest (“For me, Misha, the tops, for you the roots”). In Russia, the deceived is the bear, and in the West the devil. Consequently, this fairy tale, with the involvement of the Western version, suddenly falls out of the series of fairy tales about animals. Where will she end up? It is clear that this is not an everyday fairy tale, for where has it been seen that in everyday life the harvest was divided in this way? But this is not a fairy tale with wonderful content. It does not fit into this classification at all.
Nevertheless, we will argue that the above classification is fundamentally correct. The researchers here were guided by instinct, and their words do not correspond to what they actually felt. It is unlikely that anyone would be mistaken in attributing the tale of the firebird, and gray wolf to fairy tales about animals. It is also completely clear to us that Afanasyev was mistaken with the fairy tale about the goldfish. But we see this not because animals appear or do not appear in fairy tales, but because fairy tales have a completely special structure, which is immediately felt and determines the discharge, although we are not aware of it. Every researcher, saying that he classifies according to the given scheme, actually classifies differently. But, contradicting himself, he is doing the right thing. But if this is so, if the division is subconsciously based on the structure of a fairy tale, which has not yet been studied or even recorded, then the entire classification of fairy tales should be put on a new basis. It needs to be translated into formal, structural features. And in order to do this, these signs should be studied.
But we are getting ahead of ourselves. The situation outlined has remained unclear to this day. Further attempts provide essentially no improvement. So, for example, in his famous work“Psychology of Nations” Wundt offers the following division (Wundt 346 ff.):
1) Mythological fairy tales and fables (Mythologische Fabelmarchen).
2) Pure fairy tales (Reine Zaubermarchen).
3) Biological tales and fables (Biologische Marchen und Fabein).
4) Pure fables about animals (Reine Tierfabeln).
5) Tales of "origin" (Abstammungsmarchen).
6) Playful tales and fables (ScherZmarchen und ScherZfabeln).
7) Moral fables (Moralische Fabein).
This classification is much richer than the previous ones, but it also causes
9
objections. Fable (a term that occurs five times in seven categories) is a formal category. What Wundt meant by this is unclear. The term “playful” fairy tale is generally unacceptable, since the same fairy tale can be interpreted both heroically and comically. The next question is: what is the difference between a “pure animal fable” and a “moral fable”? Why are “pure fables” not “moral” and vice versa?
The classifications discussed concern the distribution of fairy tales by category. Along with the distribution of fairy tales by category, there is a division by plot.
If the situation is unfavorable with the division into categories, then with the division into plots complete chaos begins. We will not talk about the fact that such a complex, vague concept as plot is either not specified at all, or is specified by each author in his own way. Looking ahead, we will say that dividing fairy tales into plots is essentially impossible. It should also be put on new rails, like division by categories. Fairy tales have one peculiarity: the components of one fairy tale can be transferred to another without any changes. Below this law of mobility will be discussed in more detail, but for now we can limit ourselves to pointing out that, for example, Baba Yaga can be found in a wide variety of fairy tales, in a wide variety of plots. This trait... specific feature fairy tales Meanwhile, despite this feature, the plot is usually defined as follows: one part of the fairy tale is taken (often random, simply striking), the preposition “o” is added, and the definition is ready. So a fairy tale in which there is a fight with a snake is a fairy tale “about fighting snakes,” a fairy tale in which there is Koschey is a fairy tale “about Koschey,” etc., and there is no single principle in the choice of defining elements. If we now remember the law of mobility, then with logical inevitability we get confusion, or, to put it more precisely, cross-division, and such a classification always distorts the essence of the material being studied. Added to this is the lack of consistency in the basic principle of separation, i.e., another of the most elementary rules of logic is violated. This situation continues to this day.
We will illustrate this point with two examples. In 1924, a book appeared about the fairy tale of Odessa professor R. M. Volkov (Volkov). Volkov determines from the very first pages of his work that a fantastic fairy tale has 15 plots. These plots are as follows:
1) About the innocently persecuted.
2) About the foolish hero.
3) About three brothers.
10
4) About snake fighters.
5) About getting brides.
6) About the wise maiden.
7) About the sworn and enchanted.
8) About the owner of the talisman.
9) About the owner of wonderful objects.
10) About an unfaithful wife, etc.
How these 15 plots are established is not specified. If you look closely at the principle of division, you get the following: the first category is determined by the plot (what is really the plot here, we will see below), the second - by the character of the hero, the third - by the number of heroes, the fourth - by one of the moments in the course of the action etc. Thus, there is no principle of division at all. It really turns out to be chaos. Aren't there fairy tales where three brothers (third category) get brides for themselves (fifth category)? Doesn't the owner of the talisman punish his unfaithful wife with the help of this talisman? Thus, this classification is not a scientific classification in the precise sense of the word, it is nothing more than a conventional index, the value of which is very doubtful. And how can such a classification even remotely be compared with the classification of plants or animals, made not by eye, but after an accurate and lengthy preliminary study of the material?
Having touched on the issue of classification of plots, we cannot pass over in silence the index of fairy tales by Antti Aarne (Aarne 1911). Aarne is one of the founders of the so-called Finnish school. The works of this school currently represent the pinnacle of fairy-tale study. This is not the place to give a proper assessment of this direction. Let us only point out that in scientific literature there is a fairly significant number of articles and notes on options for individual plots. Such options are sometimes obtained from the most unexpected sources. Gradually, a lot of them accumulate, but there is no systematic development. This is where the attention of the new direction is mainly directed. Representatives of this school extract and compare variants of individual plots according to their worldwide distribution. The material is grouped geo-ethnographically according to a well-known, previously developed System, and then conclusions are drawn about the basic structure, distribution and origin of the plots. However, this technique also raises a number of objections. As we will see below, plots (especially the plots of fairy tales) are closely related to each other. It is possible to determine where one plot with its variants ends and where another begins only after an inter-plot study of fairy tales and an accurate fixation of the principle of selection of plots and variants. But this is not the case. Change
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The sensitivity of the elements is also not taken into account here. The works of this school are based on the unconscious premise that each plot is something organically integral, that it can be snatched from a number of other plots and studied independently.
Meanwhile, a completely objective separation of one plot from another and the selection of options is not at all a simple matter. The plots of a fairy tale are so closely related to each other, so intertwined with one another, that this issue requires special preliminary study before identifying the plots. Without such a study, the researcher is left to his own taste, and objective separation is still simply impossible. Let's give one example. Among the variants for the fairy tale "Frau Holle" Bolte and Polivka cite Afanasyev's fairy tale "Baba Yaga" (Af. 102). There are also references to a number of other very diverse fairy tales on this plot. But they do not cite the fairy tale "Morozko". The question is - why? After all, here we have the same expulsion of the stepdaughter and her return with gifts, the same sending away of her own daughter and her punishment. Moreover: after all, both Morozko and “Frau Holle” represent the personification of winter, but in the German fairy tale we have the personification in a female form, and in the Russian one - in a male form. But, apparently, “Morozko”, due to the artistic brightness of this tale, was subjectively recorded as a certain fairy tale type, as a certain independent plot that may have its own variations. Thus, we see that there are no completely objective criteria for separating one plot from another. Where one researcher sees a new plot, another will see a variant and vice versa. We have given a very simple example, but as the material expands and increases, the difficulties increase and increase.
But, be that as it may, the methods of this school first of all required a list of subjects.
Aarne undertook the task of compiling such a list.
This list has entered into international use and has provided the greatest service to the study of fairy tales: thanks to Aarne’s index, the encryption of the fairy tale is possible. The plots are called Aarne types, and each type is numbered. A short symbol of fairy tales (in this case, by reference to the index number) is very convenient.
But along with these advantages, the index also has a number of significant disadvantages: as a classification, it is not free from the mistakes that Volkov makes. The main categories are as follows: I. Tales about animals. II. Actually fairy tales. III. Jokes. We can easily recognize the old techniques, rearranged in a new way. (It is somewhat strange that fairy tales about animals do not seem to be recognized as fairy tales themselves). Next, I would like to ask: do we have such an accurate study of the concept of an anecdote that
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Would it be possible to use it completely calmly (cf. Wundt’s fables)? We will not go into the details of this classification, but will focus only on fairy tales, which he allocated to a subcategory. Let us note by the way that the introduction of subcategories is one of Aarne’s merits, since the division into genera, species, and varieties was not developed before him. Magic tales, according to Aarne, cover the following categories: 1) a wonderful adversary, 2) a wonderful spouse, 3) a wonderful task, 4) a wonderful helper, 5) a wonderful object, 6) a wonderful power or skill, 7) other wonderful things. motives. In relation to this classification, objections to Volkov’s classification can be repeated almost verbatim. What to do, for example, with those fairy tales in which a wonderful task is solved by a wonderful helper, which is exactly what happens very often, or with those fairy tales in which a wonderful wife is a wonderful helper?
True, Aarne does not strive to create a scientific classification itself: his index is important as a practical reference, and as such it is of great importance. But Aarne's pointer is dangerous in other ways. It instills fundamental misconceptions. There is actually no clear distribution into types; it is very often a fiction. If there are types, then they exist not on the plane as outlined by Aarne, but on the plane structural features similar tales, but more on that later. The closeness of the plots to each other and the impossibility of completely objective delimitation leads to the fact that when assigning a text to one or another type, you often do not know which number to choose. The correspondence between the type and the text being defined is often only very rough. Of the 125 fairy tales listed in the collection of A. I. Nikiforov, 25 fairy tales (i.e. 20%) are assigned to types approximately and conditionally, which is marked by A. I. Nikiforov with brackets (Nikiforov 1927). But if various researchers begin to attribute the same tale to different types, then what can come of this? On the other hand, since types are defined by the presence in them of certain highlights, and not by the construction of fairy tales, and one fairy tale can contain several such moments, then one fairy tale sometimes has to be classified as several types at once (up to 5 numbers for one fairy tale), which does not mean at all that a given text consists of five plots. This method of fixation is essentially a definition by components. For a well-known group of fairy tales, Aarne even deviates from his principles and suddenly, quite unexpectedly and somewhat inconsistently, instead of dividing them into plots, he switches to dividing them according to motives. This is how he allocated one of his subcategories, a group that he
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headed "about the stupid devil." But this inconsistency again represents the right path taken instinctively. Below we will try to show that studying by fractional components is the right way studying.
Propp, V. Morphology of a fairy tale/
V. Propp. – M.: Labyrinth, 2006. – 128 p.
“Morphology must still be legitimized as a special science, making as its main subject what is treated in others on occasion and in passing, collecting what is scattered there, and establishing a new point of view that allows us to easily and conveniently examine the things of nature. The phenomena with which she deals are extremely significant; those mental operations with the help of which it compares phenomena are in accordance with human nature and are pleasant to it, so that even a failed experience will still combine benefit and beauty.” (Goethe)
The word morphology means the study of forms. In botany, morphology is understood as the study of the constituent parts of a plant, their relationship to each other and to the whole, in other words, the study of the structure of the plant. In the field of folk tales, consideration of forms and establishment of structure patterns is possible with the same accuracy with which the morphology of organic formations is possible.
Classifications of fairy tales
The most common division of fairy tales is into fairy tales with wonderful content, everyday fairy tales, and fairy tales about animals. [Suggested by V.F. Miller. This classification essentially coincides with the classification of the mythological school (mythical, about animals, everyday).] At first glance, everything seems correct. But the question inevitably arises: don’t fairy tales about animals contain an element of the miraculous, sometimes to a very large extent? And vice versa: don’t animals play a very important role in wonderful fairy tales? Can such a sign be considered sufficiently accurate?
In his famous work "Psychology of Nations" Wundt suggests the following division:
1) Mythological fairy tales and fables.
2) Pure fairy tales.
3) Biological tales and fables.
4) Pure fables about animals.
5) Tales of "origin".
6) Playful tales and fables.
7) Moral fables.
This classification is much richer than the previous ones, but it also raises objections. Fable (a term that occurs five times in seven categories) is a formal category. What Wundt meant by this is unclear. The term “playful” fairy tale is generally unacceptable, since the same fairy tale can be interpreted both heroically and comically. The next question is: what is the difference between a “pure animal fable” and a “moral fable”? Why are “pure fables” not “moral” and vice versa?
The classifications discussed concern the distribution of fairy tales by category. Along with the distribution of fairy tales by category, there is a division by plot.
In 1924 a book appeared about the fairy tale of an Odessa professor R. M. Volkova(Volkov). Volkov determines from the very first pages of his work that a fantastic fairy tale has 15 plots. These plots are as follows:
1) About the innocently persecuted.
2) About the foolish hero.
3) About three brothers.
4) About snake fighters.
5) About getting brides.
6) About the wise maiden.
7) About the sworn and enchanted.
8) About the owner of the talisman.
9) About the owner of wonderful objects.
10) About an unfaithful wife, etc.
How these 15 plots are established is not specified. If you look closely at the principle of division, you get the following: the first category is determined by the plot, the second - by the character of the hero, the third - by the number of heroes, the fourth - by one of the moments in the course of the action, etc. Thus, there is no principle of division at all. It really turns out to be chaos. Thus, this classification is not a scientific classification in the precise sense of the word, it is nothing more than a conventional index, the value of which is very doubtful.
Having touched upon the issue of classification of plots, we cannot pass over in silence the index of fairy tales Antti Aarne. Aarne is one of the founders of the so-called Finnish school. The works of this school currently represent the pinnacle of fairy-tale study. Representatives of this school extract and compare variants of individual plots according to their worldwide distribution. The material is grouped geo-ethnographically according to a well-known, previously developed system, and then conclusions are drawn about the basic structure, distribution and origin of the plots. However, this technique also raises a number of objections. Plots (especially the plots of fairy tales) are closely related to each other. It is possible to determine where one plot with its variants ends and where another begins only after an inter-plot study of fairy tales and an accurate fixation of the principle of selection of plots and variants. But this is not the case. Mobility of elements is also not taken into account here. The works of this school are based on the unconscious premise that each plot is something organically integral, that it can be snatched from a number of other plots and studied independently.
The methods of this school first required a list of subjects. Aarne undertook the task of compiling such a list. This list has entered into international use and has provided the greatest service to the study of fairy tales: thanks to Aarne’s index, the encryption of the fairy tale is possible. The plots are called Aarne types, and each type is numbered. A short symbol for fairy tales (in this case, with a link to the index number) is very convenient.
But along with these advantages, the index also has a number of significant disadvantages: as a classification, it is not free from the mistakes that Volkov makes. The main categories are as follows:
I. Tales about animals.
II. Actually fairy tales.
III. Jokes.
Fairy tales, according to Aarne, cover the following categories:
1) a wonderful opponent,
2)wonderful husband (wife),
3) a wonderful task,
4) a wonderful helper,
5) a wonderful item,
6) miraculous strength or skill,
7) other wonderful motives.
In relation to this classification, objections to Volkov’s classification can be repeated almost verbatim. What to do, for example, with those fairy tales in which a wonderful task is solved by a wonderful helper, which is exactly what happens very often, or with those fairy tales in which a wonderful wife is a wonderful helper?
The situation with the classification of the fairy tale is not entirely successful. But classification is one of the first and most important stages of study.
Fairy tale plots
Talked very little about the description of the fairy tale A. N. Veselovsky. But what he said is of great importance. Veselovsky understands a plot as a complex of motives. The motif can be associated with various subjects. “The plots vary: certain motifs are intruded into the plots, or the plots are combined with each other.” “By plot, I mean a theme in which different situations and motives scurry around.” For Veselovsky, the motive is something primary, the plot is secondary. For Veselovsky, the plot is already an act of creativity, connection. This implies for us the need to study not so much by plots, but primarily by motives. The plot is not a unit, but a complex; it is not constant, but changeable; one cannot proceed from it in the study of a fairy tale. But Veselovsky’s teaching about motives and plots represents only a general principle. Veselovsky’s specific interpretation of the term motive can no longer be applied. According to Veselovsky, a motive is an indecomposable unit of narrative. “By motive I mean the simplest narrative unit.” “The hallmark of a motif is its figurative, single-member schematism; these are the elements of lower mythology and fairy tales that cannot be further decomposed.” However, the motives that he gives as examples are decomposed. If a motive is something logically whole, then every phrase of a fairy tale gives a motive ("a father has three sons" - a motive; "a stepdaughter leaves the house" - a motive; "Ivan fights a snake" - a motive, etc.). Thus, contrary to Veselovsky, we must argue that the motive is not single-membered, not indecomposable. The last decomposable unit as such does not represent a logical whole. Agreeing with Veselovsky that the part is more primary for description than the whole (and according to Veselovsky, the motive is more primary in origin than the plot), we will subsequently have to solve the problem of identifying some primary elements differently than Veselovsky does.
The existence of fairy tales as a special category is allowed as a necessary working hypothesis. For now, fairy tales are understood as fairy tales, identified by Aarne-Thompson.
We are undertaking cross-plot comparison of these tales. For comparison, we identify the component parts of fairy tales according to special techniques and then compare the fairy tales according to their component parts. The result will be morphology, i.e. description of a fairy tale by its component parts and the relationship of the parts to each other and to the whole.
What methods can an accurate description of the tale be achieved? Let's compare the following cases:
1. The king gives the daredevil an eagle. The eagle carries the daredevil to another kingdom (Aph. 171).
2.Grandfather gives Suchenka a horse. The horse takes Suchenko to another kingdom (132).
3. The sorcerer gives Ivan a boat. The boat takes Ivan to another kingdom (138).
4. The princess gives Ivan a ring. The fellows from the ring take Ivan to another kingdom (156); etc.
In the above cases, there are constant and variable quantities. The names (and with them the attributes) of the characters change, but their actions or functions do not change. Hence the conclusion is that fairy tales often attribute the same actions to different characters. This gives us the opportunity study a fairy tale based on the functions of the characters.
Under function is understood as the act of an actor, defined from the point of view of its significance for the course of action.
The above observations can be briefly formulated as follows:
I. The constant, stable elements of a fairy tale are the functions of the characters, regardless of who and how they are performed. They form the main components of a fairy tale.
II. The number of functions known to a fairy tale is limited.
III. The sequence of functions is always the same.
IV. All fairy tales are of the same type in their structure.
Since we study fairy tales according to the functions of the characters, the use of material can be suspended at the moment when it is discovered that new fairy tales do not provide any new functions. We take Afanasyev’s collection, begin the study of fairy tales from issue No. 50 (according to Afanasyev’s plan, this is the first fairy tale of the collection) and bring it to No. 151.
Functions of the actors
For each function, the following is given: 1) a brief summary of its essence, 2) an abbreviated definition in one word, 3) its symbol. (The introduction of signs will make it possible to subsequently compare the construction of fairy tales schematically).
A fairy tale usually begins with some initial situation. Family members are listed, or the future hero (such as a soldier) is simply introduced by giving his name or mentioning his position. Although this situation is not a function, it still represents an important morphological element. We define this element as the initial situation. Conventional sign - i.
The initial situation is followed by the following functions:
I. One of the family members leaves home
(definition: absence, designation e)
II. The hero is approached with a ban
(definition - prohibition, designation b)
III. The ban is violated
(definition - violation, designation b)
A new face now enters the tale, which can be called antagonist of the hero(pest). His role is to disturb the peace of a happy family, cause some kind of misfortune, cause harm, damage.
IV. The antagonist is trying to conduct reconnaissance
(definition - scouting, designation in)
V. The antagonist is given information about his victim
(definition - issue, designation w)
VI. The antagonist tries to deceive his victim in order to take possession of him or his property
(definition - catch, designation g)
VII. The victim succumbs to deception and thereby unwittingly helps the enemy
(definition - complicity, symbol g)
VIII. An antagonist causes harm or damage to one family member
(definition - sabotage, designation A)
This function is extremely important, since it actually creates the movement of the tale. Absence, violation of a ban, extradition, success of deception prepare this function, create its possibility, or simply facilitate it. Therefore, the first seven functions can be considered as the preparatory part of the tale, while sabotage opens the plot. The forms of sabotage are extremely diverse.
VIII-a. One of the family members lacks something, he wants to have something
(definition - shortage, designation a)
IX. Trouble or shortage is reported, the hero is approached with a request or order, sent away or released
(definition - mediation, connecting moment, designation B)
This function introduces a hero into a fairy tale. Upon closer analysis, it can be decomposed into its component parts, but for our purposes this is unimportant.
The heroes of a fairy tale can be twofold:
1) If a girl is kidnapped and disappears from the horizon of her father (and with it from the horizon of the listener), and Ivan goes in search of the girl, then the hero of the fairy tale is Ivan, and not the kidnapped girl. Such heroes can be called seekers.
2) If a girl or boy is kidnapped or expelled and the fairy tale goes with the kidnapped, expelled person, without being interested in what happened to those who remained, then the hero of the fairy tale is the kidnapped, expelled girl (boy). There are no seekers in these tales. Such heroes can be called damaged heroes.
X. The seeker agrees or decides to resist
(definition - beginning counteraction, designation C)
This moment is characterized, for example, by the following words: “Let us find your princesses,” etc. Sometimes this moment is not mentioned in words, but a volitional decision, of course, precedes the search. This moment is typical only for those fairy tales where the hero is a seeker. Exiled, killed, bewitched, replaced heroes have no volitional desire for liberation, and here this element is absent.
XI. The hero leaves home
(definition - dispatch, designation?)
ABC elements? represent the beginning of a fairy tale. The course of action then develops.
A new person enters the fairy tale, who can be called the donor or, more precisely, the provider. Usually it is found by chance in the forest, on the road, etc. (see Chapter VII - forms of appearance of characters). From him the hero - both the seeker and the victim - receives some remedy (usually magical), which allows him to subsequently eliminate the misfortune. But before the receipt of the magic remedy occurs, the hero undergoes some very different actions, which, however, all lead to the fact that the magic remedy falls into the hands of the hero.
XII. The hero is tested, interrogated, attacked, etc., which prepares for him to receive a magical remedy or assistant
(definition - the first function of the donor, designation D)
XIII. The hero reacts to the actions of the future donor
(definition - hero’s reaction, symbol G)
In most cases, the reaction can be positive or negative.
XIV. The hero gets a magical remedy at his disposal
(definition - supply, receiving a magical remedy, designation Z)
The following can serve as magical means: 1) animals (horse, eagle, etc.); 2) objects that serve as magical helpers (a flint with a horse, a ring with fellows); 3) objects that have magical properties, such as clubs, swords, harps, balls and many others; 4) qualities bestowed directly, such as strength, the ability to turn into animals, etc. All these transmission objects are called by us (for now conditionally) by magical means.
If we base the definition of types on the forms of transmission of the magical remedy, then we can identify two types of connections:
1) The theft of a magical remedy, associated with an attempt to destroy the hero (fry, etc.), with a request for division, with an offer of exchange.
2) All other forms of transmission and receipt associated with all other preparatory forms.
XV. The hero is transported, delivered or brought to the location of the subject of the search
(definition - spatial movement between two kingdoms, travel guide; symbol R)
XVI. The hero and antagonist come into direct combat
(definition - fight, designation B)
This form should be distinguished from a struggle (fight) with a hostile donor. These forms can be distinguished by their consequences. If, as a result of a hostile meeting, the hero receives a means for further searches, then we have element D. If, as a result of victory, the very object of the search for which he was sent falls into the hands of the hero, then we have element B.
XVII. The hero is being tagged
(definition - branding, mark, designation K)
XVIII. The antagonist is defeated
(definition - victory, designation P)
XIX. The initial problem or shortage is eliminated
(definition - elimination of trouble or shortage, designation L)
XX. The hero returns
(definition - return, designation?)
The return is usually carried out in the same forms as the arrival. However, there is no need to fix a special function here after the return, since the return already means overcoming space. This is not always the case when going there. There, after departure, a means is given (horse, eagle, etc.), and then flight or other forms of travel take place, but here return occurs immediately and, moreover, for the most part in the same forms as arrival. Sometimes the return has the character of an escape.
XXI. The hero is being persecuted
(definition - pursuit, pursuit, designation Pr)
XXII. The hero escapes persecution
(definition - salvation, designation Sp)
Many tales consist of two rows of functions, which can be called moves. A new misfortune creates a new move, and thus sometimes a whole series of fairy tales are combined into one story.
XXIII. The hero arrives unrecognized home or to another country
(definition - unrecognized arrival, symbol X)
Two cases can be seen here. 1) Arrival home. The hero stops with some artisan: a goldsmith, a tailor, a shoemaker, and becomes his apprentice. 2) He arrives to another king, enters the kitchen as a cook or serves as a groom. Along with this, sometimes it is necessary to indicate simple arrival.
XXIV. The false hero makes unreasonable claims
(definition - unfounded claims, designation F)
If the hero arrives home, then the brothers make claims. If he serves in another kingdom, they are presented by a general or a water carrier, etc. The brothers pose as breadwinners, the general as the winner of the serpent. These two forms could be considered special categories.
XXV. The hero is given a difficult task
(definition - difficult task, symbol 3)
XXVI. The problem is being solved
(definition - decision, designation P)
The forms of the solution, of course, exactly correspond to the forms of the problems. Some problems are solved before they are asked, or before the asker demands a solution. We will denote such cases of a preliminary decision with the sign *P.
XXVII. The hero will be recognized
(definition - recognition, designation Y)
XXVIII. The false hero or antagonist is exposed
(definition - exposure, designation O).
XXIX. The hero is given a new look
(definition - transfiguration, designation T)
XXX. The enemy is punished
(definition - punishment, designation N)
XXXI. The hero marries and reigns
(definition - wedding, designation C**).
This is where the fairy tale ends. It should also be noted that some actions of fairy-tale heroes in some cases do not obey and are not determined by any of the above functions. There are very few such cases. These are either forms that cannot be understood without comparative material, or forms transferred from fairy tales of other categories (anecdotes, legends, etc.). We define them as unclear elements and denote them with N.
We see that, indeed, the number of functions is very limited. Only thirty-one functions can be noted. Within the framework of these functions, the action of absolutely all the fairy tales of our material develops, as well as the action of very many other fairy tales of the most diverse peoples. Further, if we read all the functions in a row, we will see how, with logical and artistic necessity, one function follows from another. We see that, indeed, no function excludes the other. They all belong to one rod, and not to several rods, as noted above.
We see that a very large number of functions are arranged in pairs (prohibition-violation, scouting-extradition, fight-victory, pursuit-rescue, etc.). Other functions can be arranged in groups. So - sabotage, sending, the decision to counteract and sending from home (A B C?) make up the plot. The test of the hero by the donor, his reaction and reward (D G Z) also form a whole. Along with this, there are single functions (absence, punishment, marriage, etc.).
Some other elements of the tale
A. Auxiliary elements for connecting functions with each other
It can be observed that the functions do not always follow directly one after the other. If successive functions are performed by different characters, then the second character must know what happened before. In this regard, a whole system of information has been developed in the fairy tale, sometimes in artistically very vivid forms; sometimes a fairy tale misses this information, and then the characters act ex machina, or they are omniscient; on the other hand, it is also used where it is essentially not at all necessary. With these awarenesses, during the course of action, one function is associated with another.
B. Auxiliary elements for triplings
Both individual details of an attributive nature (three heads of a snake) and individual functions, pairs of functions (pursuit - rescue), groups of functions and entire moves can be arranged. Repetition can be either uniform (three tasks, serve for three years), or repetition gives an increase (the third task is the most difficult, the third battle is the most terrible), or the result is negative twice, positive once.
C. Motivations
Motivations are understood as both the reasons and goals of the characters that cause them to take certain actions. Motivations sometimes give a fairy tale a very special, bright coloring, but still motivations belong to the most fickle and unstable elements of a fairy tale. In addition, they represent an element less clear and defined than functions or connectives.
Distribution of functions among actors
Many functions are logically combined in well-known circles. These circles generally correspond to the performers. These are circles of action. The fairy tale knows the following circles of action:
1) The range of actions of the antagonist (pest). Covers: sabotage (A), combat or other forms of struggle with the hero (B), pursuit (Pr).
2) Circle of actions of the donor (supplier). Covers: preparing the transfer of a magical remedy (D), supplying the hero with a magical remedy (Z).
3) Circle of actions of the assistant. Covers: spatial movement of the hero (R), elimination of trouble or shortage (L), salvation from persecution (Sp), resolution of difficult problems (P), transfiguration of the hero (T).
4) The circle of actions of the princess (the desired character) and her father. Covers: setting difficult tasks (3), branding (K), reproof (O), recognition (U), punishment of the second pest (N), wedding (C*).
5) Circle of actions of the sender. Covers only the reference (connecting moment, B).
6) The hero’s range of actions. Covers: going on a quest (S?), responding to the donor's demands (G), wedding (C*). The first function (C?) is characteristic of the seeker hero, the victim hero performs only the others.
7) The range of actions of the false hero also covers going on a quest (C?), reacting to the demands of the donor - always negative (Gneg) and, as a specific function, deceitful claims (F).
Thus, the fairy tale knows seven characters. The functions of the preparatory part are also distributed over these same characters (e, b - b, c - w, g - g), but the distribution here is uneven, and characters cannot be determined by these functions. In addition, there are special characters for connections (complainers, informers, slanderers), as well as special traitors for function w (distribution of information: a mirror, a chisel, a broom indicate where the desired victim is). This also includes characters such as One-Eyes, Two-Eyes and Three-Eyes.
Ways to include new faces in the course of action
Antagonist(pest) appears twice during the action. The first time he appears suddenly, from the side (flies in, sneaks up, etc.), and then disappears. The second time he enters the tale as a character discovered, usually as a result of a guidebook.
Donormet by chance, most often in the forest (hut), or in a field, on the road, on the street.
Magic Helper included as a gift. This moment is indicated by the sign Z.
Sender, hero, false hero , and also princess are included in the initial situation. When listing the characters in the initial situation, sometimes nothing is said in words about the false hero, and only later does it become clear that he lives at court or in a house. The princess appears in the fairy tale, like a pest, twice. The second time she is introduced as a found character, and the seeker can see either her first and then the pest (the snake is not at home, dialogue with the princess), or vice versa.
About the attributes of characters and their meaning
“The doctrine of forms is the doctrine of transformations.” Goethe.
Under attributes we understand the totality of all the external qualities of the characters: their age, gender, position, appearance, features of this appearance, etc. These attributes give the fairy tale its brightness, its beauty and charm. The study of a character's attributes creates only the following three main headings: appearance and nomenclature, features of appearance, and housing. To this is added a number of other, smaller, auxiliary elements.
The fairy tale retains in its depths traces of ancient paganism, ancient customs and rituals. The fairy tale gradually metamorphoses, and these transformations and metamorphoses of fairy tales are also subject to known laws. All these processes create such diversity that it is extremely difficult to understand.
And, nevertheless, this study is still possible... The constancy of functions is preserved, and this will make it possible to bring into the system those elements that are grouped around functions.
How to create this system?
The best way is to create tables . Veselovsky also spoke about the tabulation of fairy tales, although he did not really believe in its possibility.
Fairy tale as a whole
A. Ways to combine stories
Morphologically a fairy tale any development from sabotage (A) or deficiency (a) through intermediate functions to wedding (C*) or other functions used as a denouement can be called. The final functions are sometimes rewarding (Z), mining or even eliminating trouble (L), saving from pursuit (Sp), etc. We call this development progress. Each new harm or damage, each new deficiency creates a new move. One fairy tale can have several moves, and when analyzing the text, you should first of all determine how many moves it consists of. One move can follow directly after another, but they can also intertwine, the development that has begun is suspended, and a new move is inserted. It is not always easy to identify a move, but it is always possible with complete accuracy. However, if we conditionally define a fairy tale as a move, this does not mean that the number of moves exactly corresponds to the number of fairy tales. Special techniques of parallelism, repetition, etc. lead to the fact that one fairy tale can consist of several moves.
The connection of moves can be as follows:
1) One move immediately follows another. Approximate diagram such connections.
2) A new turn begins before the first one ends. The action is interrupted by episodic progress. After the end of the episode, the end of the first turn comes.
3) The episode, in turn, can also be interrupted, and then quite complex patterns can result.
4) A fairy tale can begin with two harms done at once, of which first one can be completely eliminated, and then the second. If a hero is killed and a magical remedy is stolen from him, then first the murder is eliminated, and then the theft is eliminated.
The question arises: under what conditions do several moves form one fairy tale, and when do we have two or more fairy tales? Here, first of all, it must be said that the method of connecting moves has no effect. There are no absolutely clear signs. But several clearer cases can be pointed out.
We have one fairy tale in the following cases:
1) If the whole fairy tale consists of one move.
2) If a fairy tale consists of two moves, one of which ends positively and the other negatively. Sample: move I - the stepmother expels the stepdaughter. Her father takes her away. She returns with gifts. Move II - the stepmother sends her daughters, the father takes them away, they return punished.
3) When tripling whole moves. The snake kidnaps the girl. Moves I and II - the older brothers take turns going to look for her and get stuck. Turn III - the youngest goes and helps out the girl and brothers.
4) If in the first turn a magical remedy is obtained, which is used only in the second. Sample: move I - the brothers leave home to get horses for themselves. They get them and return. Turn II - the snake threatens the princess. The brothers are leaving. With the help of horses, they reach the goal. - Here, apparently, the following happened: the extraction of the magical remedy, usually placed in the middle of the tale, in this case is pushed forward, beyond the main plot (the threat of the serpent). The acquisition of a magical remedy is preceded by an awareness of a shortage, not motivated by anything (the brothers suddenly want to have horses), but causing a search, i.e. move.
5) We also have one fairy tale, if, before the final elimination of the trouble, some kind of lack or shortage is suddenly felt, which causes new searches, i.e. a new move, but not a new fairy tale. In these cases, a new horse is needed, an egg - the death of Koshchei, etc., which gives rise to a new development, and the begun development is temporarily suspended.
6) We also have one fairy tale in the case where the beginning involves two acts of sabotage at once (expulsion and bewitchment of the stepdaughter, etc.).
7) We also have one fairy tale in the texts, where the first turn includes a fight with a snake, and the second begins with the brothers stealing the spoils, throwing the hero into the abyss, etc., and then follows the claims of the false hero (F) and difficult tasks. This is the development that became clear to us when listing all the functions of a fairy tale. This is the most complete and perfect form of fairy tales.
8) Fairy tales where the heroes part at a roadside post can also be considered complete fairy tales. It should be noted, however, that the fate of each brother can give a completely separate tale, and it is possible that this case will have to be excluded from the category of integral fairy tales.
In all other cases we have two or more tales.
A fairy tale is a story built on the correct alternation of the given functions in various types, in the absence of some of them for each story and in the repetition of others. - With this definition, the term magical loses its meaning, because one can easily imagine a magical, enchanting, fantastic tale constructed in a completely different way (cf. Goethe’s tale of the snake and the lily, some of Andersen’s tales, Garshin’s tales, etc.). On the other hand, some few non-magical fairy tales can be constructed according to the above scheme. A certain number of legends, isolated tales about animals and isolated short stories reveal the same structure. Thus, the term magical must be replaced by another term. It is very difficult to find such a term, and we are temporarily leaving the old name behind these tales. It can be changed in connection with the study of other classes, which will make it possible to create appropriate terminology. Fairy tales could be called fairy tales that follow a seven-character scheme. This term is very accurate, but very inconvenient. If we define this class of fairy tales from a historical point of view, then they deserve the ancient, now discarded name of mythical fairy tales.
Correct classification can be done in three ways:
1) by varieties of one characteristic (deciduous and coniferous trees);
2) by the absence and presence of the same character (vertebrates and invertebrates);
3) according to mutually exclusive characteristics (artiodactyls and rodents among mammals).
Within one classification, techniques can only change according to genus, species and varieties or other degrees of gradation, but each degree of gradation requires consistency and uniformity of technique.
The general thesis of the work: complete uniformity of the structure of fairy tales .
If all fairy tales are so uniform in their form, does this not mean that they all come from the same source? The morphologist has no right to answer this question. Here he transfers his conclusions to the historian or he himself must turn into a historian. Single source It can be psychological, historical-social or everyday.
The storyteller is bound, not free, does not create in the following areas:
1) In the general sequence of functions, a number of which develop according to the above scheme.
2) The storyteller is not free to replace those elements whose varieties are associated with absolute or relative dependence.
3) The storyteller is not free in other cases to choose some characters in terms of their attributes if a certain function is required.
4) There is a known relationship between the initial situation and the following functions. So, if you need or want to use function A2 (kidnapping an assistant), then this assistant must be included in the situation.
The storyteller is free and uses creativity in the following areas:
1) In choosing those functions that he misses or, conversely, that he applies.
2) In choosing the method (type) in which the function is carried out. It is in these ways that new variants, new plots, new fairy tales are created.
3) The storyteller is completely free to choose the nomenclature and attributes of the characters. Theoretically, freedom here is complete. A tree can show the way, a crane can give a horse, a chisel can spy, etc. This freedom is a specific feature only of a fairy tale. It must be said, however, that the people here do not make too much use of this freedom. Just as functions are repeated, so are characters. Here, as already indicated, a well-known canon was developed.
4) The storyteller is free to choose linguistic means. This rich area is not subject to study by a morphologist who studies the structure of a fairy tale. The style of a fairy tale is a phenomenon that must be studied specifically.
Question about composition and plot, about plots and options
The entire content of the tale can be presented in short phrases, like the following: parents go to the forest, forbid their children to go outside, a snake kidnaps a girl, etc. All predicates give the composition of fairy tales, all subjects, objects and other parts of the phrase determine the plot. In other words: the same composition can be the basis of different plots. Whether the snake kidnaps the princess or the devil kidnaps the peasant's or priest's daughter is indifferent from the point of view of composition. But these cases can be considered as different stories. We admit another definition of the concept of plot, but this definition is suitable for fairy tales.
“Is it permissible in this area to raise the question of typical schemes... schemes passed down over a number of generations as ready-made formulas capable of being enlivened by a new mood and causing new formations?.. Modern narrative literature, with its complex plotting and photographic reproduction of reality, apparently eliminates the very possibility of such a question; but when for future generations it appears in the same distant perspective as for us antiquity, from prehistoric to medieval, when the synthesis of time, this great simplification, having passed through the complexity of phenomena, reduces them to the size of points going deep, their lines will merge with those that are revealed to us now, when we look back at distant poetic creativity, and the phenomena of schematism and repetition will be established throughout" (Veselovsky).