Remote methods for obtaining information about the earth. Remote methods for studying the environment

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION FEDERAL STATE AUTONOMOUS

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

KAZAN (VOLGA) FEDERAL UNIVERSITY

Institute of Ecology and Geography

Department of Geography and Cartography

Abstract

Remote sensing methods of the Earth

Completed by a third year student

groups No. 02-106

Yalalov D.

Scientific supervisor:

Denmukhametov R.R.

Kazan - 2013

Introduction

1. Remote methods

2. The emergence of space methods

3. Aerial photography

3.1. The emergence of aerial photography

3.2. The use of aerial photography in the national economy

4. Remote sensing when searching for minerals

5. Methods for automating the decryption of space materials

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

The rapid development of astronautics, progress in the study of near-Earth and interplanetary space, has revealed a very high efficiency in the use of near-Earth space and space technologies in the interests of many Earth sciences: geography, hydrology, geochemistry, geology, oceanology, geodesy, hydrology, geosciences.

The use of artificial Earth satellites for communications and television, operational and long-term weather forecasting and hydrometeorological conditions, for navigation on sea routes and air routes, for high-precision geodesy, studying the Earth's natural resources and monitoring the habitat is becoming more and more common. In the near and longer term, the diversified use of space and space technology in various areas of the economy will increase significantly

1. Remotemethods

Remote methods- the general name for methods of studying ground objects and cosmic bodies non-contactly at a considerable distance (for example, from the air or from space) with various instruments in different regions of the spectrum (Fig. 1). Remote sensing methods make it possible to assess the regional features of the objects under study, which are detected at large distances. The term became widespread after the launch of the world's first artificial Earth satellite in 1957 and the filming of the far side of the Moon by the Soviet automatic station Zond-3 (1959).

Rice. 1. Basic geometric parameters of the scanning system: - viewing angle; X and Y - linear scanning elements; dx and dy - elements of changing the instantaneous angle of view; W - direction of movement

Distinguish active remote methods based on the use of radiation reflected by objects after irradiation with artificial sources, and passive who study the bodies’ own radiation and the solar radiation reflected by them. Depending on the location of the receivers, remote methods are divided into ground (including surface), air (atmospheric, or aero-) and space. Based on the type of equipment carrier, remote methods distinguish between airplane, helicopter, balloon, rocket, and satellite remote methods (in geological and geophysical research - aerial photography, airborne geophysical photography and space photography). Selection, comparison and analysis of spectral characteristics in different ranges of electromagnetic radiation make it possible to recognize objects and obtain information about their size, density, chemical composition, physical properties and condition. The g-band is used to search for radioactive ores and sources to determine the chemical composition of rocks and soils - ultraviolet part of the spectrum; The light range is the most informative when studying soils and vegetation, infrared (IR) gives estimates of the surface temperatures of bodies, radio waves provide information about the surface topography, mineral composition, humidity and deep properties of natural formations and atmospheric layers.

Based on the type of radiation receiver, remote methods are divided into visual, photographic, photoelectric, radiometric and radar. In the visual method (description, evaluation and sketches), the recording element is the observer's eye. Photographic receivers (0.3-0.9 µm) have an accumulation effect, but they have different sensitivity in different regions of the spectrum (selective). Photoelectric receivers (radiation energy is converted directly into an electrical signal using photomultipliers, photocells and other photoelectronic devices) are also selective, but more sensitive and less inertial. For absolute energy measurements in all regions of the spectrum, and especially in IR, receivers are used that convert thermal energy into other forms (most often into electrical energy), to present data in analog or digital form on magnetic and other storage media for their analysis using a computer. . Video information obtained by television, scanner (Fig.), panoramic cameras, thermal imaging, radar (lateral and all-round viewing) and other systems allows you to study the spatial position of objects, their prevalence, and link them directly to the map.

2. The emergence of space methods

The history of space photography can be divided into three stages. The first stage should include photographing the Earth from high altitudes and then from ballistic missiles, dating back to 1945-1960. The first photographs of the earth's surface were taken at the end of the 19th century. - the beginning of the twentieth century, that is, even before the use of aviation for these purposes. The first experiments on lifting cameras on rockets began in 1901-1904. German engineer Alfred Maul in Dresden. The first photographs were taken from a height of 270-800 m and had a frame size of 40x40 mm. In this case, photography was carried out during the descent of the rocket with a camera on a parachute. In 20--30 years. XX century In a number of countries, attempts were made to use rockets to survey the earth's surface, but due to the low lifting altitudes (10-12 km), they turned out to be ineffective.

Ballistic missile imaging of the Earth played an important role in the prehistory of natural resource exploration from various spacecraft. With the help of ballistic missiles, the first small-scale images of the Earth were obtained from an altitude of more than 90-100 km. The very first space photographs of the Earth were taken in 1946 using the Viking 2 ballistic rocket from an altitude of about 120 km at the White Sand test site (New Mexico, USA). During 1946-1958. At this test site, ballistic missiles were launched in a vertical direction and, after reaching a maximum altitude (about 400 km), they fell to Earth. Along the fall trajectory, photographic images of the earth's surface were obtained on a scale of 1:50,000 - 1:100,000. In 1951-1956. Soviet meteorological rockets also began to be equipped with photographic equipment. The photographs were taken during the parachute descent of the rocket head. In 1957-1959 Geophysical rockets were used for automatic filming. In 1959--1960 All-round photographic cameras were installed at high-altitude flight-stabilized optical stations, with the help of which photographs of the Earth were obtained from an altitude of 100-120 km. Photographs were taken in different directions, at different times of the year, in different watches day. This made it possible to trace seasonal changes in the space image of the Earth’s natural features. The images taken from ballistic missiles were very imperfect: there were large discrepancies in the image scale, small area, and irregular missile launches. But these works were necessary to develop techniques and methods for filming the earth’s surface from artificial Earth satellites and manned spacecraft.

The second stage of photographing the Earth from Space covers the period from 1961 to 1972 and is called experimental. On April 12, 1961, the first cosmonaut of the USSR (Russia), Yu. A. Gagarin, for the first time conducted visual observation of the Earth through the windows of the Vostok spacecraft. On August 6, 1961, cosmonaut G.S. Titov on the Vostok-2 spacecraft carried out observation and photography of the earth's surface. Filming was carried out through the windows in separate sessions throughout the flight. The research carried out during this period on the Soyuz series manned spacecraft has unique scientific value. From the Soyuz-3 spacecraft, photographs were taken of the Earth's daytime and twilight horizons, the earth's surface, as well as observations of typhoons, cyclones, and forest fires. Visual observations of the earth's surface, photography and filming, including areas of the Caspian Sea, were carried out from the Soyuz-4 and Soyuz-5 spacecraft. Experiments of great economic importance were carried out under a joint program by the research vessel Akademik Shirshov, the Meteor satellite and the manned spacecraft Soyuz-9. The research program in this case included observing the Earth using optical instruments, photographing geological and geographical objects in order to compile geological maps and possible areas of occurrence of minerals, observing and photographing atmospheric formations in order to compile meteorological forecasts. During the same period, radar and thermal imaging of the Earth and experimental photography were carried out in different zones of the visible solar spectrum, later called multispectral photography.

3. Aerial photography

Aerial photography is photographing the earth's surface from an airplane or helicopter. It is performed vertically downwards or inclined to the horizontal plane. In the first case, plan images are obtained, in the second - perspective ones. To have a picture of a wide area, a series of aerial photographs are taken and then edited together. Pictures are taken with overlap so that the same area appears in adjacent frames. Two frames make up a stereo pair. When we look at them through a stereoscope, the image looks three-dimensional. Aerial photography is done using light filters. This allows you to see features of nature that you cannot notice with the naked eye. If you take photographs in infrared rays, you can see not only the earth’s surface, but also some features of the geological structure and the conditions of groundwater.

Aerial photography is widely used to study landscapes. With its help, accurate topographic maps are compiled without conducting numerous difficult surveys of the terrain on the Earth's surface. It helps archaeologists find traces of ancient civilizations. The discovery of the buried Etruscan city of Spina in Italy was carried out with the help of aerial photographs. Geographers of yesteryear mentioned this city, but it was not possible to find it until drainage work began in the swampy delta of the Po River. Reclamation workers used aerial photographs. Some of them have attracted the attention of specialist scientists. These photographs showed the flat surface of the lowland. So, in the photographs of this area, the contours of some regular geometric shapes. When excavations began, it became clear that the once wealthy port city of Spina flourished here. Aerial photographs made it possible to see the location of its houses, canals, and streets from changes in vegetation and swampiness that were not noticeable from the ground.

Aerial photographs are of great help to geologists, helping to trace the strike of rocks, examine geological structures, and detect bedrock outcrops on the surface.

Nowadays, in the same areas, aerial photography is carried out repeatedly over a period of time. many years. If you compare the resulting images, you can determine the nature and scale of changes in the natural environment. Aerial photography helps record the extent of human impact on nature. Repeated images show areas of unsustainable environmental management, and based on these images, nature conservation measures are planned.

3.1 Emergenceaerial photography

The emergence of aerial photography dates back to the end of the 19th century. The first photographs of the earth's surface were taken from balloons. Although they had many shortcomings, the complexity of obtaining and subsequent processing, the image on them was clear enough, which made it possible to distinguish many details, as well as to obtain an overall picture of the region under study. Further development and improvement of photography, cameras and aeronautics led to the fact that filming devices began to be installed on flying machines called airplanes. During the First World War, photography from airplanes was carried out for the purpose of aerial reconnaissance. The location of enemy troops, their fortifications, and the amount of equipment were photographed. This data was used to develop operational plans for combat operations.

After the end of the First World War, already in post-revolutionary Russia, aerial photography began to be used for the needs of the national economy.

3.2 Usageaerial photographyVfolkfarm

In 1924, an aerial photography test site was created near the city of Mozhaisk, where newly created aerial cameras and aerial photographic materials (photographic film, special paper, equipment for developing and printing images) were tested. This equipment was installed on the then existing aircraft such as Yak, Il, and the new An aircraft. These studies yielded positive results, which made it possible to move on to the widespread use of aerial photography in the national economy. Aerial photography was carried out using a special camera, which was installed in the bottom of the aircraft with devices that eliminate vibration. The camera cassette had a film length from 35 to 60 m and a width of 18 or 30 cm; a separate photograph had dimensions of 18x18 cm, less often - 30x30 cm. Until the 50s. XX century The image in the photographs was black and white, later they began to receive color and then spectral images.

Spectral images are performed using a light filter in a certain part of the visible solar spectrum. For example, it is possible to photograph in the red, blue, green, yellow part of the spectrum. This uses a two-layer emulsion covering the film. This method of photography conveys the landscape in the required colors. So, for example, mixed forest when spectral photography produces an image that can easily be subdivided according to the rocks that appear in the image different colors. After developing and drying the film, contact prints are prepared on photographic paper measuring 18x18 cm or 30x30 cm, respectively. Each photograph has a number, a round level by which one can judge the degree of horizontality of the photograph, as well as a clock that records the time at the moment the photograph was taken.

Photographing any area is carried out in flight, during which the aircraft flies from west to east, then from east to west. The aerial camera operates in automatic mode and takes pictures along the aircraft route one after another, overlapping each other by 60%. The overlap of images between routes is 30%. In the 70s XX century On the basis of the An aircraft, a special An-30 aircraft was designed for these purposes. It is equipped with five cameras, which are controlled by a calculating machine and, nowadays, by a computer. In addition, the aircraft is equipped with an anti-vibration device that prevents lateral drift due to wind. It can maintain a given flight altitude. The first experiences of using aerial photography in the national economy date back to the late 20s. XX century The images were used in hard-to-reach places in the Mologa River basin. With their help, the study, survey and determination of the quality and productivity (taxation) of the forests of this territory were carried out. In addition, a little later the Volga fairway was studied. This river in some sections often changed its fairway; shoals, spits, and embankments appeared, which greatly interfered with navigation until reservoirs were created.

Aerial photography has made it possible to identify patterns in the formation and deposition of river sediments. During World War II, aerial photography was also widely used in the national economy for mineral exploration, as well as at the front to identify the movement of enemy personnel and equipment, photograph fortifications, and possible theaters of military operations. In the post-war period, aerial photography was also used in many ways.

4. Remoteresearchatsearchingclimbednykhfossils

Thus, to ensure the exploration of hydrocarbon deposits, design, construction and operation of oil and gas production, processing and transportation facilities, using aerospace information, they study the relief, vegetation, soils and soils, their condition at different times of the year, including in extreme natural conditions. conditions such as floods, droughts or severe frosts, analysis of the presence and condition of residential and transport infrastructure, changes in landscape components as a result of economic development of the territory, including as a result of accidents in oil and gas fields and pipelines, etc.

If necessary, digitalization, photogrammetric and photometric processing of images, their geometric correction, scaling, quantization, contrasting and filtering, synthesis of color images, including using various filters, etc. are used.

The selection of aerospace materials and interpretation of images are carried out taking into account the time of day and season of the survey, the influence of meteorological and other factors on the image parameters, the masking effect of clouds, and aerosol pollution.

In order to expand the capabilities of analyzing aerospace information, not only direct decryption features, known a priori or identified in the process of targeted research of aerospace images, are used, but also indirect features that are widely used in visual decoding. They are primarily based on the indicator properties of relief, vegetation, surface water, soils and soils.

Different results are observed when shooting the same objects in different zones of the spectrum. For example, surveys in the infrared and radio thermal ranges better record the temperature and humidity of the earth's surface, the presence of an oil film on the water surface, but the accuracy of the results of such surveys can be undermined by the strong influence of the physical heterogeneity of the land surface or waves on the water surface.

5. Techniquesautomationdecryptionspacematerials

The specificity of using space imagery materials is associated with a targeted approach to deciphering remotely sensed materials, which contain information about many territorially related parameters (geographical, agricultural, geological, man-made, etc.) of the natural environment. Computer visual interpretation is based on measurements of four-dimensional (two spatial coordinates, brightness and time) and five-dimensional (additionally, color image for multispectral photography) distributions of radiation fluxes reflected by terrain elements and objects. Thematic image processing includes logical and arithmetic operations, classification, filtering and/or lineament analysis and a series of others methodological techniques. This should also include the visual interpretation of the image on the computer screen, which is carried out using the stereo effect, as well as the entire arsenal of computer processing and image conversion tools. Automatic classification of multispectral images (with preliminary training on standards or with specified parameters) opens up wide opportunities for researchers. The classifications are based on the fact that different natural objects have different brightnesses in different ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum. Analysis of the brightness of objects in different zones (COX - spectral optical characteristics) allows us to identify and delineate representative types of landscape, structural and material (industrial and social) complexes and specific geological and man-made bodies. The technology for updating digital topographic maps from satellite images based on visual interpretation should provide the following set of functions:

1) export/import of digital cartographic information and digital images of the area;

2) interpretation of space photographs in compliance with optimal conditions for their processing:

Preparation of source materials for identifying terrain elements on enlarged positives (on film);

Assessment of image resolution before and after primary processing;

Determination of direct and indirect decryption features, as well as the use of photographic images of typical terrain elements and reference materials;

4) digitization of satellite images and interpretation results;

5) transformation (orthorectification) of digital satellite images;

6) preparation of statistical and other characteristics of information features of terrain elements;

7) editing the content elements of a digital map based on the results of image interpretation;

8) formation of an updated digital topographic map;

9) design of a digital topographic or thematic map for the user together with the image - creation of a composite digital phototopographic map.

With automatic and interactive decoding, it is additionally possible to model the signal fields at the input of the receiving equipment of aerospace environmental monitoring systems; image filtering and pattern recognition operations.

But joint observation on the screen of a layer, which can be obtained using various methods, a vector digital map and a raster image creates new, previously unused, opportunities for automated interpretation and updating of maps.

The coordinates of the contour of an areal or linear terrain element on a digital map can serve as a “pesmaker” - a pointer for taking data from the pixels of a raster image of the terrain, followed by calculating the average characteristics of the surrounding area, specified dimensions, and outlining the area or drawing the corresponding curve in a new layer. If there is a discrepancy between the raster parameters in the next pixel of the image, it is possible to move to the next one corresponding to the same element on the map and then interactively eliminate the gaps. An algorithm for discontinuously obtaining statistical characteristics of averaged neighborhoods of pixels (points of segments between extrema or on splines) is possible, taking into account the permissible change in the characteristics of the raster tone, and not the entire array of equally spaced test areas along the curve.

The use of map data on the terrain makes it possible to significantly enhance the automation of decoding algorithms, especially for hydrological and geological arrays of information based on direct features, using the same comparison technique, based on geological and gravitational relationships.

Conclusion

The use of aerospace technologies in remote sensing is one of the most promising ways to develop this area. Of course, like any research method, aerospace sensing has its advantages and disadvantages.

One of the main disadvantages of this method is its relative high cost and, to date, the lack of clarity of the data obtained.

The above listed disadvantages are removable and insignificant against the background of the opportunities that open up thanks to aerospace technologies. This is an opportunity to observe vast territories over a long period of time, obtaining a dynamic picture, considering the influence of various factors on the territory and their relationship with each other. This opens up the possibility of a systematic study of the Earth and its individual regions.

aerial photography terrestrial remote space

Listusedsources

1. S.V. Garbuk, V.E. Gershenzon “Space systems for remote sensing of the Earth”, “Scan-Ex”, Moscow 1997, 296 pp.

2. Vinogradov B.V. Space methods for studying the natural environment. M., 1976.

3. Methods for automating the decoding of space materials - http://hronoinfotropos.narod.ru/articles/dzeprognos.htm

4. Remote methods for studying the earth's surface - http://ib.komisc.ru

5. Aerospace methods. Photography - http://referatplus.ru/geografi

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Natural resource research methods

natural resources information

In conditions of intensive development of productive forces and population growth, the problem rational use natural resources is of paramount importance.

For the study of natural resources, remote methods of collecting and recording information with subsequent processing of the obtained data using digital technology are increasingly being used. This is greatly facilitated by the launch of a series of natural resource Earth satellites with equipment for sensing the underlying surface in the visible, infrared and radio wave ranges of electromagnetic radiation of small, medium and high resolution. .

To receive information coming from artificial Earth satellites (AES), and its primary processing in order to eliminate noise and distortion, a network of regional centers has been created to ensure storage, replication and distribution of the received images. However, solving thematic processing problems requires the use of additional sources of information. For these purposes, satellite imaging facilities and ground-based data collection systems are being created.

Remote sensing is divided into ground-based and high-altitude studies. Ground-based remote sensing studies are carried out at standard test sites or in real conditions during under-aircraft or under-satellite experiments. As a rule, they are carried out in conjunction with contact research, for which complex research systems are created.

High-altitude remote sensing is carried out using air- or space-based equipment.

Space-based facilities transmit information that is necessary to solve most problems of remote sensing of natural objects. They are equipped with visible, infrared, radio wave equipment, data recording and processing devices.

When solving thematic problems, data obtained by collection complexes are subject to processing by manual or automated methods. By now, digital processing methods are becoming widespread.

Concept and tasks of space environmental monitoring

Space monitoring is constant observation and control over the state of the natural environment. It is carried out from a number of satellites.

Data from foreign satellite systems such as Landsat, Spot, NOAA, ERS, GEOS, MODIS, Sea WiFS, etc., as well as Russian satellite systems of the Resurs-O series, are widely used.

The special task of space monitoring is to identify those changes that are caused by human activity - anthropogenic and technogenic factors.

Space monitoring is a comprehensive observation of the earth's surface, atmosphere, hydrosphere, flora and fauna.

There are three groups of complex problems of space monitoring:

Tasks related to monitoring the state of the entire geographic environment as a whole (global monitoring);

Tasks associated with specific natural and economic systems in a specific area or country. Changes in the composition of the atmosphere, air temperature and humidity, the presence of ozone holes, etc. are also comprehensively studied here. Individual forest areas and their condition (infestation, fires, deforestation) are observed, river basins, individual lakes, migration are studied individual species animals, etc. (natural and economic monitoring);

Tasks related to specific control of individual natural objects. Individual rivers and lakes associated with the supply of drinking water are subject to monitoring; recording industrial emissions, monitoring the cleanliness of air over cities (sanitary and hygienic monitoring).

These three types of space monitoring differ in scale, coverage of phenomena and different observation methods.

Full-fledged global monitoring in the field of tracking the atmosphere, oceans, seas and lakes is possible only by establishing international cooperation.

The common task for all types of monitoring is to monitor the environment, warn about the occurrence of undesirable and dangerous phenomena, and forecast the further development of natural phenomena due to the enormous impact of anthropogenic and technogenic factors.

Introduction

Analytical chemistry is the science of determining the chemical composition of a substance and, partly, its chemical structure. Analytical chemistry methods make it possible to answer questions about what a substance consists of and what components are included in its composition. Even more important: what is the quantity of these components or what is their concentration. These methods often make it possible to find out in what form a given component is present in a substance.

The task of analytical chemistry includes developing the theoretical foundations of methods, establishing the limits of their applicability, assessing metrological and other characteristics, creating methods for analyzing various objects

Three functions of analytical chemistry as a field of knowledge can be distinguished:

1) Solving general questions of analysis

2) Development of analytical methods

3) Solving specific analysis problems

Chemical analysis may vary. Qualitative and quantitative, gross and local, destructive and non-destructive, contact and remote.

The purpose of this abstract is a more detailed study of remote analysis and its mechanism.

Remote sensing.

Remote sensing is the collection of information about an object or phenomenon using a recording device that is not in direct contact with the object or phenomenon. The term "remote sensing" usually includes recording electromagnetic radiation through various cameras, scanners, microwave receivers, radars and other devices of this kind. Remote sensing is used to collect and record information about the seabed, the Earth's atmosphere, and the solar system. It is carried out using sea vessels, airplanes, spacecraft and ground-based telescopes. Field-oriented sciences, such as geology, forestry and geography, also commonly use remote sensing to collect data for their research.

Remote sensing covers theoretical research, laboratory work, field observations and data collection from aircraft and artificial Earth satellites. Theoretical, laboratory and field methods are also important for obtaining information about the Solar System, and someday they will be used to study other planetary systems in the Galaxy. Some of the most developed countries regularly launch artificial satellites to scan the Earth's surface and interplanetary space stations for deep space exploration.

This type of system has three main components: an imaging device, a data acquisition environment, and a sensing base. As simple example Such a system can be used by an amateur photographer (base), who uses a 35 mm camera (visualization device that forms an image), which is charged with highly sensitive photographic film (recording medium), to photograph a river. The photographer is at some distance from the river, but records information about it and then stores it on photographic film.
Imaging instruments fall into four main categories: still and film cameras, multispectral scanners, radiometers, and active radars. Modern single-lens reflex cameras create an image by focusing ultraviolet, visible or infrared radiation coming from a subject onto photographic film. After developing the film, a permanent (capable of being preserved) long time) image. The video camera allows you to receive an image on the screen; The permanent record in this case will be the corresponding recording on the videotape or a photograph taken from the screen. All other imaging systems use detectors or receivers that are sensitive at specific wavelengths in the spectrum. Photomultiplier tubes and semiconductor photodetectors, used in combination with optical-mechanical scanners, make it possible to record energy in the ultraviolet, visible, and near, mid, and far infrared regions of the spectrum and convert it into signals that can produce images on film. Microwave energy (microwave energy) is similarly transformed by radiometers or radars. Sonars use the energy of sound waves to produce images on photographic film.
The instruments used to render images are located on a variety of bases, including on the ground, on ships, in airplanes, in balloons, and in space. aircraft. Special cameras and television systems are used every day to photograph physical and biological objects of interest on land, sea, atmosphere and space. Special time-lapse cameras are used to record changes in the earth's surface such as coastal erosion, glacier movement and vegetation evolution.
Photographs and images taken as part of aerospace imaging programs are properly processed and stored. In the US and Russia, archives for such information data are created by governments. One of the main archives of this kind in the United States, EROS (Earth Resources Obsevation Systems) Data Center, subordinate to the Department of the Interior, stores approx. 5 million aerial photographs and approx. 2 million images from Landsat satellites, as well as copies of all aerial photographs and satellite images of the Earth's surface held by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). This information is open access. Various military and intelligence organizations have extensive photo archives and archives of other visual materials.
The most important part of remote sensing is image analysis. Such analysis can be performed visually, by computer-enhanced visual methods, and entirely by computer; the latter two involve digital data analysis. Initially, most remote sensing data analysis work was done by visually examining individual aerial photographs or by using a stereoscope and overlaying the photographs to create a stereo model. Photographs were usually black and white and color, sometimes black and white and color in infrared, or - in rare cases - multispectral. The main users of data obtained from aerial photography are geologists, geographers, foresters, agronomists and, of course, cartographers. A researcher analyzes an aerial photograph in a laboratory to directly extract useful information , then apply it to one of the base maps and determine the areas that will need to be visited during field work. After field work, the researcher re-evaluates the aerial photographs and uses the data obtained from them and from field surveys to create the final map. Using these methods, many different thematic maps are prepared for release: geological, land use and topographic maps, maps of forests, soils and crops. Geologists and other scientists conduct laboratory and field studies of the spectral characteristics of various natural and civilizational changes occurring on Earth. The ideas from such research have found application in the design of MSS multispectral scanners, which are used on aircraft and spacecraft. The Landsat 1, 2 and 4 artificial Earth satellites carried MSS with four spectral bands: from 0.5 to 0.6 μm (green); from 0.6 to 0.7 µm (red); from 0.7 to 0.8 µm (near IR); from 0.8 to 1.1 µm (IR). The Landsat 3 satellite also uses a band from 10.4 to 12.5 microns. Standard composite images using the artificial coloring method are obtained by combining MSS with the first, second and fourth bands in combination with blue, green and red filters, respectively. On the Landsat 4 satellite with the advanced MSS scanner, the thematic mapper provides images in seven spectral bands: three in the visible region, one in the near-IR region, two in the mid-IR region and one in the thermal IR region . Thanks to this instrument, the spatial resolution was improved almost threefold (to 30 m) compared to that provided by the Landsat satellite, which used only the MSS scanner. Since the satellites' sensitive sensors were not designed for stereoscopic imaging, it was necessary to differentiate certain features and phenomena within one specific image using spectral differences. MSS scanners can distinguish between five broad categories of land surfaces: water, snow and ice, vegetation, outcrop and soil, and human-related features. A scientist who is familiar with the area under study can analyze an image obtained in a single broad spectral band, such as a black-and-white aerial photograph, which is typically obtained by recording radiation with wavelengths from 0.5 to 0.7 µm (green and red regions of the spectrum). However, as the number of new spectral bands increases, it becomes increasingly difficult for the human eye to distinguish between important features of similar tones in different parts of the spectrum. For example, only one survey shot from the Landsat satellite using MSS in the 0.5-0.6 µm band contains approx. 7.5 million pixels (picture elements), each of which can have up to 128 shades of gray ranging from 0 (black) to 128 (white). When comparing two Landsat images of the same area, you're dealing with 60 million pixels; one image obtained from Landsat 4 and processed by the mapper contains about 227 million pixels. It clearly follows that computers must be used to analyze such images.
Image analysis uses computers to compare the gray scale (range of discrete numbers) values of each pixel in images taken on the same day or on several different days. Image analysis systems perform classification specific features shooting plan in order to compile a thematic map of the area. Modern image reproduction systems make it possible to reproduce on a color television monitor one or more spectral bands processed by a satellite with an MSS scanner. The movable cursor is placed on one of the pixels or on a matrix of pixels located within some specific feature, for example a body of water. The computer correlates all four MSS bands and classifies all other parts of the satellite image that have similar sets of digital numbers. The researcher can then color code areas of "water" on a color monitor to create a "map" showing all the bodies of water in the satellite image. This procedure, known as regulated classification, allows systematic classification of all parts of the analyzed image. It is possible to identify all major types of earth's surface. The computer classification schemes described are quite simple, but the world around us is complex. Water, for example, does not necessarily have a single spectral characteristic. Within the same shot, bodies of water can be clean or dirty, deep or shallow, partially covered with algae or frozen, and each of them has its own spectral reflectance (and therefore its own digital characteristic). The interactive digital image analysis system IDIMS uses a non-regulated classification scheme. IDIMS automatically places each pixel into one of several dozen classes. After computer classification, similar classes (for example, five or six water classes) can be collected into one. However, many areas of the earth's surface have rather complex spectra, which makes it difficult to unambiguously distinguish between them. An oak grove, for example, may appear in satellite images to be spectrally indistinguishable from a maple grove, although this problem is solved very simply on the ground. According to their spectral characteristics, oak and maple belong to broad-leaved species. Computer processing with image content identification algorithms can significantly improve the MSS image compared to the standard one.
Remote sensing data serves as the main source of information in the preparation of land use and topographic maps. NOAA and GOES weather and geodetic satellites are used to monitor cloud changes and the development of cyclones, including hurricanes and typhoons. NOAA satellite imagery is also used to map seasonal changes in snow cover in the northern hemisphere for climate research and to study changes in sea currents, which can help reduce shipping times. Microwave instruments on the Nimbus satellites are used to map seasonal changes in ice cover in the Arctic and Antarctic seas.
Remote sensing data from aircraft and artificial satellites are increasingly being used to monitor natural grasslands. Aerial photographs are very useful in forestry because of the high resolution they can achieve, as well as the accurate measurement of plant cover and how it changes over time.

Remote sensing data forms an important part of research in glaciology (relating to the characteristics of glaciers and snow cover), geomorphology (relief shapes and characteristics), marine geology (morphology of the sea and ocean floors), and geobotany (due to the dependence of vegetation on underlying mineral deposits) and in archaeological geology. In astrogeology, remote sensing data is of primary importance for the study of other planets and moons in the solar system, and in comparative planetology for the study of Earth's history. However, the most exciting aspect of remote sensing is that satellites placed in Earth orbit for the first time have given scientists the ability to observe, track and study our planet as a complete system, including its dynamic atmosphere and landforms as they change under the influence of natural factors and human activities. Images obtained from satellites may help find the key to predicting climate change, including those caused by natural and man-made factors. Although the United States and Russia have been conducting remote sensing since the 1960s, other countries are also contributing. The Japanese and European Space Agencies plan to launch a large number of satellites into low-Earth orbits designed to study the Earth's land, seas and atmosphere.

Remote methods for studying soil cover.

The use of aerospace methods in soil science has given a significant impetus to the development of soil mapping and soil cover monitoring. Back in the 30s of the twentieth century, at the dawn of the use of aerial methods for studying natural resources, significant opportunities were noted for using remote imagery in compiling detailed soil maps and for assessing the condition of crops.

Remote methods for studying soil cover are based on the fact that soils of different origins and degrees of secondary changes reflect, absorb and emit electromagnetic waves from different spectral zones in different ways. As a consequence, each soil object has its own spectral-brightness image, imprinted on aero- and space-based materials. By applying various methods of processing aerospace images, it is possible to identify different soils and their individual characteristics.

Long-term research by scientists shows that soils, depending on humus content, humidity, mechanical composition, carbonate content, the presence of salts, erosion and other features, are depicted in photographs with a wide range of tones. Spectral reflectance has been studied quite fully; in this regard, reference should be made to the fundamental research of I. I. Karmanov, who measured spectral reflectance coefficients in the range 400–750 nm of 4 thousand soil samples using an SF-10 spectrophotometer.

In black and white photographs, soils have a gray, dark gray tone, while vegetation has a light, light gray tone. The exception is saline, eroded and sandy soils. In the near-infrared zone (0.75–1.3 μm) for soils, a smooth rise of the curves is observed. The nature and level of spectral curves make it possible to fairly reliably determine genetic differences in soils. To study soils during multispectral photography, differences in the spectral brightness coefficient of soils in different spectral ranges are used.

When conducting remote soil surveys, the possibility of identifying saline and alkaline soils is often noted. In many cases, this applies to areas of natural salinity, as well as local salinization caused by irrigation measures. There is practically no work on remote assessment of technogenic salinization in connection with the development of oil and gas fields.

Technogenic salinization of soils in oil fields is a fairly common phenomenon; it is caused by technogenic streams pouring onto the surface, characterized by high mineralization of water with a predominance of sodium chloride in the salt complex. Salinization causes a sharp change in soil properties and causes depletion or degeneration of vegetation cover. First of all, this applies to solonetzic soils. Soil colloids saturated with sodium undergo peptization, soil aggregates disintegrate, and the physical properties of the soil change. The most obvious changes are the density, aggregate and mechanical composition of soils. Transformations of the organic component of soils are no less significant. First of all, this is expressed in the redistribution of the initial reserves of soil organic carbon across genetic horizons due to increased flow of humus during the formation of sodium humates and fulvates.

It follows from the above that technogenic salinization dramatically changes various soil characteristics and, as a consequence, the spectral-brightness image of saline and solonetzic soils in oil fields is characterized by noticeable originality. At the same time, for their identification and mapping, the rather rich experience of studying natural saline territories and soil masses that have been salinized as a result of irrigation measures can be used.

The idea of the possibility of assessing the salinity of irrigated soils using remote sensing data arose in the 60s of the twentieth century, but the first data turned out to be very scarce. Subsequently, based on studies of arid, mainly cotton-growing areas, more detailed results were obtained, ideas emerged about what information about soil salinization can be obtained from images and what are the interpretive signs of soils of different types of salinity.

The need to identify saline and solonetzic soil varieties is encountered during large-scale soil mapping. It is noted that such differences are well recorded on aerial and satellite images due to changes in the tone (color) and pattern of the image. According to Yu. P. Kienko and Yu. G. Kellner, satellite images with a resolution of more than 10 m convey 100% of the information about the forms of elementary soil structures; for photographs with a lower resolution (20–30 m), no more than 80% of soil areas are depicted.

Applied interpretation of space images involves working with a series of images. It is recommended to use photographs of the same area that differ in the brightness of the image of identical points depending on the properties and state of objects or shooting conditions and parameters. The most commonly used of them are: images in different spectral ranges, multispectral images divided by wavelengths, multi-temporal images, images at different conditions lighting, different shooting directions, pictures of different scales, resolutions. One of the effective methodological techniques is sequential interpretation, which is used in cases where different objects are displayed on different zonal images. For example, salt marshes and the degree of salinity are well recorded in images in the blue zone, wetlands and the degree of moisture are clearly recorded in images in the near-infrared zone. Sequential decryption involves the analysis of individual time slices with the compilation of multi-temporal decryption schemes.

B.V. Vinogradov focuses on the “point-by-point” or “pixel-by-pixel” comparison of remote signals for aerospace monitoring of soil dynamics. This technique consists of comparing the remote signal, measured in photometric or radiometric units, of the same sites in different years and interpreting the corresponding soil indicators. Method for point-by-point comparison of photometric and radiometric measurements different years quite correct, but complicated. It requires standardization of natural and technical specifications shooting that would allow correct identification the same points on successive images. In addition, when photometric and radiometric point-by-point comparisons are made, it is necessary to take into account the spatio-temporal heterogeneity of the area under study. Temporal inhomogeneities are eliminated by comparing images obtained during the same agrophenological phases. To take into account spatial heterogeneity, the weighted average characteristics of the elements that make up each subsequent “target” are calculated. For comparison, points identified in successive images located in plowed fields and crops with vegetation coverage of up to 30% are used. Thus, when comparing large-scale early-summer panchromatic images, the dynamics of humus content in the soils of Kazakhstan was revealed. For standardization, two optical “reference” areas were used, the reflectance of the soils of which is obviously stable: these are marmots with loess emissions on the surface, where the humus content is negligible, and the reflectance in the spectral range is 0.3–0.32; and stretches with meadow-chestnut soils, where the humus content is more than 5%, and the reflection coefficient is the lowest - 0.08–0.12.

The task of identifying salinized soils is one of the most important in the process of remote soil reclamation studies. When monitoring the salt regime of irrigated soils, the degree and type of soil salinity, the direction of changes in rock salinity, salt reserves, and the causes of salinity are assessed. Soil salinization is detected by remote methods both with the direct appearance of salts on the soil surface and with changes in the reflectivity of agricultural crops due to the loss of individual plants, their suppression and the appearance of halophytic weeds. Due to these phenomena, the tone and pattern of the image of saline soils change. Similar studies were widely carried out on irrigated areas in the Amu Darya and Syr Darya basins [

Extensive experience in remote assessment of soil properties was gained in the compilation of the state soil map of the USSR using space information. In this case, multispectral images were used; the compilers used mainly two channels: 0.6–0.7 (red zone) and 0.8–1.1 μm (infrared zone).

The identification of saline soils was carried out during the compilation of a small-scale soil map of Uzbekistan. While working on the map, black and white satellite images of different scales were used. For salt marshes, a spotted and finely spotted photographic image structure and a light gray to dark gray tone have been established.

A specialized map of “Soil Salinization” was compiled for the Pamir-Alai. As the authors point out, in satellite images, salt marshes and highly saline soils were interpreted quite reliably based on the phototone and structure of the photographic image. Satellite images also decipher small spots of weakly and moderately saline soils developed among non-saline gray-meadow soils; these soils in the images have a spotty image with blurry boundaries of light gray and gray phototones.

Salinization processes were assessed by remote means in the Southern Stavropol region. Natural salinity in this region manifests itself mainly in soils formed on Maikop clays under conditions of increased hydromorphism. The predominant slightly and moderately saline soils have a gray tone on aerial photographs, which is the background color for such areas. Against this background, small, very light spots of highly saline soils stand out clearly.

Deciphering the salinity of irrigated soils in arid areas is carried out based on the condition of the cotton plant. Interpretation from the open soil surface is impossible under these conditions, since the spectral brightness coefficients of non-saline arid soils and saline soils are very close. The main decipherable signs of salinity are the tone and pattern of the photograph. Two contrasting gradations of tone are taken as a basis: dark - for areas with good condition of cotton plants and light - for a surface devoid of vegetation. The percentage of light spots within a field or contour and their size made it possible to establish and, on the basis of ground-based data, statistically substantiate the relationship of a photograph with the degree of salinity in a meter-long soil layer. This principle made it possible to identify four gradations of soil salinity during visual interpretation on large-scale images, three on medium-scale images, and two on satellite images.

The study of the phenomena of secondary salinization in the zone of influence of infiltration waters was carried out using aerial photography materials on the Pravo-Egorlyk irrigation system in the Stavropol Territory (Russia).
In the 80–90s of the twentieth century. interpretation of soil complexes in satellite images was carried out mainly by means of structural-zonal analysis. The latter consists of optical transformation of photographs and obtaining a quantitative assessment of the spatial-frequency spectrum by optical filtering of the most informative features characterizing the spatial structure of the image. Currently, satellites are equipped with high-resolution optical scanning equipment, which allows obtaining images in digital form. In this regard, instead of optical coherent spectral analysis, other methods of processing digital source data are used.

The essence of the data fusion technique is to use integrated approach when receiving, processing and interpreting aerospace information. The data fusion technique is used when the system being studied by remote sensing methods is weakly structured and quite variable in time. Of course, information on soil salinity falls into this category, so the most interesting works on soil salinization, published recently.

In 2003, a rather voluminous review was published on the current state of remote sensing methods as a tool for assessing soil salinity. This article discusses various sensors (including aerial photography, satellite and aircraft multispectral, microwave, video, airborne geophysical, hyperspectral, electromagnetic inductometers) and approaches used for remote indication and mapping of saline areas. The important role of processing initial remote sensing data is noted; among the most effective methods for assessing saline soils, such techniques as spectral separation, maximum likelihood classification, classification based on fuzzy sets, range combination, principal component analysis, and correlation equations are discussed. Finally, the paper demonstrates the modeling of temporal and spatial salinity variability using combined approaches involving data fusion and data separation techniques.

Large-scale experimental work on the use of remote sensing to map soil salinity was carried out in 1998-99. in the province of Alberta (Canada). As part of this work, two key areas were studied, one with natural salinity, the second with salinity due to artificial irrigation. Soil salinity was monitored using a ground-based electromagnetic salinity inductometer in the soil layer from 0 to 60 cm. Remote sensing was carried out using a multispectral sensor mounted on an aircraft. In the first year of research, images were obtained with a resolution of 3-4 m, in the second - 0.5 m. Four ranges of electromagnetic waves were used: blue (0.45–0.52 μm), green (0.52–0.60 μm ), red, one way or another, use elements of Data Fusion Technology.

“ERDAS Image 8.4” procedures were used by V. I. Pridatko and Yu. M. Shtepa to analyze satellite images and classify the earth’s surface of the Crimean Peninsula. Based on the interpretation of four Landsat-7 ETM images obtained in 1999 and 2000, classifications of the land surface of Crimea were developed, including the identification of saline areas.

The use of fuzzy modeling to improve the efficiency of identifying types of saline soils based on remote sensing data is considered by D. A. Maternite. She studied Landsat TM images taken over a saline area of Bolivia. Modeling using fuzzy sets made it possible to increase the accuracy of the results; the separation of soils with the chloride-sulfate type of salinity from the sulfate-chloride type was achieved in 44% of cases. Higher accuracy was obtained when separating sulfate-chloride solonchaks and solonetzic soils; the most informative data turned out to be in the near and thermal infrared spectral ranges.

To map saline soils, it is proposed to use integrated multi-temporal classifications of remote sensing data, physical and chemical properties of soils and attributes of land forms]. Three expert systems using fuzzy sets and linguistic rules of fuzzy sets to formalize expert knowledge about the actual possibility of change are processed and entered into the GIS. The systems use the approach of semantic import of non-fuzzy sets, which makes it possible to integrate heterogeneous data into databases according to the rules of fuzzy sets. The output of the system is three maps representing “plausible changes,” “nature of changes,” and “magnitude (size) of changes.” These maps are then combined with landscape information presented in various GIS layers.

Other work by D. A. Mothernight shows that salt-tolerant vegetation as an indicator for separating saline and alkali soils from unamended soils is not always applicable when using Landstat TM or Spot optical sensors. Radar materials are more effective for this purpose. The fuzzy set method is used to classify radar satellite images (JERS-1). The experience gained indicates that the classification of radar data provides a reliable determination (overall accuracy is 81%) of areas degraded due to salinization and solonetzization processes. The main problems arise due to different soil roughness; certain classes of surface roughness with saline and solonetzic soils are mistakenly classified as unaltered.

Remote sensing techniques using vegetation type and condition as a proxy for soil salinity were used to provide a broad spatial assessment of salinity and flooding in the Eastern and Western Counties of Ukaro, Australia. In the Murray and Darling river basin (Australia), studies of the spectral features of saline soils in irrigated areas were carried out.

Research to assess the impact of soil salinity on crops through the use of GIS and remote sensing technologies has been undertaken in the southeastern part of the Harran Valley (Turkey), where saline soils are quite common.

Integrated interpretation of aerial photographs was used to identify varying degrees of saline cropland and wasteland in Shanxi Province (China), according to the authors, a reproducibility of 90% was achieved. Landsat TM images were processed to assess the degree of soil salinization and urbanization of agricultural areas in the Nile Delta and in the adjacent areas , dated 1984-93 The results of processing multi-temporal images showed that for 3.74% of agricultural land in the delta, soil productivity is decreasing.

A study on the feasibility of establishing the salinity of gypsum-bearing soils using Landsat TM data was undertaken in the Ismailia province of Egypt]. Using controlled image classification, gypsum-bearing soils are separated from saline soils and from other soils. The most effective way to separate gypsum-bearing and saline soils is to use the thermal range.

The use of satellite imagery materials has made it possible to develop a new direction in the study of soil salinity. As the review shows, research is being carried out in many countries, regardless of whether they own spacecraft or not. The most widely used for research are satellite images of Landsat satellites, the advantage of which is the presence of many imaging channels, accessibility, resolution, good binding and correction.

The problem of remote indication of soil salinity is acute, especially in countries with arid climates (Australia, India, Turkey, southern Russia, etc.). Almost always, the use of remote methods to assess natural and irrigated soil salinization brings good results. In many cases, researchers rely not so much on the study of soil characteristics, but on the degree of degradation of vegetation in salt marshes and solonetzes. Changes in vegetation cover can also be used to identify and assess technogenically saline soils. But they are also characterized by such distinctive features, as a peculiar configuration of halos and a sharp difference from unamended soils in many characteristics, including in the upper surface layer. Modern techniques for processing source satellite images with appropriate resolution make it possible to confidently identify such effects. Since technogenic soil salinization is always associated with the presence of a technological facility, the search area for contamination sites can be significantly reduced by having an accurate map of objects that are potential soil pollutants. Such a map is created using GIS technologies, and the availability of medium and high resolution satellite images from spacecraft (SC) Landsat, SPOT, Ikonas, QuickBird in combination with processing tools embedded in modern programs, for example ERDAS Imagine, allows us to solve the problem of assessing man-made soil salinization in oil and gas fields.

Remote sensing technology ( a. remote sensing, distances methods; n. Fernerkundung; f. teledetection; And. metodos a distancia), is the general name for methods of studying ground-based and space objects. bodies in a non-contact way means. distance (eg from the air or from space) dec. devices in different regions of the spectrum. D. m. make it possible to evaluate the regional features of the objects being studied, which are revealed at large distances. The term became widespread after the launch of the world's first satellite in 1957 and the shooting of the far side of the Moon by owls. automatic station "Zond-3" (1959).
There are active radiation methods based on the use of radiation reflected by objects after irradiation of their arts. sources, and passive ones, who study their own. radiation from bodies and solar radiation reflected by them. Depending on the location of the receivers, radio waves are divided into ground-based (including surface-based), airborne (atmospheric, or aero-), and space-based. Based on the type of carrier of the electronic imaging equipment, a distinction is made between airplane, helicopter, balloon, rocket, and satellite imaging (in geological and geophysical research - aerial photography, aerogeophysical imaging, and space imaging). Selection, comparison and analysis of spectral characteristics in different electromagnetic ranges. radiation allows you to recognize objects and obtain information about their size, density, chemical properties. composition, physical properties and condition. To search for radioactive ores and sources, the g-band is used to establish chemical composition of soils and soils - ultraviolet part of the spectrum; the light range is the most informative when studying soils and plants, cover, IR - gives estimates of the temperature of the surface of bodies, radio waves - information about the surface topography, mineral composition, humidity and deep properties of natural formations and atmospheric layers.
Based on the type of radiation receiver, radiation meters are divided into visual, photographic, photoelectric, radiometric, and radar. In the visual method (description, evaluation and sketches), the recording element is the observer's eye. Photographic receivers (0.3-0.9 µm) have an accumulation effect, but they are different. sensitivity in different regions of the spectrum (selective). Photovoltaic receivers (radiation energy is converted directly into an electrical signal using photomultipliers, photocells and other photoelectronic devices) are also selective, but more sensitive and less inertial. For abs. energetic measurements in all regions of the spectrum, and especially in IR, use receivers that convert thermal energy into other types (most often into electrical ones) to present data in analog or digital form on magnetic and other storage media for their analysis using a computer. Video information obtained by television, scanner (Fig.), panoramic cameras, thermal imaging, radar (lateral and all-round viewing) and other systems allows you to study the spatial position of objects, their prevalence, and link them directly to the map.

The most complete and reliable information about the objects being studied is provided by multichannel imaging - simultaneous observations in several spectral ranges (for example, in the visible, IR and radio regions) or radar in combination with a higher-resolution imaging method.
In geology, geometric data are used to study relief, the structure of the earth’s crust, and magnetic and gravitational forces. fields of the Earth, theoretical developments. principles of automation cosmophotogeol systems. mapping, searching and forecasting deposits; research of global geological features. objects and phenomena, obtaining preliminary data on the surface of the Moon, Venus, Mars, etc. The development of D. m. is associated with an improvement in observation. bases (satellite laboratories, balloon aerial stations, etc.) and technical. equipment (the introduction of cryogenic technology that reduces the level of interference), the formalization of the decryption process and the creation on this basis of machine methods for processing information that give max. objectivity of assessments and correlations. Literature: Aeromethods of geological research, Leningrad, 1971; Barrett E., Curtis L., Introduction to space geoscience. Remote sensing methods of the Earth, trans. from English, M., 1979; Gonin G. B., Space photography for the study of natural resources, Leningrad, 1980; Lavrova N.P., Stetsenko A.F., Aerial photography. Aerial photography equipment, M., 1981; Radar methods for studying the Earth, M., 1980; "Exploring the Earth from Space" (since 1980); Remote sensing: a quantitative approach, trans. from English, M., 1983; Teicholz E., Processing Satellite Data, "Datamation", 1978, v. 24, No. 6. K. A. Zykov.

- examinations in agriculture, a set of methods for collecting, processing and using aerospace and space materials...
Agricultural encyclopedic dictionary
- Rice. 1. Van Slyke apparatus for determining the alkaline reserve of blood plasma. Rice. 1. Van Slyke apparatus for determining the alkaline reserve of blood plasma...
Veterinary encyclopedic dictionary
- in demographin, a set of techniques for depicting the patterns of development and placement of people, dependencies between demographics. processes and structures using styles. Compared to algebraic...
Demographic Encyclopedic Dictionary
- 1) methods for studying the gas composition of blood, based on the principle of physical and chemical displacement of blood gases, absorption of released gases by chemical reagents and measurement of pressure in a closed system before and...
Big medical dictionary
- a set of techniques that make it possible to study and predict the development of natural objects by comparing the inflow and outflow of matter, energy and other flows...
Ecological dictionary
- plant protection, a set of techniques for reducing the number of unwanted organisms with the help of other living beings and biological products...
Ecological dictionary
- a method for solving boundary value problems of mathematical physics, which boils down to minimizing functionals - scalar variables that depend on the choice of one or more functions...
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Metallurgy
- ways, techniques, means of ensuring the necessary control influence of bodies executive branch, local government bodies carrying out executive activities, their officials,...
Administrative law. Dictionary-reference book
- I Van Slyke methods, gasometric methods for the quantitative determination of amine nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood - see Nitrogen. II Van Slyke methods 1) methods for studying the gas composition of blood,...
Medical encyclopedia
- methods for identifying histiocytes in preparations nerve tissue and various organs using ammonia silver or pyridine-soda solutions of silver...
Large medical dictionary
- methods for neutralizing waste containing organic substances, based on their heating as a result of the vital activity of thermophilic aerobic microorganisms...
Large medical dictionary
- methods for assessing assumptions about the nature of inheritance, based on a comparison of the observed and expected ratios of sick and healthy in families burdened with hereditary diseases, taking into account the method...
Large medical dictionary
- histochemical methods for identifying enzymes, based on the reaction of the formation of calcium or magnesium phosphate deposits in places where enzymatic activity is localized when tissue sections are incubated with organic...
Large medical dictionary
- radiometric methods based on the use of g-radiation. Based on the type of radiation, a distinction is made between: G-m, using g-radiation from g.p. and ores, and G-m, using scattered g...
Geological encyclopedia
- remote sensing methods, is the general name for methods of studying ground-based and space objects. bodies in a non-contact way means. distance divers. devices in different regions of the spectrum...
Geological encyclopedia
- "...2...
Official terminology

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