A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself.
Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
| Predominant and fashionable colors | Rich colors; green, pink, purple with gold accent, sky blue |
| Classicism style lines | Strict repeating vertical and horizontal lines; bas-relief in a round medallion; smooth generalized drawing; symmetry |
| Form | Clarity and geometric shapes; statues on the roof, rotunda; for the Empire style - expressive pompous monumental forms |
| Characteristic interior elements | Discreet decor; round and ribbed columns, pilasters, statues, antique ornaments, coffered vault; for the Empire style, military decor (emblems); symbols of power |
| Constructions | Massive, stable, monumental, rectangular, arched |
| Windows | Rectangular, elongated upward, with a modest design |
| Classicism style doors | Rectangular, paneled; with a massive gable portal on round and ribbed columns; with lions, sphinxes and statues |
Directions of classicism in architecture: Palladianism, Empire style, Neo-Greek, “Regency style”.
The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.
The emergence of the classicism style
In 1755, Johann Joachim Winckelmann wrote in Dresden: “The only way for us to become great, and if possible inimitable, is to imitate the ancients.” This call to update contemporary art, taking advantage of the beauty of antiquity, perceived as an ideal, found active support in European society. The progressive public saw in classicism a necessary contrast to court baroque. But the enlightened feudal lords did not reject imitation of ancient forms. The era of classicism coincided in time with the era of bourgeois revolutions - the English one in 1688, the French one 101 years later.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.
The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.
Historical characteristics of the classicism style
By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe.
Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban planning ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.
From Rococo forms, initially marked by Roman influence, after the completion of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin in 1791, a sharp turn was made towards Greek forms. After the liberation wars against Napoleon, this “Hellenism” found its masters in K.F. Schinkel and L. von Klenze. Facades, columns and triangular pediments became the architectural alphabet.
The desire to translate the noble simplicity and calm grandeur of ancient art into modern construction led to the desire to completely copy an ancient building. What F. Gilly left as a project for a monument to Frederick II, by order of Ludwig I of Bavaria, was carried out on the slopes of the Danube in Regensburg and received the name Walhalla (Walhalla “Chamber of the Dead”).
The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.
The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.
The architects of Napoleonic France took inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carrousel and the Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style.
In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).
The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities.
In Russia, almost all provincial and many district cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism. To authentic museums of classicism under open air cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have become. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to coexist with romantically tinged eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), especially clearly manifested in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon.
In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaux Arts).
Princely palaces and residences became the centers of construction in the classicist style; Marktplatz (marketplace) in Karlsruhe, Maximilianstadt and Ludwigstrasse in Munich, as well as construction in Darmstadt, became especially famous. The Prussian kings in Berlin and Potsdam built primarily in the classical style.
But palaces were no longer the main object of construction. Villas and country houses could no longer be distinguished from them. The scope of state construction included public buildings - theaters, museums, universities and libraries. To these were added buildings for social purposes - hospitals, homes for the blind and deaf-mute, as well as prisons and barracks. The picture was complemented by country estates of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie, town halls and residential buildings in cities and villages.
The construction of churches no longer played a primary role, but remarkable buildings were created in Karlsruhe, Darmstadt and Potsdam, although there was a debate about whether pagan architectural forms were suitable for a Christian monastery.
Construction features of the classicism style
After the collapse of the great historical styles that had survived centuries, in the 19th century. There is a clear acceleration in the process of architecture development. This becomes especially obvious if we compare the last century with the entire previous thousand-year development. If early medieval architecture and Gothic spanned about five centuries, the Renaissance and Baroque together covered only half of this period, then classicism took less than a century to take over Europe and penetrate overseas.
Characteristic features of the classicism style
With a change in the point of view on architecture, with the development of construction technology, and the emergence of new types of structures in the 19th century. There was also a significant shift in the center of world development of architecture. In the foreground are countries that did not experience the highest stage of Baroque development. Classicism reaches its peak in France, Germany, England and Russia.
Classicism was an expression of philosophical rationalism. The concept of classicism was the use of ancient form-formation systems in architecture, which, however, were filled with new content. The aesthetics of simple ancient forms and a strict order were put in contrast to the randomness and laxity of architectural and artistic manifestations of the worldview.
Classicism stimulated archaeological research, which led to discoveries about advanced ancient civilizations. The results of archaeological expeditions, summarized in extensive scientific research, laid theoretical foundations movement, whose participants believed ancient culture the pinnacle of perfection in the art of construction, an example of absolute and eternal beauty. The popularization of ancient forms was facilitated by numerous albums containing images of architectural monuments.
Types of classicism style buildings
The character of architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls outside and inside are divided by small pilasters and cornices. In the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans, symmetry prevails.
The color scheme is characterized by light pastel colors. White, as a rule, serves to identify architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.
The most significant urban planning concepts and their implementation in nature at the end of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism. During this period, new cities, parks, and resorts were founded.
Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov was born on November 19 (8), 1711 in the village of Mishaninskaya, which is located on one of the islands of the Northern Dvina, not far from the city of Kholmogory. The future great scientist first saw the light of day in the family of a black-mown peasant (as state peasants were called in contrast to serfs) Vasily Dorofeevich Lomonosov. Vasily Dorofeevich, like most of the inhabitants of those places, could not feed himself by farming (the northern summer was too short) and was engaged in sea fishing. To do this, he owned a small sailing ship, on which he sailed into the White and Barents Seas, transported cargo, and hunted sea animals and fish. When Mikhail was ten years old, his father, like many other Pomeranian children, began to take him with him as a cabin boy. The impressions from swimming, seal hunting, new places and people were so strong that they left an imprint for life. Most likely, it was at this time that the boy’s ineradicable curiosity awakened, which turned into a thirst for knowledge. M.V. Lomonosov learned to read and write early, and most importantly, to think. He greedily reached out for knowledge, to “prey” which he went to Moscow at the end of 1730, where he entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. The years of study were not easy, but Lomonosov endured everything and a little more than four years later moved to the seventh, penultimate, class of the academy, and when in 1735 it was necessary to select the most successful students to be sent to St. Petersburg to the university at the Academy of Sciences, Lomonosov found himself in their number. The St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was founded by Peter I and opened after his death in 1725. It was supposed to become not only the scientific center of the country, but also a center for training Russian scientific personnel. For this purpose, a gymnasium and a university were created at the Academy, which attracted the best students from other schools, including the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. For the rapid growth of various industries, the country needed trained specialists. The need for them was especially acute in the mining industry, so it was decided to send three Russian young men abroad to study mining. And six months after arriving in St. Petersburg, Lomonosov, together with D. Vinogradov and G. Reiser, went to Germany. In the fall of 1736, all three became university students in the city of Marburg. Having completed the course three years later, having mastered several languages and modern natural sciences, the Russian students then went to the city of Freiberg to the then famous teacher I. Henkel to study mining. Lomonosov began to study very diligently, but quarrels with Henkel, who did not understand his aspirations, led to a break, and in May 1740 Lomonosov returned to Marburg. After several attempts (and wanderings around Germany), Lomonosov managed to return to Russia. On June 19 (8), 1741, he arrived in St. Petersburg. By this time, the situation in the country, and the St. Petersburg Academy in particular, was turbulent. Dissatisfaction with the dominance of foreigners was expressed. Therefore, the all-powerful manager of the Academy at that time, adviser to the academic chancellery I.D. Schumacher, decided to bring the young Russian scientist closer to him. The quarrel with Henkel and his unauthorized departure were forgotten. Lomonosov was entrusted with compiling a catalog of stones and fossils from the St. Petersburg Kunstkamera, Russia's first natural science museum. At the same time, he wrote the scientific work “Elements of Mathematical Chemistry” and created a project for a catoptricodioptric incendiary instrument - a kind of solar oven. On January 19 (8), 1742, Lomonosov was appointed adjunct of the physical class of the Academy of Sciences and he received the right to attend meetings of academicians.
Particularly fruitful for scientific activity Lomonosov in the field of physics and chemistry were 1743-1747. It was then that he developed the first scientific research program in the field of physics and chemistry in our country, which later became known as “276 notes on physics and corpuscular philosophy.” (A corpuscle, according to the terminology of that time, is a particle of matter, similar in its properties to what at the end of the 19th century was called a molecule, and philosophy was then called science or teaching.) During the same period, he wrote dissertations “On insensitive particles”, “ On the effect of chemical solvents in general”, “On metallic luster”, “Reflections on the cause of heat and cold”, etc.
Since 1744, M.V. Lomonosov gave lectures on physics to students of the academic university. These classes showed that successful learning requires a good textbook. And Lomonosov translates from Latin into Russian “Experimental Physics” by one of his Marburg teachers - H. Wolf. It was used for a long time to study physics in various educational institutions of the country. Around the same period, Mikhail Vasilyevich began a systematic study of thunderstorm and atmospheric phenomena, proposed his theory of thermal phenomena, based on his atomic-molecular theory, and developed the theory of solutions. At the same time, he became seriously involved in Russian history and literature and prepared a textbook on eloquence.
In 1745, Lomonosov was elected professor of chemistry (academician) of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and began to actively strive for the creation of a chemical laboratory. His efforts were crowned with success. In 1748, on the second line of Vasilyevsky Island, in the courtyard of the house where the scientist lived, the first scientific and educational laboratory in Russia was built. The year 1748 became significant in the life of the scientist not only with the opening of a chemical laboratory. In the same year, his scientific works on physics and chemistry were published, where, among others, “An Experience in the Theory of Air Elasticity” was published, outlining the kinetic theory of gases created by Lomonosov. In the same year, he wrote a long letter to the outstanding mathematician L. Euler (1707-1783), in which he outlined his theory of universal gravitation, to confirm which he used the law of conservation of momentum (founded by the French scientist R. Descartes) and known to ancient atomists the law of conservation of quantity of matter, combining them for the first time in scientific practice in one formulation. This formulation was published only in 1760. Since 1749, Lomonosov began intensive work in the chemical laboratory, where he analyzed ore samples sent from various places in Russia, created new dyes, conducted experiments on the study of solutions and roasting of metals, and in the “training chamber” “For the first time in the world, he teaches students a course on “True Physical Chemistry”, in which, following R. Boyle, he tries to give a physical explanation of chemical phenomena. In 1753, Lomonosov built a colored glass factory in the village of Ust-Rudnitsa, located near Oranienbaum (the modern city of Lomonosov). At this factory, he organized the production of various glass products and began to produce special colored opaque glass, from which he created mosaic paintings. In parallel with the construction of the factory, Lomonosov, together with academician G.V. Richmann (1711 - 1753) studied the nature of electricity, observing thunderstorm phenomena. At the end of July 1753, Richmann was killed by lightning at home while he was conducting experiments, and all opponents of enlightenment began to demand their cessation. Despite this, Lomonosov spoke at a public meeting of the Academy of Sciences and read “A Tale of Aerial Phenomena Produced by Electrical Force,” one of the first to note the identity of atmospheric and “artificial” electricity obtained from electrostatic machines.
Lomonosov considered the spread of education among the Russian people one of his main tasks. The scientist had long been concerned about the deplorable state of the academic gymnasium and university. According to his proposal and project, Moscow University was opened in January 1755. In the same year, Lomonosov put into print the “Russian Grammar” - the first grammar textbook in Russia - and completed work on “Ancient Russian History”, and in 1756 he read before the academicians “The Lay on the Origin of Light...”, in which he outlined his theory of light and color phenomena. In 1758, M.V. Lomonosov was appointed to head the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences. He begins work on compiling a new “Russian Atlas”. At the same time, together with Academician Brown, he conducts experiments at low temperatures. For the first time, they managed to “freeze” mercury and prove that it is also a metal, but with a low melting point. In June 1761 scientific world Europa observed the passage of Venus across the disk of the Sun. Many saw this phenomenon, but only Lomonosov realized that the planet was surrounded by an atmosphere. He made this conclusion based on the knowledge gained from studying the scattering of light and its refraction in various media. In the summer of 1761, Lomonosov completed work on a textbook on mining - “The First Foundations of Metallurgy or Ore Mining”, where he included two “Additions”, one of them - “On the Layers of the Earth” - became a brilliant essay on the geological science of the 18th century.
At the end of 1762, Lomonosov was awarded the rank of state councilor. At this time, Lomonosov began a new and last major enterprise. He expresses a thought that has occupied him for a long time about the need to find a way across the Arctic Ocean to the east. According to Lomonosov’s proposal, an expedition was equipped under the command of I.Ya. Chichagova, which, after the death of the scientist, twice (in 1765 and 1766) tried to go east, but each time encountered solid ice.
By the end of the 50s, Lomonosov's scientific fame reached its zenith. In May 1760 he was elected an honorary member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in April 1764 - an honorary member of the Bologna Academy of Sciences. They were preparing to submit his candidacy to the Paris Academy, but it was too late. On April 15 (4), 1765, Lomonosov died of a cold at his home on the Moika. On April 19 (8), he was buried in front of a large crowd of people at the Lazarevskoye cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra.
Classicism in architecture and urban planning.
The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.
The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.
In Venice, Palladio, commissioned by the Church, completed several projects and built a number of churches (San Pietro in Castello, 1558; cloister of the church of Santa Maria della Carita [now the Accademia Museum]; facade of the church of San Francesco della Vigna, 1562; San Giorgio Maggiore on the same island, 1565 [completed by V. Scamozzi by 1610]; "Il Redentore", that is, [the church of] the Savior, on the island of Giudecca, 1576-1592; Santa Maria della Presentatione, or "Le Santa Lucia"; mid-19th century during the construction of the railway station). If Palladio's villas as a whole are united by the impression of harmony and tranquility of forms, then in his churches the main thing is the dynamics of forms, sometimes excited pathos.
Robert Adam (working in collaboration with his brother James) became the most sought after architect in Britain. Connoisseurs of beauty admired the freedom with which he combined classical elements previously considered incompatible. A fresh approach to the arrangement of familiar architectural techniques (thermal window, serliano) testified to Adam’s deep penetration into the essence of ancient art. Buildings: Kedleston Hall, Syon House, Register House, Osterley Park.
Classicism in painting.
The few paintings by Agostino Carracci (the best of them are the frescoes in the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, executed together with Brother Annibale, “The Communion of St. Jerome” and “The Assumption of the Virgin” in the Pinacoteca of Bologna) are distinguished by the correctness of the drawing and a light, cheerful color.
Agostino was a more famous engraver than his brother Annibale. Imitating Cornelis Cort, he achieved great heights in the skill of engraving. The most famous of his engravings are: “The Crucifixion” (with Tintoretto, 1589), “Aeneas and Anchises” (with Barocchio, 1595), “The Virgin and Child” (with Correggio), “The Temptation of St. Anthony", "St. Jerome" (with Tintoretto), as well as some engravings from his own works.
Claude Lorrain with great skill depicted the play of the sun's rays at different hours of the day, the freshness of the morning, the midday heat, the melancholic flicker of twilight, the cool shadows of warm nights, the shine of calm or slightly swaying waters, the transparency of clean air and the distance covered with light fog. In his work, two styles can be distinguished: paintings dating back to the early period of his activity are painted strongly, thickly, in warm colors; later ones - more smoothly, in a coldish tone. The figures with which his landscapes are usually animated.
Lorrain, unlike Poussin, went beyond the metaphysical (read academic) landscape. Light is always important in his work. He is the first to study the problem of solar illumination, morning and evening; the first who became seriously interested in the atmosphere and its light saturation. His work influenced the development of European landscape painting, in particular William Turner
Classicism in music
Music of the classical period, or music of classicism, refers to the period in the development of European music between approximately 1730 and 1820 (see "Time Frames of Periods in the Development of Classical Music" for more detail on the issues associated with distinguishing these frames). The concept of classicism in music is firmly associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, called the Viennese classics and who determined the direction of further development of musical composition.
Distinctive feature Mozart's creativity is an amazing combination of strict, clear forms with deep emotionality. The uniqueness of his work lies in the fact that he not only wrote in all the forms and genres that existed in his era, but also left works of lasting significance in each of them. Mozart's music reveals many connections with different national cultures (especially Italian), nevertheless it belongs to the national Viennese soil and bears the stamp creative individuality great composer.
Mozart is one of the greatest melodists. Its melody combines the features of Austrian and German folk songs with the melodiousness of the Italian cantilena. Despite the fact that his works are distinguished by poetry and subtle grace, they often contain melodies of a masculine nature, with great dramatic pathos and contrasting elements. The most popular operas were “The Marriage of Figaro”, “Don Giovanni” and “The Magic Flute”.
Questions and tasks:
1) Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.
There are two stages in the development of classicism: the 17th century. and XVIII - early XIX V. In the 18th century
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.
How a certain direction was formed in France, in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence, freeing him from religious and church influence.
Painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, music - classicism is represented.
2) From a monument building they come to a building expressing a certain social function, the unity of such functions creates an urban organism, and its structure is the coordination of these functions. Since social coordination is based on the principles of rationality, urban plans become more rational, that is, they follow clear rectangular or radial geometric patterns that consist of wide and straight streets, large square or circular areas. The idea of the relationship between human society and nature is expressed in the city by the introduction of wide areas of greenery, most often parks near palaces or gardens of former monasteries that became state-owned after the revolution. Reducing architecture only to the fulfillment of urban planning tasks entails simplification and typification of its forms.
3) The architect of classicism rejects the “whipped cream” of baroque and insists on the standards of harmony, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. Actually, for him there was no question whether art was objective or not. Of course, objectively, but he himself serves eternity and everything that is unchangeable. Hence the focus on the order system, regularity of layout and symmetry. Man, as we remember, this sounds proud. And regularity and clarity is precisely what distinguishes human creation from the spontaneous asymmetry of nature. For buildings and parks, all this meant the appearance of rows of columns stretching into perspective, perfectly trimmed bushes and tens of meters of perfect sculptures. And curls, architectural folds and ruffles are from the evil one. The architect of classicism was most often a tourist and traveled to Italy and Greece to look at the ruins, works of Palladio, Scamozzi and drawings by Piranesi, and then carried this knowledge to his own country. This, in particular, happened with Inigo Jones, who was responsible for the introduction of classicism in Britain, and with Robert Adam, who changed the face of Scotland. The Germans Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, having gone crazy over the beauty of the Parthenon, built up Munich and Berlin in the neo-Greek spirit with grandiose museums and other public buildings.
The French Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé created their own versions of classicism: the first increasingly mastered the spaces around the building, while Ledoux and Boullé were carried away by the radical geometrization of forms. The French (and after them the Russians), of all Europeans, turned out to be the most sensitive to the luxury of imperial Rome and did not hesitate to copy triumphal arches and columns.
4) See question #3.
5) A distinctive feature of Mozart’s work is the amazing combination of strict, clear forms with deep emotionality. The uniqueness of his work lies in the fact that he not only wrote in all the forms and genres that existed in his era, but also left works of lasting significance in each of them. Mozart's music reveals many connections with different national cultures (especially Italian), nevertheless it belongs to the national Viennese soil and bears the stamp of the creative individuality of the great composer.
6) Nicolas Poussin. Master of hammered, rhythmic composition. He was one of the first to appreciate the monumentality of local color.
Born in Normandy, original art education received in his homeland, and then studied in Paris, under the guidance of Quentin Varenne and J. Lallemand. In 1624, already a fairly well-known artist, Poussin went to Italy and became close friends in Rome with the poet Marino, who instilled in him a love of studying Italian poets, whose works provided Poussin with abundant material for his compositions. After Marino's death, Poussin found himself in Rome without any support. His circumstances improved only after he found patrons in the person of Cardinal Francesco Barberini and Cavalier Cassiano del Pozzo, for whom he wrote The Seven Sacraments. Thanks to a series of these excellent paintings, Poussin was invited by Cardinal Richelieu to Paris in 1639 to decorate the Louvre Gallery. Louis XIII elevated him to the title of his first painter. In Paris, Poussin had many orders, but he formed a party of opponents in the persons of the artists Vouet, Brequier and Mercier, who had previously worked on decorating the Louvre. The Vue school, which enjoyed the patronage of the queen, was especially intriguing against him. Therefore, in 1642, Poussin left Paris and returned to Rome, where he lived until his death.
Poussin was especially strong in landscape. Taking advantage of the results achieved in this type of painting by the Bologna school and the Dutch living in Italy, he created the so-called “heroic landscape”, which, being arranged in accordance with the rules of a balanced distribution of masses, with its pleasant and majestic forms, served as a stage for him to depict an idyllic golden age . Poussin's landscapes are imbued with a serious, melancholic mood. In depicting figures, he adhered to the antiquities, through which he determined the further path that the French school of painting followed after him. As a history painter, Poussin had a deep knowledge of drawing and a gift for composition. In the drawing he is distinguished by strict consistency of style and correctness.
“The Generosity of Scipio”, “The Shepherds of Arcadia”, “Tancred and Erminia”.
The generosity of Scipio.
A painting based on the capture of New Carthage (modern Cartagena), the Spanish stronghold of the Punics during the Second Punic War, which Scipio captured along with countless treasures, hostages from Spanish tribes and a large supply of provisions. By the way, I captured it in one day.
Actually, Scipio’s generosity lay in the fact that he freed the hostages and organized their sending home, and also preserved the honor of noble girls from these Spanish tribes, which won the friendship and favor of many Spaniards who went over to the side of Rome.
No. 21 Worldview foundations in educational culture. Enlightenment in Europe and America
The formation of a new ideology is associated with the formation of a new social stratum. Convinced of the ideas of rationalism, educated. Not aristocrats. They state the poverty and humiliation of the people, the decomposition upper strata and set themselves the goal of changing the situation, using a scientific worldview that can influence the mass mood. (They are troublemakers and slaves)
They advocate for the recognition of individual rights, and this is how natural law doctrines appear. They appear in the teachings of Hobbes, Locke, and Grotius in the 18th century. Hobbes's original idea of natural law is that human nature is evil and selfish. “Man is a wolf to man,” the natural state is “a war of all against all.” In this war, man is guided by his natural law - the law of force. Natural law is opposed to natural laws, which are the rational moral principle of man. Laws of self-preservation and satisfaction of needs. Since the war of all against all threatens humanity with self-destruction, there is a need to change the state of nature to a civil one. A social contract must be concluded. People voluntarily cede some of their rights and freedoms to the state and agree to comply with the laws. Thus the natural law of force is replaced by the harmony of natural and civil laws. Thus, the state is a necessary condition for culture. Locke believed that the truth of social life lies not in the state, but in man himself. People unite in society to guarantee a person's natural rights. This, according to Locke, is the right to life, property, and work. Labor and property give people freedom and equality. The state is obliged to protect the free private life of a person. From the very beginning, natural law theories had an anti-church and anti-feudal orientation, as the natural origin of law was emphasized. Which opposes the theory of divine right in which religion is the source of the feudal state and social inequality. The term enlightenment is used for the first time by Aviary. Priority in the development of education belongs to France. And Herder, together with Voltaire, came up with this hat - enlightenment. Kant wrote that enlightenment is a way out of a person’s state of minority, in which he was voluntarily. Juvenility of one's own free will is one whose causes lie not in defects of reason, but in a lack of determination and courage to use it without the guidance of someone else. The motto of enlightenment according to Kant is to have the courage to use your own mind.
The ideas of enlightenment are based on the ideas of rationalism. It is no coincidence that literature and art glorify reason, the power of the human mind - this is an optimistic worldview. Belief in the power of the human mind. Pauvillon - “Wonders of the Human Mind.” At the center of the Enlightenment concept of man is the idea of a natural man, and Daniel Defoe’s novel “Robinson Crusoe” - a man in a state of nature - played a huge role in its formation. This is a story about the life of humanity, which has passed the path from savagery to civilization. It is the natural state that educates Robinson. J.-J. took over the baton from him. Rousseau. In a treatise on reasoning about the sciences and arts, he reports that natural man is enlightened, but not by the sciences and arts, which despots need to break the resistance of people. Civilization was able to create only happy slaves; Rousseau contrasts them with the savages of America. Relying only on hunting, they are invincible. No yoke can be placed on people who have no needs. Rousseau also develops the concept of the natural man in treatises on the origin and foundations of inequality between people and on the social contract. The origin of inequality is explained historically. Voltaire and Montesquieu sharply criticized the idea of the sacred power of the clergy. God discredited himself because for a long time his name was used by oligarchs to deceive the people and strengthen their power. Then the enlighteners worked on developing social utopias.
First, the reconstruction of society is built, and then the theory of a universal society. Everyone tried to determine the natural state of man, which was seen in the social reality of material well-being. Rousseau believed that in a state of material well-being and wealth, human abilities develop, ideas expand, feelings are ennobled, and the soul is elevated.
Claude Helvetius formulated the concept of virtue, which for him is measured by usefulness, and not by self-denial, as it was in Christian morality. That is, a person should enjoy life, and not serve God with the self-denial characteristic of a Christian. This idea was supported by the English educator Bentham, who believed that virtue should be based on personal benefit, taking into account the public interests of society. This is how it begins new stage in the development of enlightenment, which as a whole has undergone evolution: from scattered attempts to establish the idea of enlightenment, to the unification of the forces of enlighteners; from Walter's deism to the atheism of Denis Diderot. From the idea of an enlightened monarchy, a passion for the English system to the development of a revolutionary change in the French social order to the establishment of the idea of a republic and the principle of equality. The most important slogan is “Freedom, equality, fraternity.” In general, educators create a harmonious picture of the world because it is optimistic. The idea of universality, world culture is being formed. The most famous was Johann Herder. He affirms the equality of cultures of different peoples and eras. At the same time, the ground appears for the development of Eurocentrism. For a long time, Europeans did not know foreign cultures, and when they conquered the peoples of America and Australia, they acted as conquerors. They ignored the culture of their enemies. Whereas with the development of the idea of universality, comparing cultures as equal, however, one’s own turns out to be more important, superior to someone else’s. The development of Rousseau's ideas during the French Revolution testified to a new attitude towards man, so socially, ideas began to appear that contradicted the ideas of slavery.
Thomas Pen's Rights of Man was published in 1791.
"A Vindication of the Rights of Women" by Ounstonecraft, 1792. Denmark was the first country to ban slavery. Then in 1794 France banned it. In 1807, slavery was abolished in the British Empire. The ideas of the Enlightenment determined the development of American culture. Philadelphia becomes the center of education in America; the first library in America and the first legal journal were created here. The first medical school and hospital, the educational activities of Benjamin Franklin, who formulated the classical principles of bourgeois morality, are associated with this city. A hero of modern times is a person who owes everything only to himself. He is characterized by sobriety of mind, rationality, focus on real life, with its material joys. It is to him that many aphorisms speak of bourgeois culture and bourgeois morality: “Time is money,” “Thrift and work lead to wealth,” etc.
The educational culture is based on the ideas of Cottan Mather and Jonathan Edwards.
The ideology of enlightenment contributed to the development of education. Enlightenmentists believe that education in the spirit of modern science, modern knowledge can improve people's lives; it is no coincidence that Diderot united the efforts of the enlighteners Voltaire and Montesquieu to create an explanatory dictionary or Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts.
Gradually, a more favorable situation for obtaining an education is developing in America than in the old world. This explains the appearance of the founding fathers of the republic.
Thomas Jefferson author of the Declaration of Independence. He became the American interpreter of Locke's teachings. He saw the purpose of the state as protecting human rights: the rights to life, property, freedom, happiness. The people can overthrow the state. The main thing is to distribute power correctly. Freedom is intertwined with responsibilities.
Disappointment in the ideals of enlightenment was expressed in Jonathan Swift's novel Gulliver's Travels - a satire on the ideas of enlightenment. Swift doubted scientific progress.
The Age of Enlightenment lasted about 100 years, then came the reaction to the results of the French Revolution. The thinking part of European humanity felt that the ideal of man, formed by the culture of renaissance, did not correspond to reality.
№22,23 Romanticism as a cultural paradigm, Romanticism in Europe
In the 18th century, pre-romanticism was formed, a special role in the formation of which was played by J. - J. Rousseau, primarily with the famous confession. The age of reason spoke about the primacy of feeling, about the uniqueness of each person. In Germany, romanticism is fueled by the ideas of the literary and social movement “Storm and Drang”. The works of early Goethe, Schiller. Important sources include the philosophy of Fichte with his absolutization of creative freedom. And Arthur Schopenhauer with his idea of a blind, unreasonable will that creates the world according to its own will. The reality seemed unfavorable, sometimes terrible, and this could not be corrected by reason. The worldview of romantics is irrational. The idea of the existence of otherworldly forces is a product of fantasy, not controlled by the enlightenment mind. This trend manifested itself in the work of the Spanish artist Francisco Goya. It reflects new themes, questions the worship of the human rational principle, the belief in original humanity. Human affairs cast deep doubt on previous assertions. Goya refuses to divide life into right and wrong, high and low. The experience of the new era, shaken by revolution and wars, refuted the idea that the dark and light principles are incompatible. Life turned out to be more complicated and everything that exists - people, history, man, with his dreams, fantasies, are involved in a continuous process of change and formation. On the one hand, Goya shows courage, perseverance, greatness of soul, on the other hand, he knows how to show crime, inhumanity. Romanticism arises as a reaction to the French Revolution, to the idea of their cult of reason. And also the reason for its development is the national liberation movement. Initially, the term romanticism was used in the literature of the Germanic-Roman peoples, later it covered music, and fine arts. The idea of dual worlds, that is, the comparison and contrast of the real and depicted worlds, became fundamental to romantic art. Real life or the prose of life, with its lack of spirituality and utilitarianism, is regarded as an illusion unworthy of man, opposed to the true world. The affirmation of the development of a beautiful ideal as a reality realized at least in dreams is the main feature of romanticism. Modern reality is rejected as the repository of all vices, so the romantic runs away from it. Escape is carried out in the following directions:
- Going into nature, therefore nature is a tuning fork of emotional experiences, the embodiment of real freedom, hence the interest in the countryside, criticism of the city. Interest in folklore, ancient myths, tales, epics.
- Escape to exotic countries, bourgeois civilization unspoiled in the opinion of romantics.
- In the absence of a real territorial address of flight, it is invented, constructed in the imagination.
- Escape to another time. Most of all, romanticism strives to escape into the Middle Ages. There is a beautiful knightly ideal there.
It is in the life of the heart that romantics see the opposite of the heartlessness of the outside world. A romantic portrait, a self-portrait, develops in painting. The heroes of the portraits are extraordinary creative personalities. Poets, writers who have an extraordinary inner world. Image inner world becomes dominant. One of the first images of a free personality was embodied by the writer and poet Byron, “The Journey and Pilgrimage of Chaid Harold.” The image of a free personality was called the Byronic hero. He is characterized by such traits as loneliness and self-centeredness. Free from society, this hero is unhappy. Independence is more valuable to him than comfort and peace. The theme of loneliness is reflected in the work of Caspar David Friedrich when he depicts lonely human figures against the backdrop of nature. Hector Berlioz becomes the founder of French. In this regard, it becomes a fantastic symphony. Fantastic is the reflection of the inner world of the lyrical hero, a lonely, unrecognized fugitive poet, tormented by unrequited love. The romantic worldview was expressed in two versions: 1) the world seemed to be an endless, faceless cosmic subjectivity, the Creative energy of the spirit being the beginning of the creation of world harmony. This is characterized by a pantheistic image of the world, optimism, and sublime feeling. 2) Human subjectivity is considered, which is in conflict with the outside world. This attitude is characterized by pessimism.
National forms of romanticism, if available common features original. So German romanticism serious, mystical. In Germany, the theory and aesthetics of romanticism took shape (Fichte, Schopenhauer). At the same time, masterpieces in music and literature are born here, aimed at self-deepening. French romanticism is impetuous and freedom-loving. First of all, it manifested itself in genre painting. In historical and everyday painting, in the genre of portraiture, in novelism. Sentimental, sensual English novelism used fantastic, allegorical, symbolistic forms of depicting the world, irony, and the grotesque.
The founder of French romanticism is Theodore Géricault. He overcomes the influence of classicism, his works reflect the diversity of nature. Introducing human living into the composition, Gericault strives for the most vivid disclosure of a person’s inner experiences and emotions. Having retained the classicist craving for generalization and heroic images, Gericault for the first time in French painting embodied a keen sense of the conflict of the world. He embodies the dramatic phenomena of our time, strong passion. Geriot's early works reflected heroism Napoleonic Wars . “Officer of the mounted rangers of the imperial guard going on the attack,” “Wounded cuirassier leaving the battlefield.” Dynamic composition and color. One of the central works of Gericault is “The Raft of Medusa”. It was written on a topical story about the lost frigate “Medusa”. Gericault gives a historical, symbolic meaning to a private event. The work reveals a complex range of feelings. From complete despair to complete apathy and passionate hope for salvation. The idea of a romantic artist as a free, independent person, a deeply emotional person. Géricault expressed this in a series of his portraits. (Portrait of twenty-year-old Delacroix) and self-portraits. The series of portraits of mentally ill people is significant. Géricault's tradition was taken up by Eugene Delacroix. “Dante and Virgil” or “Dante’s Boat”) The same passion and protest against all violence marked his later works. “Massacre on Yosa” or “Greece on the ruins of Messalonga”) Reflects the events of the defense of the Greeks from the Turkish invasion. “Freedom on the Barricades” was written on the topic of contemporary events. Its romantic, revolutionary symbolism is expressed by the allegorical figure of freedom, with developing knowledge in hand. A number of works are inspired by travel through North Africa. “Algerian women in their chambers”, “Jewish wedding in Morocco”, “Lion hunt in Morocco”. Delacroix was fond of racing and horses. Delacroix paints portraits of composers (Chopin, Paganini). The expression of romanticism in German painting was the work of K.D. Friedrich. Already in his early works the complete mystical atmosphere of his art was determined. These are such paintings as “Hun Tomb in the Snow”, Cross in the Mountains”, “Monk by the Sea”. He depicts the viewer as a figure detachedly contemplating the landscape. A mysteriously silent nature is revealed to this contemplator. Various symbols of supernatural existence. (Sea horizon, mountain peak, ship, distant city, travel crucifix, cross, cemetery) For Friedrich, nature is the bearer of deep, religious experiences. The landscape was used as a means of displaying deep emotional experiences. There are four ages of life in the programmatic work. Figures of people of various ages are depicted on a deserted Arctic shore and four ships approaching the shore. This is how the artist depicted the passage of time, the passage of time, the doomed mortality of man. The scene itself against the backdrop of sunset evokes a keen sense of melancholic nostalgia. The title of another work speaks for itself, “The Collapse of Hope.” The Pre-Raphaelites are a brotherhood of English artists. (Rosetti, Milles, Hunt). Economic crises and revolutions of the 1840s did not affect England. This is the heyday of British capitalism. The aesthetic dictate of England. The name Pre-Raphaelites appeared due to the fact that members of the society worshiped the art of the pre-Cinquecento. They rely primarily on Quattrocento and Trecento. Pre-Raphaelite painting became a reaction to the pragmatism of the bourgeois world and was a critique of capitalism from the standpoint of beauty. This is an attempt to create a better reality based on spiritual, physical, social harmony. The divine meaning of ideal beauty, the universal meaning of existence, high spirituality are revealed in the nature surrounding humans and everyday life. Interest in the Middle Ages was due to the desire for religious renewal. “The Bride” - Rosetti, the image of femininity appears. Hunt’s paintings are permeated with symbolism. “The Hired Shepherd” The death’s head is a symbol of retribution, the apple is a symbol of temptation. "Woke Shame" Hunt. The “Lamp of the World” depicts Christ walking. "The Scapegoat" is an allegory of Christ in the desert. Milles “Christ in his parents’ house”, the painting was also called “carpenter’s workshop”. Romanticism in America arose under the influence of European culture. There was a tendency to romanticize the American Revolution, which was presented as a path to the highest degree of development and placed the United States at the head of world progress. Thus, the exclusivity of America's path was affirmed. The biographical genre is developing. Washington became the first hero. Father American biography- Gerard Sparks. He created 12 volumes on Washington, 10 volumes on Franklin. The rapid industrialization of the northern states was destroying the traditional.
No. 24 Value system and culture of industrial society
Democratic principles V social structure, development of experimental science and industrialization. This was created back in the 17th century. The result of the industrial revolution was the emergence of industrial society. The ideals of which are labor, production, science, education, democracy. Saint-Simon dreams of a society organized like a huge factory headed by industrialists and scientists. The factory at this time changed the manufactory, leading to an unprecedented increase in the productivity of social labor. The introduction of technical innovations was accompanied by the consolidation of enterprises and the transition to the production of mass, standardized products. Mass production led to urbanization. (urban growth) The United States has demonstrated the prospect of accelerated development of capitalism. The process became all-encompassing and more homogeneous; history was being transformed into world history. The formation of culture as unity, diversity of national cultures and art schools. Traditional countries, such as Japan, are also included in this process. The problem of cultural dialogue acquires a special flavor. A new value system is emerging. Sensitivity is based on benefit, prosperity, comfort. Progress is identified with economic progress. At the same time, the principle of benefit transforms the concept of truth. The essence is what is convenient and useful. Etiquette takes on a utilitarian character. Regulation of relationships between free partners through means of purchase and sale. The seller must be polite and courteous, but the buyer is not. Attention is paid only to those who are useful. Relationships are formalized.
Classicism - artistic style in European art
Classicism, an artistic style in European art of the 17th–early 19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient art as an ideal aesthetic and ethical standard. Classicism, which developed in intensely polemical interaction with the Baroque, formed into an integral stylistic system in the French artistic culture of the 17th century. The underlying principles of rationalistic philosophy determined the view of theorists and practitioners of classicism on work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensory life. Orientation towards a rational principle, towards enduring patterns determined the firm normativity of ethical requirements (subordination of the personal to the general, passions - reason, duty, the laws of the universe) and the aesthetic demands of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules; The consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism was facilitated by the activities of the Royal Academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).
In the architecture of classicism, which is distinguished by logical planning and clarity of volumetric form, the main role is played by the order, subtly and restrainedly shading general structure buildings (buildings by F. Mansart, C. Perrault, L. Levo, F. Blondel); from the 2nd half of the 17th century, French classicism absorbed the spatial scope of Baroque architecture (the works of J. Hardouin-Mansart and A. Le Nôtre at Versailles). In the 17th – early 18th centuries. classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland, England, where it was organically combined with Palladianism (I. Jones, K. Ren), Sweden (N. Tessin the Younger).
In the painting of classicism, line and chiaroscuro became the main elements of form modeling; local color clearly reveals the plasticity of figures and objects, divides the spatial plans of the picture (marked by the sublimity of the philosophical and ethical content, the general harmony of the work of N. Poussin, the founder of classicism and the greatest master of classicism of the 17th century ; "ideal landscapes" by K. Lorrain). Classicism of the 18th – early 19th centuries. (in foreign art history it is often called neoclassicism), which became a pan-European style, was also formed mainly in the bosom French culture, under the strong influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. In architecture, new types of an elegant mansion, a ceremonial public building, an open city square were defined (J.A. Gabriel, J.J. Souflot), the search for new, orderless forms of architecture. the desire for harsh simplicity in the work of K.N. Leda anticipated the architecture of the late stage of classicism - Empire style. Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in the plastic arts of Zh.B. Pigal and J.A. Houdon, decorative landscapes by Yu. Robert.
The courageous dramatism of historical and portrait images is inherent in the works of the head of French classicism, the painter J.L. David. In the 19th century the painting of classicism, despite the activities of individual major masters, such as J.O.D Ingres, degenerates into official apologetic or pretentious erotic salon art. International center of European classicism of the 18th–early 19th centuries. became Rome, where the traditions of academicism with their characteristic combination of nobility of forms and cold idealization dominated (German painter A.R. Mengs, plastic artist of the Italian A. Canova and Dane B. Thorvaldsen). The architecture of German classicism is characterized by the harsh monumentality of the buildings of K.F. Schinkel, for contemplative and elegiac painting and sculpture - portraits of A. and V. Tishbein, sculpture by I.G. Shadova. In English classicism, the antique structures of R. Adam, the Palladian-style park estates of W. Chambers, the exquisitely austere drawings of J. Flaxman and the ceramics of J. Wedgwood stand out. Own versions of classicism developed in the artistic culture of Italy, Spain, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, and the United States; Russian classicism of the 1760s–1840s occupies an outstanding place in the history of world art. By the end of the 1st third of the 19th century. The leading role of classicism is almost universally disappearing; it is being replaced by various forms of architectural eclecticism. The artistic tradition of classicism comes to life in neoclassicism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Conclusion
Baroque is a style and movement with a fundamental feature that can be considered the desire for a synthesis of arts, the unification of architecture, sculpture, painting and decorative arts.
Man in Baroque art is perceived as part of the world, as a complex personality experiencing conflicts.
There is no respect for harmony in this style. Baroque art is characterized by: bold contrasts of scale, light and shadow, color, a combination of reality and fantasy.
Main features: pomp, splendor, dynamism, life-affirming character. A typical Baroque religious composition shows saints or the Madonna surrounded by angels.
Classicism is a style and direction in the art and literature of the 18th century, which marked a return to the ancient heritage as the norm and ideal model.
This direction is characterized by: rationalism, normativity, a tendency towards harmony, clarity and simplicity of expression, balance of composition and at the same time a certain amount of schematization and idealization in works of art, which was expressed, for example, in the hierarchy of “high” and “low” styles in literature, the requirement of “three unities” - time, place and action - in drama, emphasized purism in the field of language, etc.
Under the influence of the rationalistic philosophy of the great French thinker Rene Descartes, the principles of classicism are established in all types of art.
The main aesthetic postulate of classicism is fidelity to nature, the natural rationality of the world with its objectively inherent beauty, which is expressed in symmetry, proportion, measure, harmony, which must be recreated in art in perfect form. By the middle of the 19th century, classicism, lagging behind the development of social aesthetic feeling, degenerated into lifeless academicism.
References:
1. Kravchenko A.I. Culturologists: Textbook for universities. - Academic project, 2001.
2. Encyclopedic Dictionary young artist
3. Germain Bazin: "Baroque" and "Rococo"
4. Mamontov S.P. Fundamentals of cultural studies. - Olympus, 1999
5. Smirnov A.A. Classicism as a cultural paradigm // Baroque and Classicism in the history of world culture: Materials. SPB., St. Petersburg philosophical society, 2001.
6. Skown A.A. Baroque and Classicism, or three hundred years later // Baroque and Classicism in the history of world culture: Materials of the International Scientific Conference, 2001.
7. Lisovsky: National style in Russian architecture
8. http://www.scritube.com/limba/rusa/64115416.php
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CLASSICISM (from the Latin classicus - exemplary), style and artistic direction in literature, architecture and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, classicism is successively associated with the Renaissance; occupied, along with the Baroque, an important place in the culture of the 17th century; continued its development during the Age of Enlightenment. The origin and spread of classicism is associated with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, with the influence of the philosophy of R. Descartes, with the development of the exact sciences. The basis of the rationalistic aesthetics of classicism is the desire for balance, clarity, and consistency of artistic expression (largely adopted from the aesthetics of the Renaissance); conviction in the existence of universal and eternal rules of artistic creativity, not subject to historical changes, which are interpreted as skill, mastery, and not a manifestation of spontaneous inspiration or self-expression.
Having accepted the idea of creativity as an imitation of nature, dating back to Aristotle, the classicists understood nature as an ideal norm, which had already been embodied in the works of ancient masters and writers: the focus on “beautiful nature,” transformed and ordered in accordance with the immutable laws of art, thus implied imitation antique models and even competition with them. Developing the idea of art as a rational activity based on the eternal categories of “beautiful”, “expedient”, etc., classicism, more than other artistic movements, contributed to the emergence of aesthetics as a generalizing science of beauty.
The central concept of classicism - verisimilitude - did not imply an accurate reproduction of empirical reality: the world is recreated not as it is, but as it should be. The preference for a universal norm as “due” to everything particular, random, and concrete corresponds to the ideology of an absolutist state expressed by classicism, in which everything personal and private is subordinated to the indisputable will of state power. The classicist depicted not a specific, individual personality, but an abstract person in a situation of a universal, ahistorical moral conflict; hence the classicists’ orientation toward ancient mythology as the embodiment of universal knowledge about the world and man. The ethical ideal of classicism presupposes, on the one hand, the subordination of the personal to the general, passions to duty, reason, resistance to the vicissitudes of existence; on the other hand, restraint in the manifestation of feelings, adherence to moderation, appropriateness, and the ability to please.
Classicism strictly subordinated creativity to the rules of the genre-style hierarchy. A distinction was made between “high” (for example, epic, tragedy, ode - in literature; historical, religious, mythological genre, portrait - in painting) and “low” (satire, comedy, fable; still life in painting) genres, which corresponded to a certain style, range of themes and heroes; a clear distinction between the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the base, the heroic and the ordinary was prescribed.
From the middle of the 18th century, classicism was gradually replaced by new movements - sentimentalism, pre-romanticism, romanticism. The traditions of classicism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were resurrected in neoclassicism.
The term “classicism,” which goes back to the concept of classics (exemplary writers), was first used in 1818 by the Italian critic G. Visconti. It was widely used in the polemics between classicists and romantics, and among the romantics (J. de Staël, V. Hugo, etc.) it had a negative connotation: classicism and the classics who imitated antiquity were opposed to innovative romantic literature. In literary and art history, the concept of “classicism” began to be actively used after the works of scientists of the cultural-historical school and G. Wölfflin.
Stylistic trends similar to the classicism of the 17th and 18th centuries are seen by some scientists in other eras; in this case, the concept of “classicism” is interpreted in a broad sense, denoting a stylistic constant that is periodically updated at various stages of the history of art and literature (for example, “ancient classicism”, “Renaissance classicism”).
N. T. Pakhsaryan.
Literature. Origins literary classicism- in normative poetics (Yu. Ts. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, etc.) and in Italian literature of the 16th century, where a genre system was created, correlated with the system language styles and focused on antique samples. The highest flowering of classicism is associated with French literature of the 17th century. The founder of the poetics of classicism was F. Malherbe, who carried out the regulation of the literary language on the basis of living colloquial speech; the reform he carried out was consolidated by the French Academy. The principles of literary classicism were set out in their most complete form in the treatise “Poetic Art” by N. Boileau (1674), which summarized the artistic practice of his contemporaries.
Classical writers regard literature as an important mission of embodying in words and conveying to the reader the requirements of nature and reason, as a way to “educate while entertaining.” The literature of classicism strives for a clear expression of significant thought, meaning (“... meaning always lives in my creation” - F. von Logau), it refuses stylistic sophistication and rhetorical embellishments. The classicists preferred laconicism to verbosity, simplicity and clarity to metaphorical complexity, and decency to extravagantness. Following established norms did not mean, however, that classicists encouraged pedantry and ignored the role of artistic intuition. Although the classicists saw rules as a way to keep creative freedom within the bounds of reason, they understood the importance of intuitive insight, forgiving talent to deviate from the rules if it was appropriate and artistically effective.
The characters in classicism are built on the identification of one dominant trait, which helps to transform them into universal human types. Favorite collisions are the clash of duty and feelings, the struggle of reason and passion. At the center of the works of the classicists is a heroic personality and at the same time a well-bred person who stoically strives to overcome his own passions and affects, to curb or at least realize them (like the heroes of the tragedies of J. Racine). Descartes’ “I think, therefore I am” plays the role of not only a philosophical and intellectual, but also an ethical principle in the worldview of the characters of classicism.
The literary theory of classicism is based on a hierarchical system of genres; analytical dilution according to different works, even in artistic worlds, “high” and “low” heroes and themes are combined with the desire to ennoble “low” genres; for example, to rid satire of crude burlesque, comedy of farcical features (“ high comedy"Moliere).
The main place in the literature of classicism was occupied by drama, based on the rule of three unities (see Three unities theory). Its leading genre was tragedy, the highest achievements of which are the works of P. Corneille and J. Racine; in the first, the tragedy takes on a heroic character, in the second, a lyrical character. Other "high" genres play a much smaller role in literary process(J. Chaplin’s unsuccessful experiment in the genre of epic poem was later parodied by Voltaire; solemn odes were written by F. Malherbe and N. Boileau). At the same time, “low” genres received significant development: irocomic poem and satire (M. Renier, Boileau), fable (J. de La Fontaine), comedy. Genres of short didactic prose are cultivated - aphorisms (maxims), “characters” (B. Pascal, F. de La Rochefoucauld, J. de Labruyère); oratorical prose (J.B. Bossuet). Although the theory of classicism did not include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious critical reflection, M. M. Lafayette’s psychological masterpiece “The Princess of Cleves” (1678) is considered an example of a classicist novel.
At the end of the 17th century, there was a decline in literary classicism, but archaeological interest in antiquity in the 18th century, the excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and the creation by I. I. Winkelman of the ideal image of Greek antiquity as “noble simplicity and calm grandeur” contributed to its new rise during the Enlightenment. The main representative of the new classicism was Voltaire, in whose work rationalism and the cult of reason served to justify not the norms of absolutist statehood, but the right of the individual to freedom from the claims of the church and state. Enlightenment classicism, actively interacting with other literary movements of the era, is based not on “rules”, but rather on the “enlightened taste” of the public. Appeal to antiquity becomes a way of expressing the heroism of the French Revolution of the 18th century in the poetry of A. Chenier.
In France in the 17th century, classicism developed into a powerful and consistent artistic system and had a noticeable impact on Baroque literature. In Germany, classicism, having emerged as a conscious cultural effort to create a “correct” and “perfect” poetic school worthy of other European literatures (M. Opitz), on the contrary, was drowned out by the Baroque, the style of which was more consistent with the tragic era of the Thirty Years' War; I. K. Gottsched's belated attempt in the 1730s and 40s to direct German literature along the path of classicist canons caused fierce controversy and was generally rejected. An independent aesthetic phenomenon is the Weimar classicism of J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller. In Great Britain, early classicism is associated with the work of J. Dryden; his further development flowed in the mainstream of the Enlightenment (A. Pope, S. Johnson). By the end of the 17th century, classicism in Italy existed in parallel with Rococo and was sometimes intertwined with it (for example, in the work of the Arcadia poets - A. Zeno, P. Metastasio, P. Ya. Martello, S. Maffei); Enlightenment classicism is represented by the work of V. Alfieri.
In Russia, classicism was established in the 1730-1750s under the influence of Western European classicism and the ideas of the Enlightenment; at the same time, it clearly shows a connection with the Baroque. Distinctive Features Russian classicism - pronounced didacticism, accusatory, social-critical orientation, national-patriotic pathos, reliance on folk art. One of the first principles of classicism was transferred to Russian soil by A.D. Kantemir. In his satires, he followed I. Boileau, but, creating generalized images of human vices, adapted them to domestic reality. Kantemir introduced new ideas into Russian literature poetic genres: transcriptions of psalms, fables, heroic poem (“Petrida”, unfinished). The first example of a classic laudatory ode was created by V.K. Trediakovsky (“Solemn Ode on the Surrender of the City of Gdansk,” 1734), who accompanied it with a theoretical “Discourse on the Ode in General” (both following Boileau). The odes of M. V. Lomonosov are marked by the influence of Baroque poetics. Russian classicism is most fully and consistently represented by the work of A.P. Sumarokov. Having set out the main provisions of the classicist doctrine in the “Epistole on Poetry” (1747), written in imitation of Boileau’s treatise, Sumarokov sought to follow them in his works: tragedies focused on the work of the French classicists of the 17th century and the dramaturgy of Voltaire, but addressed primarily to events national history; partly - in comedies, the model for which was the work of Moliere; in satires, as well as fables, which brought him the fame of the “northern La Fontaine.” He also developed a genre of song, which was not mentioned by Boileau, but was included by Sumarokov himself in the list of poetic genres. Until the end of the 18th century, the classification of genres proposed by Lomonosov in the preface to the collected works of 1757, “On the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language,” retained its significance, which correlated the three-style theory with specific genres, linking with the high “calm” the heroic poem, ode, solemn speeches; with the average - tragedy, satire, elegy, eclogue; with low - comedy, song, epigram. A sample of the irocomic poem was created by V. I. Maikov (“Elisha, or the Irritated Bacchus,” 1771). The first completed heroic epic was “Rossiyada” by M. M. Kheraskov (1779). At the end of the 18th century, the principles of classicist drama appeared in the works of N. P. Nikolev, Ya. B. Knyazhnin, V. V. Kapnist. At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, classicism was gradually replaced by new trends literary development, associated with pre-romanticism and sentimentalism, however, it retains its influence for some time. Its traditions can be traced in the 1800-20s in the work of Radishchev poets (A. Kh. Vostokov, I. P. Pnin, V. V. Popugaev), in literary criticism (A. F. Merzlyakov), in literary and aesthetic program and genre-stylistic practice of the Decembrist poets, in the early works of A. S. Pushkin.
A. P. Losenko. "Vladimir and Rogneda." 1770. Russian Museum (St. Petersburg).
N. T. Pakhsaryan; T. G. Yurchenko (classicism in Russia).
Architecture and fine arts. The trends of classicism in European art emerged already in the 2nd half of the 16th century in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice of A. Palladio, the theoretical treatises of G. da Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the works of J. P. Bellori (17th century), as well as in the aesthetic standards of the academicians of the Bolognese school. However, in the 17th century, classicism, which developed in intensely polemical interaction with the Baroque, only developed into a coherent stylistic system in French artistic culture. The classicism of the 18th and early 19th centuries was formed primarily in France, which became a pan-European style (the latter is often called neoclassicism in foreign art history). The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of classicism determined the view of a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensory life. The focus on a rational principle, on enduring examples, also determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules, the strict hierarchy of genres in the fine arts (the “high” genre includes works on mythological and historical subjects, as well as the “ideal landscape” and ceremonial portrait; to “low” - still life, everyday genre, etc.). The consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism was facilitated by the activities of the royal academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).
The architecture of classicism, in contrast to baroque with its dramatic conflict of forms, energetic interaction of volume and spatial environment, is based on the principle of harmony and internal completeness, both of an individual building and an ensemble. Characteristics This style includes a desire for clarity and unity of the whole, symmetry and balance, certainty of plastic forms and spatial intervals that create a calm and solemn rhythm; a proportioning system based on multiple ratios of integers (a single module that determines the patterns of shape formation). The constant appeal of the masters of classicism to the heritage of ancient architecture implied not only the use of its individual motifs and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was an architectural order, with proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the structure, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interiors of classicism are characterized by clarity of spatial divisions and softness of colors. By making extensive use of perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real.
An important place in the architecture of classicism belongs to the problems of urban planning. Projects for “ideal cities” are being developed, and a new type of regular absolutist residence city (Versailles) is being created. Classicism strives to continue the traditions of antiquity and the Renaissance, laying the basis for its decisions on the principle of proportionality to man and, at the same time, scale, giving the architectural image a heroically elevated sound. And although the rhetorical pomp of palace decoration comes into conflict with this dominant tendency, the stable figurative structure of classicism preserves the unity of the style, no matter how diverse its modifications in the process of historical development.
The formation of classicism in French architecture associated with the works of J. Lemercier and F. Mansart. The appearance of the buildings and construction techniques initially resemble the architecture of 16th century castles; A decisive turning point occurred in the work of L. Lebrun - first of all, in the creation of the palace and park ensemble of Vaux-le-Vicomte, with the solemn enfilade of the palace itself, the impressive paintings of C. Le Brun and the most characteristic expression of new principles - the regular parterre park of A. Le Nôtre. The eastern façade of the Louvre, realized (from the 1660s) according to the plans of C. Perrault (it is characteristic that the projects of J. L. Bernini and others in the Baroque style were rejected), became the programmatic work of classicism architecture. In the 1660s, L. Levo, A. Le Nôtre and C. Lebrun began to create the ensemble of Versailles, where the ideas of classicism were expressed with particular completeness. Since 1678, the construction of Versailles was led by J. Hardouin-Mansart; According to his designs, the palace was significantly expanded (wings were added), the central terrace was converted into a Mirror Gallery - the most representative part of the interior. He also built the Grand Trianon Palace and other buildings. The ensemble of Versailles is characterized by a rare stylistic integrity: even the jets of the fountains were combined into a static form, like a column, and the trees and bushes were trimmed in the form geometric shapes. The symbolism of the ensemble is subordinated to the glorification of the “Sun King” Louis XIV, but its artistic and figurative basis was the apotheosis of reason, powerfully transforming the natural elements. At the same time, the emphasized decorativeness of the interiors justifies the use of the style term “baroque classicism” in relation to Versailles.
In the 2nd half of the 17th century, new planning techniques took shape, providing for the organic combination of urban development with elements natural environment, the creation of open squares that spatially merge with the street or embankment, ensemble solutions for the key elements of the urban structure (Place Louis the Great, now Vendôme, and Place des Victories; architectural ensemble Homes for the Invalids, all by J. Hardouin-Mansart), triumphal entrance arches (Saint-Denis Gate designed by N. F. Blondel; all in Paris).
The traditions of classicism in France in the 18th century were almost uninterrupted, but in the 1st half of the century the Rococo style prevailed. In the mid-18th century, the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of Enlightenment aesthetics. In architecture, the appeal to “naturalness” put forward the requirement for constructive justification of order elements of the composition, in the interior - the need to develop a flexible layout for a comfortable residential building. The ideal environment for the house was a landscape (garden and park) environment. The rapid development of knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.) had a huge influence on the classicism of the 18th century; The works of I. I. Winkelman, I. V. Goethe, and F. Milizia made their contribution to the theory of classicism. In French classicism of the 18th century, new architectural types were defined: an elegant and intimate mansion (“hotel”), a ceremonial public building, an open square connecting the main thoroughfares of the city (Place Louis XV, now Place de la Concorde, in Paris, architect J. A. Gabriel; He also built the Petit Trianon Palace in Versailles Park, combining the harmonious clarity of forms with the lyrical sophistication of the design). J. J. Soufflot carried out his project for the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, drawing on the experience of classical architecture.
In the era preceding the French Revolution of the 18th century, a desire for austere simplicity and a bold search for the monumental geometricism of a new, orderless architecture appeared in architecture (C. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bullet, J. J. Lequeu). These searches (also marked by the influence of the architectural etchings of G.B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of classicism - the French Empire style (1st third of the 19th century), in which magnificent representativeness was growing (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine , J.F. Chalgrin).
English Palladianism of the 17th and 18th centuries is in many ways related to the system of classicism, and often merges with it. Orientation towards the classics (not only towards the ideas of A. Palladio, but also towards antiquity), strict and restrained expressiveness of plastically clear motifs are present in the work of I. Jones. After the “Great Fire” of 1666, K. Wren built the largest building in London - St. Paul's Cathedral, as well as over 50 parish churches, a number of buildings in Oxford, marked by the influence of ancient solutions. Extensive town planning plans were implemented by the mid-18th century in the regular development of Bath (J. Wood the Elder and J. Wood the Younger), London and Edinburgh (Adam brothers). The buildings of W. Chambers, W. Kent, and J. Payne are associated with the flourishing of country park estates. R. Adam was also inspired by Roman antiquity, but his version of classicism takes on a softer and lyrical appearance. Classicism in Great Britain was the most important component of the so-called Georgian style. At the beginning of the 19th century, features close to the Empire style appeared in English architecture (J. Soane, J. Nash).
In the 17th - early 18th centuries, classicism took shape in the architecture of Holland (J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it. Cross connections with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early Baroque, affected the short flowering of classicism in the architecture of Sweden in the late 17th and early 18th centuries (N. Tessin the Younger). In the 18th and early 19th centuries, classicism also established itself in Italy (G. Piermarini), Spain (J. de Villanueva), Poland (J. Kamsetzer, H. P. Aigner), and the USA (T. Jefferson, J. Hoban). German classicist architecture of the 18th - 1st half of the 19th centuries is characterized by the strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorff, the “heroic” Hellenism of K. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly, and the historicism of L. von Klenze. In the work of K. F. Schinkel, the harsh monumentality of images is combined with the search for new functional solutions.
By the middle of the 19th century, the leading role of classicism was fading; it is being replaced by historical styles (see also Neo-Greek style, Eclecticism). At the same time, the artistic tradition of classicism comes to life in the neoclassicism of the 20th century.
The fine arts of classicism are normative; its figurative structure has clear signs of a social utopia. The iconography of classicism is dominated by ancient legends, heroic deeds, historical subjects, that is, interest in the fate of human communities, in the “anatomy of power.” Not content with simply “portraiting nature,” the artists of classicism strive to rise above the specific, individual - to the universally significant. The classicists defended their idea of artistic truth, which did not coincide with the naturalism of Caravaggio or the small Dutch. The world of reasonable actions and bright feelings in the art of classicism rose above imperfect everyday life as the embodiment of the dream of the desired harmony of existence. Orientation towards a lofty ideal also gave rise to the choice of a “beautiful nature”. Classicism avoids the accidental, the deviant, the grotesque, the crude, the repulsive. The tectonic clarity of classicist architecture corresponds to the clear delineation of plans in sculpture and painting. The plastic art of classicism, as a rule, is designed for a fixed point of view and is characterized by smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of the figures usually does not violate their plastic isolation and calm statuesqueness. In classicist painting, the main elements of form are line and chiaroscuro; local colors clearly identify objects and landscape plans, which brings the spatial composition of the painting closer to the composition of the stage area.
The founder and greatest master of classicism of the 17th century was French artist N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the sublimity of their philosophical and ethical content, the harmony of rhythmic structure and color.
The “ideal landscape” (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguay), which embodied the classicists’ dream of a “golden age” of humanity, was highly developed in the painting of classicism of the 17th century. The most significant masters of French classicism in sculpture of the 17th - early 18th centuries were P. Puget (heroic theme), F. Girardon (search for harmony and laconism of forms). In the 2nd half of the 18th century, French sculptors again turned to public significant topics and monumental decisions (J.B. Pigalle, M. Clodion, E.M. Falconet, J.A. Houdon). Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in mythological painting J. M. Vienne, decorative landscapes by Y. Robert. The painting of the so-called revolutionary classicism in France is represented by the works of J. L. David, historical and portrait images which are marked by courageous drama. In the late period of French classicism, painting, despite the appearance of individual major masters (J. O. D. Ingres), degenerated into official apologetic or salon art.
The international center of classicism of the 18th and early 19th centuries was Rome, where art was dominated by the academic tradition with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, not uncommon for academicism (painters A.R. Mengs, J.A. Koch, V. Camuccini, sculptors A. As is B. Thorvaldsen). In the fine art of German classicism, contemplative in spirit, portraits of A. and V. Tischbein, mythological cardboards of A. J. Carstens, plastic works of I. G. Shadov, K. D. Rauch stand out; in decorative and applied arts - furniture by D. Roentgen. In Great Britain, the classicism of graphics and the sculpture of J. Flaxman are close, and in the decorative and applied arts - the ceramics of J. Wedgwood and the craftsmen of the Derby factory.
A. R. Mengs. "Perseus and Andromeda." 1774-79. Hermitage (St. Petersburg).
The heyday of classicism in Russia dates back to the last third of the 18th - 1st third of the 19th century, although the beginning of the 18th century was already marked by a creative appeal to the urban planning experience of French classicism (the principle of symmetrical axial planning systems in the construction of St. Petersburg). Russian classicism embodied a new historical stage in the flowering of Russian secular culture, unprecedented for Russia in scope and ideological content. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains the plastic richness and dynamics of forms inherent in Baroque and Rococo.
The architects of the mature period of classicism (1770-90s; V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov) created classical types of metropolitan palace-estate and comfortable residential building, which became models in the widespread construction of country noble estates and in the new, ceremonial development of cities. The art of the ensemble in country park estates is a major contribution of Russian classicism to world artistic culture. In estate construction, the Russian version of Palladianism arose (N. A. Lvov), and a new type of chamber palace emerged (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism is the unprecedented scale of state urban planning: regular plans for more than 400 cities were developed, ensembles of centers of Kaluga, Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl, etc. were formed; the practice of “regulating” urban plans, as a rule, consistently combined the principles of classicism with historically established planning structure old Russian city. The turn of the 18th-19th centuries was marked by major urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg took shape (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. F. Thomas de Thomon, and later K. I. Rossi). “Classical Moscow” was formed on different urban planning principles, which was built up during its restoration after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The principles of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev. The buildings of the 1st third of the 19th century belong to the Russian Empire style (sometimes called Alexander classicism).
In the fine arts, the development of Russian classicism is closely connected with the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). The sculpture is represented by “heroic” monumental and decorative sculpture, forming a finely thought-out synthesis with architecture, monuments filled with civic pathos, tombstones imbued with elegiac enlightenment, and easel sculpture (I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, M. I. Kozlovsky, I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). In painting, classicism was most clearly manifested in works of the historical and mythological genre (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov; in scenography - in the works of P. di G. Gonzago). Some features of classicism are also inherent in the sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - in the portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, and in the landscapes of F. M. Matveev. In the decorative and applied arts of Russian classicism, artistic modeling and carved decor in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc. stand out.
A. I. Kaplun; Yu. K. Zolotov (European fine arts).
Theater. The formation of theatrical classicism began in France in the 1630s. The activating and organizing role in this process belonged to literature, thanks to which theater established itself among the “high” arts. Samples theatrical arts The French saw in the Italian “scientific theater” of the Renaissance. Since court society was the setter of tastes and cultural values, the stage style was also influenced by court ceremonies and festivals, ballets, and receptions. The principles of theatrical classicism were developed on the Parisian stage: in the Marais theater headed by G. Mondori (1634), in the Palais Cardinal (1641, from 1642 Palais Royal), built by Cardinal Richelieu, whose structure met the high requirements of Italian stage technology ; in the 1640s, the Burgundian Hotel became the site of theatrical classicism. Simultaneous decoration gradually, by the middle of the 17th century, was replaced by picturesque and single perspective decoration (palace, temple, house, etc.); a curtain appeared that rose and fell at the beginning and end of the performance. The scene was framed like a painting. The game took place only on the proscenium; the performance was centered on several protagonist figures. The architectural backdrop, a single location, the combination of acting and pictorial plans, and the overall three-dimensional mise-en-scène contributed to the creation of the illusion of verisimilitude. In 17th-century stage classicism, there was the concept of the “fourth wall.” “He acts like this,” F. E. a’Aubignac wrote about the actor (The Practice of the Theatre, 1657), “as if the audience did not exist at all: his characters act and speak as if they were really kings, and not Mondori and Bellerose, as if they were in Horace's palace in Rome, and not in the Burgundy Hotel in Paris, and as if they were seen and heard only by those who are present on the stage (i.e. in the place depicted)."
In the high tragedy of classicism (P. Corneille, J. Racine), the dynamics, entertainment and adventure plots of A. Hardy’s plays (which made up the repertoire of the first permanent French troupe of V. Leconte in the 1st third of the 17th century) were replaced by statics and in-depth attention to the spiritual the world of the hero, the motives of his behavior. The new dramaturgy demanded changes in the performing arts. The actor became the embodiment of the ethical and aesthetic ideal of the era, creating with his performance a close-up portrait of his contemporary; his costume, stylized as antiquity, corresponded to modern fashion, his plasticity was subject to the requirements of nobility and grace. The actor had to have the pathos of an orator, a sense of rhythm, musicality (for the actress M. Chanmele, J. Racine wrote notes over the lines of the role), the art of eloquent gesture, the skills of a dancer, even physical strength. The dramaturgy of classicism contributed to the emergence of a school of stage recitation, which united the entire set of performing techniques (reading, gesture, facial expressions) and became the main means of expression of the French actor. A. Vitez called the declamation of the 17th century “prosodic architecture.” The performance was built in the logical interaction of monologues. With the help of words, the technique of arousing emotions and controlling them was practiced; The success of the performance depended on the strength of the voice, its sonority, timbre, mastery of colors and intonations.
“Andromache” by J. Racine at the Burgundy Hotel. Engraving by F. Chauveau. 1667.
The division of theatrical genres into “high” (tragedy at the Burgundian Hotel) and “low” (comedy at the Palais Royal in the time of Moliere), the emergence of roles consolidated the hierarchical structure of the theater of classicism. Remaining within the boundaries of “ennobled” nature, the design of the performance and the outlines of the image were determined by the individuality of the largest actors: the manner of recitation of J. Floridor was more natural than that of the excessively posing Bellerose; M. Chanmele was characterized by a sonorous and melodious “recitation,” and Montfleury had no equal in the affects of passion. The subsequent understanding of the canon of theatrical classicism, which consisted of standard gestures (surprise was depicted with hands raised to shoulder level and palms facing the audience; disgust - with the head turned to the right and hands pushing away the object of contempt, etc.) , refers to the era of decline and degeneration of style.
In the 18th century, despite the decisive departure of the theater towards educational democracy, the actors of the Comédie Française A. Lecouvreur, M. Baron, A. L. Lequesne, Dumenil, Clairon, L. Preville developed the style of stage classicism in accordance with tastes and requests era. They deviated from the classicist norms of recitation, reformed the costume and made attempts to direct the performance, creating an acting ensemble. At the beginning of the 19th century, at the height of the struggle of the romantics with the tradition of the “court” theater, F. J. Talma, M. J. Georges, Mars proved the viability of the classicist repertoire and performing style, and in the work of Rachelle, classicism in the romantic era again acquired the meaning of “high "and sought-after style. The traditions of classicism continued to influence theatrical culture France at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and even later. The combination of classicism and modernist styles is characteristic of the play of J. Mounet-Sully, S. Bernard, B. C. Coquelin. In the 20th century, French director's theater became closer to the European one, and the stage style lost its national specificity. However, significant events in the French theater of the 20th century correlate with the traditions of classicism: performances by J. Copo, J. L. Barrot, L. Jouvet, J. Vilar, Vitez’s experiments with the classics of the 17th century, productions by R. Planchon, J. Desart etc.
Having lost the importance of the dominant style in France in the 18th century, classicism found successors in other countries. European countries. J. W. Goethe consistently introduced the principles of classicism into the Weimar theater he led. Actress and entrepreneur F. K. Neuber and actor K. Eckhoff in Germany, English actors T. Betterton, J. Quinn, J. Kemble, S. Siddons promoted classicism, but their efforts, despite personal creative achievements, were ineffective and, were ultimately rejected. Stage classicism became the object of pan-European controversy and, thanks to German and then Russian theater theorists, received the definition of “false-classical theater.”
In Russia, the classicist style flourished at the beginning of the 19th century in the works of A. S. Yakovlev and E. S. Semyonova, and later manifested itself in the achievements of the St. Petersburg theater school in the person of V. V. Samoilov (see Samoilovs), V. A. Karatygin (see Karatygins), then Yu. M. Yuryev.
E.I. Gorfunkel.
Music. The term “classicism” in relation to music does not imply an orientation towards ancient examples (only monuments of ancient Greek were known and studied music theory), and a series of reforms designed to put an end to the remnants of the Baroque style in musical theater. Classicist and baroque tendencies were contradictory combined in French musical tragedy of the 2nd half of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century (the creative collaboration of librettist F. Kino and composer J.B. Lully, operas and opera-ballets of J.F. Rameau) and in Italian opera seria, which took a leading position among the musical and dramatic genres of the 18th century (in Italy, England, Austria, Germany, Russia). The heyday of French musical tragedy occurred at the beginning of the crisis of absolutism, when the ideals of heroism and citizenship during the struggle for a national state were replaced by a spirit of festivity and ceremonial officialdom, a tendency toward luxury and refined hedonism. The severity of the conflict of feeling and duty typical of classicism in the context of a mythological or knightly-legendary plot of a musical tragedy decreased (especially in comparison with the tragedy in drama theater). Associated with the norms of classicism are the requirements of genre purity (the absence of comedic and everyday episodes), unity of action (often also of place and time), and a “classical” 5-act composition (often with a prologue). The central position in musical dramaturgy is occupied by recitative - the element closest to rationalistic verbal and conceptual logic. In the intonation sphere, declamatory and pathetic formulas associated with natural human speech (interrogatives, imperatives, etc.) predominate; at the same time, rhetorical and symbolic figures characteristic of baroque opera are excluded. Extensive choral and ballet scenes with fantastic and pastoral-idyllic themes, a general orientation towards entertainment and entertainment (which eventually became dominant) were more consistent with the traditions of the Baroque than with the principles of classicism.
Traditional for Italy were the cultivation of singing virtuosity and the development of decorative elements inherent in the opera seria genre. In line with the demands of classicism put forward by some representatives of the Roman Academy "Arcadia", the northern Italian librettists of the early 18th century (F. Silvani, G. Frigimelica-Roberti, A. Zeno, P. Pariati, A. Salvi, A. Piovene) were expelled from serious opera has comic and everyday episodes, plot motifs associated with the intervention of supernatural or fantastic forces; the range of subjects was limited to historical and historical-legendary ones; moral and ethical issues were brought to the fore. At the center of the artistic concept of the early opera seria is the sublime heroic image of a monarch, less often a statesman, a courtier, an epic hero, demonstrating the positive qualities of an ideal personality: wisdom, tolerance, generosity, devotion to duty, heroic enthusiasm. The 3-act structure traditional for Italian opera was preserved (5-act dramas remained experiments), but the number of characters was reduced, and intonation expressive means, overture and aria forms, and the structure of vocal parts were standardized in the music. A type of dramaturgy entirely subordinated to musical tasks was developed (from the 1720s) by P. Metastasio, with whose name the pinnacle stage in the history of opera seria is associated. In his stories, the classicist pathos is noticeably weakened. A conflict situation, as a rule, arises and deepens due to the protracted “misconception” of the main characters, and not due to a real contradiction of their interests or principles. However, a special predilection for the idealized expression of feeling, for the noble impulses of the human soul, albeit far from strict rational justification, ensured the exceptional popularity of Metastasio's libretto for more than half a century.
The culmination of the development of musical classicism of the Enlightenment era (in the 1760-70s) was the creative collaboration of K. V. Gluck and librettist R. Calzabigi. In Gluck's operas and ballets, classicist tendencies were expressed in emphasized attention to ethical problems, the development of ideas about heroism and generosity (in the musical dramas of the Parisian period - in a direct appeal to the theme of duty and feelings). The norms of classicism were also met by genre purity, the desire for maximum concentration of action, reduced to almost one dramatic collision, and strict selection expressive means in accordance with the objectives of a specific dramatic situation, the utmost limitation of the decorative element, the virtuoso principle in singing. The educational nature of the interpretation of images was reflected in the interweaving of the noble qualities inherent in classicist heroes with naturalness and freedom of expression of feelings, reflecting the influence of sentimentalism.
In the 1780-90s, the tendencies of revolutionary classicism, reflecting the ideals of the French Revolution of the 18th century, found expression in French musical theater. Genetically connected with the previous stage and represented mainly by the generation of composers who followed Gluck's operatic reform (E. Megul, L. Cherubini), revolutionary classicism emphasized, first of all, the civic, tyrant-fighting pathos previously characteristic of the tragedies of P. Corneille and Voltaire. Unlike the works of the 1760s and 70s, in which resolution of the tragic conflict was elusive and required intervention external forces(the tradition of “deus ex machina” - Latin “god from the machine”), for the works of the 1780-1790s, the outcome through a heroic act (refusal of obedience, protest, often an act of retribution, the murder of a tyrant, etc.) became characteristic. creating a bright and effective release of tension. This type of dramaturgy formed the basis of the “rescue opera” genre, which appeared in the 1790s at the intersection of the traditions of classicist opera and realistic bourgeois drama.
In Russia, in musical theater, original manifestations of classicism are rare (the opera “Cephalus and Procris” by F. Araya, the melodrama “Orpheus” by E. I. Fomin, music by O. A. Kozlovsky for the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov, A. A. Shakhovsky and A. N. Gruzintseva).
In relation to comic opera, as well as instrumental and vocal music of the 18th century, not associated with theatrical action, the term “classicism” is used to a large extent conditionally. It is sometimes used loosely to mean initial stage classical-romantic era, gallant and classical styles (see the article Viennese classical school, Classics in music), in particular in order to avoid judgment (for example, when translating the German term “Klassik” or in the expression “Russian classicism”, extended to all Russian music of the 2nd half of the 18th - early 19th centuries).
In the 19th century, classicism in musical theater gave way to romanticism, although certain features of classicist aesthetics were sporadically revived (by G. Spontini, G. Berlioz, S. I. Taneyev, etc.). In the 20th century, classicist artistic principles revived again in neoclassicism.
P. V. Lutsker.
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