A genre is a historically established type of literary work, an abstract pattern on the basis of which specific texts are created. literary works. System of literary genres Ancient Rus' was significantly different from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed from it a system of genres, reworking them on a national basis: the specificity of genres ancient Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. The genres of ancient Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying. A genre is a historically established type of literary work, an abstract pattern on the basis of which the texts of specific literary works are created. The system of genres of literature of Ancient Rus' differed significantly from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed from it a system of genres, reworking them on a national basis: the specificity of the genres of Old Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. The genres of ancient Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying.
Primary genres Primary genres These genres are called primary because they served building material for unifying genres. Primary genres: Life Word Teaching Tale Primary genres also include weather recording, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend.
Life Life The genre of life was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most widespread and beloved genre of ancient Russian literature. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were canonized. The life was created by people who directly communicated with a person or could reliably testify to his life. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function, because the life of the saint was perceived as an example of a righteous life that must be imitated. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of immortality human soul. Life was built according to certain canons, from which they did not deviate until the 15-16 centuries.
Canons of the Life The pious origin of the hero of the Life, whose parents must have been righteous. The saint's parents often begged God. A saint was born a saint, not made one. The saint was distinguished by an ascetic lifestyle, spending time in solitude and prayer. A mandatory attribute of the life was a description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death. The saint was not afraid of death. The life ended with the glorification of the saint. One of the first works of the hagiographic genre in ancient Russian literature was the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb.
Old Russian eloquence This genre was borrowed by Old Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties: Didactic (instructive) Political Solemn
Teaching Teaching is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian man: both for the prince and for the commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh” included in the Tale of Bygone Years. In the Tale of Bygone Years, the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh are dated 1096. At this time, the strife between the princes in the battle for the throne reached its climax. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives advice on how to organize your life. He says that there is no need to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion. It is necessary to serve God by helping those in need. When going to war, you should pray - God will definitely help. Monomakh confirms these words with an example from his life: he took part in many battles - and God protected him. Monomakh says that one should look at how the natural world works and try to arrange public relations modeled on a harmonious world order. The teaching of Vladimir Monomakh is addressed to descendants.
The Word The Word is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This work is the subject of much controversy regarding its authenticity. This is because the original text of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” has not been preserved. It was destroyed by fire in 1812. Only copies have survived. From that time on, it became fashionable to refute its authenticity. The word tells about the military campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsians, which took place in history in 1185. Researchers suggest that the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was one of the participants in the described campaign. Disputes about the authenticity of this work were conducted in particular because it stands out from the system of genres of ancient Russian literature due to the unusual nature of the elements used in it. artistic means and techniques. The traditional chronological principle of narration is violated here: the author is transported to the past, then returns to the present (this was not typical for ancient Russian literature), the author makes lyrical digressions, inserted episodes appear (Svyatoslav’s dream, Yaroslavna’s cry). The word contains a lot of elements of traditional oral folk art and symbols. There is a clear influence of a fairy tale, an epic. The political background of the work is obvious: in the fight against a common enemy, Russian princes must be united, disunity leads to death and defeat.
An example of the solemn variety of ancient Russian eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, which was created in the first third of the 11th century. The word was written by Metropolitan Hilarion on the occasion of the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The word conveys the idea of the political and military independence of Rus' from Byzantium. By “Law” Hilarion understands the Old Testament, which was given to the Jews, but it does not suit the Russian and other peoples. That's why God gave New Testament, which is called “Grace”. In Byzantium, Emperor Constantine is revered, who contributed to the spread and establishment of Christianity there. Hilarion says that Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Rus', is no worse than the Byzantine emperor and should also be revered by the Russian people. The work of Prince Vladimir is continued by Yaroslav the Wise. The main idea of “The Word of Law and Grace” is that Rus' is as good as Byzantium. An example of the solemn variety of ancient Russian eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, which was created in the first third of the 11th century. The word was written by Metropolitan Hilarion on the occasion of the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The word conveys the idea of the political and military independence of Rus' from Byzantium. By “Law” Hilarion understands the Old Testament, which was given to the Jews, but it does not suit the Russian and other peoples. Therefore, God gave the New Testament, which is called “Grace.” In Byzantium, Emperor Constantine is revered, who contributed to the spread and establishment of Christianity there. Hilarion says that Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Rus', is no worse than the Byzantine emperor and should also be revered by the Russian people. The work of Prince Vladimir is continued by Yaroslav the Wise. The main idea of “The Word of Law and Grace” is that Rus' is as good as Byzantium.
Tale A Tale is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, military exploits, about princely crimes. Examples military stories are “The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan”, “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”.
A chronicle is a narration of historical events. This is the most ancient genre ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Rus', the chronicle played a very important role, because not only reported historical events of the past, but was also political and legal document, testified to how to act in certain situations. The most ancient chronicle is the “Tale of Bygone Years,” which has come down to us in the lists of the Laurentian Chronicle of the 14th century and the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 15th century. The chronicle tells about the origin of Russians, about genealogy Kyiv princes and about the emergence of the ancient Russian state.
Special mention should be made about the apocrypha genre. Apocrypha - literally translated from ancient Greek as “intimate, secret.” These are works of a religious and legendary nature. Apocrypha became especially popular in the 13th and 14th centuries, but the church did not recognize this genre and does not recognize it to this day. Special mention should be made about the apocrypha genre. Apocrypha - literally translated from ancient Greek as “intimate, secret.” These are works of a religious and legendary nature. Apocrypha became especially popular in the 13th and 14th centuries, but the church did not recognize this genre and does not recognize it to this day.
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Genres of Old Russian literature
Old Russian literature begins in the 10th century. In 988, Rus' adopted Christianity, which became state religion. It was during this period that writing appeared. The monks Cyril and Methodius played a big role here: they came up with the Slavic alphabet.
At that distant time, books were only handwritten. They were created by monks who lived in monasteries. They wrote books not on paper, but on parchment (this is specially tanned skin of calves or lambs).
How did this happen? They started with a sheet: they smoothed out its roughness with a sponge or pumice stone, marked the margins with a compass, and marked the lines with a karamsa (a board with stretched threads). Then they got to work on the feather: they sharpened it with a knife - they made an oblique cut. Most often used goose feathers, less often - swan and peacock. They wrote with ink made from soot, ink nuts, oak or alder bark. Books were decorated with ornaments, miniatures, and portraits. They were made with ink, created gold (gold powder and glue), red paint or cinnabar (a red-orange mineral), etc. The ornament also had a utilitarian meaning - it divided the text into chapters.
Usually the scribe held the sheet on his lap. The words in the line were not separated, only the paragraphs were highlighted with a cinnabar initial - an initial.
Well-known words were written abbreviated under a special superscript “title”.
If mistakes occurred, they were scraped off with a special knife. When all the sheets were ready, they were sewn together with thick threads or thin ropes. Leather-covered boards were used as the cover. As a rule, the skin was black or dark brown. If the manuscript was expensive, it was decorated precious stones. To prevent books from spoiling, they were fastened with special straps. “Whoever does not fasten the book will be cursed,” said our ancestors.
Of course we all know chronicles, they reached us in considerable quantities. The narration in the chronicles was carried out by year in chronological sequence. The story about the events of each year began with the words “In the summer...”, hence the name - “chronicle”. What did the chroniclers write about? About military campaigns, the death of princes, epidemics, eclipses of the sun. Sometimes, the chronicles included the texts of charters, agreements, and detailed plot narratives. D.S. Likhachev said that the chronicle is one of the “unifying genres.”
The beginning of Russian chronicle writing is “The Tale of Bygone Years.” Two editions of it have survived, dating from 1116 and 1118. The first version of 1113, made by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, has not reached us.
It must be said that in Ancient Rus' not only chronicles, but also lives (story of life...), legends were called stories. Thus, a story is a general genre form, which includes works of different or the same genre, united by the thoughts of the narrator.
In ancient Russian literature they were widespread stories: translated (“The Tale of Eruslan Lazarevich”), about princely crimes (about the murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky), military. Military stories depicted the military exploits of the Russian people, numerous battles (about the battle on the Kalka River, about the invasion of Batu Khan, about the Battle of Kulikovo). The central character of the military story was the real historical figure, prince. As a rule, the image of the prince was idealized, endowed with a large number of positive qualities. Vivid examples military story is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”
Over time, the story has undergone changes: historical facts were forced out fiction. The story had the features of a love adventure novel (“Tales of the Beginning of Moscow”). New genres have formed - everyday story(“The Tale of Woe-Misfortune”), satirical story(“The Tale of the Shemyakin Court”). The satirical stories talked about important social problems: about bribery, corruption of the court, social inequality etc. Sometimes they were parodies of petitions, church services and other popular texts.
An important genre of ancient Russian literature was lives- works that told about the lives of saints. The first Russian hagiography was “The Life of Boris and Gleb.” Boris and Gleb are the sons of Grand Duke Vladimir. The life tells how the elder brother of Boris and Gleb Svyatopolk killed them in order to become the prince of Kyiv. At the beginning of the 15th century, the life of Sergius of Radonezh was compiled, which spoke about his exploits and miracles.
As a rule, the life includes a short introduction by the compiler, a main biographical part and a brief praise. The biographical part tells about the origin of the saint, his pious childhood, ascetic deeds and death. In ancient Russian literature, several types of lives are distinguished: martyr's lives (about saints who suffered torture and death for their faith), confessional (about saints who were persecuted during their lifetime for preaching Christianity), venerable ones (about righteous, holy monks), etc. . Later, in the 17th century, lives began to appear that told about ordinary people. For example, “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum,” which he wrote himself, is widely known. Avvakum (1621-1682) was the leader of the Old Believers, opponents church reform, which was held by Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The authorities persecuted schismatics, so Avvakum spent half of his life in prison and exile, and then was executed. In his “Life” he spoke about his suffering for his faith, and that these sufferings could not force him to abandon his ideas. handwritten book chronicle of circulation
Very popular in Rus' walking(or walking). Walkings are works that describe the journeys of pilgrims to the shrines of Palestine and Byzantium. One of the earliest ancient Russian walks is “The Walk of Abbot Daniel.” The basic principle of this genre was formulated by Daniil as follows: “You need to write about what you have seen and heard yourself: not cleverly, but simply.” In the pilgrimages of the 14th-15th centuries, pilgrims are replaced by state ambassadors and traders who describe hitherto unknown lands.
In 1564 it happened significant event. In Moscow, I. Fedorov and P. Mstislavtsev first published the book “Apostle”. The first printed books were similar to handwritten ones: they retained the features of the font, accents, and ornaments. I must say manuscript literature coexisted with printing until the 5th century.
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The system of genres of literature of Ancient Rus' differed significantly from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature: it borrowed genres, was processed and “mixed” with Russian folklore. Genres of Old Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying.
Primary genres .These genres are called primary because they served as building material for unifying genres.
Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were canonized. The life was created by people who directly communicated with a person or could reliably testify to his life. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function, because the life of the saint was perceived as an example of a righteous life.
Canons of the Life: The pious origin of the hero of the Life; a saint was born a saint, and did not become one; the saint was distinguished by his ascetic lifestyle; A mandatory attribute of the life was a description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death; the saint was not afraid of death; The life ended with the glorification of the saint.
Old Russian eloquence- this genre was borrowed by ancient Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties: didactic, political, and solemn.
Teaching- a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person: both for the prince and for the commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh” included in the Tale of Bygone Years.
Word- is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”
Tale- this is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, military exploits, and princely crimes. Examples of military stories are “The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan”, “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”.
Uniting genres
Chronicle is a narrative about historical events. This is the most ancient genre of ancient Russian literature. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russians, the genealogy of the Kyiv princes and the emergence of the ancient Russian state.
Chronograph- these are texts containing a description of the time of the 15th-16th centuries.
Cheti-mena (literally “reading by month”)- a collection of works about holy people.
Patericon- a description of the life of the holy fathers.
main genres of ancient Russian literature
- see here
- Tales, epics. Chronicles. Lives. Walking. Teachings. Genres of Old Russian literature.
- WTF SHTO PROISSHODIT
- A genre is a historically established type of literary work, an abstract pattern on the basis of which the texts of specific literary works are created. The system of genres of literature of Ancient Rus' differed significantly from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed from it a system of genres, reworking them on a national basis: the specificity of the genres of Old Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art.
Primary genres
These genres are called primary because they served as building material for unifying genres. Primary genres:
Life
Word
Teaching
Tale
Primary genres also include weather recording, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend.The genre of hagiography was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most widespread and beloved genre of ancient Russian literature. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, that is, canonized. The life was created by people who directly communicated with a person or could reliably testify to his life. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function, because the life of the saint was perceived as an example of a righteous life that must be imitated. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of the immortality of the human soul. Life was built according to certain canons, from which they did not deviate until the 15-16 centuries.
Canons of Life
The pious origin of the hero of the life, whose parents must have been righteous. The saint's parents often begged God.
A saint was born a saint, not made one.
The saint was distinguished by an ascetic lifestyle, spending time in solitude and prayer.
A mandatory attribute of the life was a description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death.
The saint was not afraid of death.
The life ended with the glorification of the saint.
One of the first works of the hagiographic genre in ancient Russian literature was the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb.Old Russian eloquence
This genre was borrowed by ancient Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties:
Didactic (instructive)
Political
Solemn
TeachingTeaching is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person: both for the prince and for the commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh included in the Tale of Bygone Years. In the Tale of Bygone Years, the Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh dates back to 1096. At this time, the strife between the princes in the battle for the throne reached its climax. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives advice on how to organize your life. He says that there is no need to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion. It is necessary to serve God by helping those in need. When going to war, you should pray, God will definitely help you. Monomakh confirms these words with an example from his life: he took part in many battles and God protected him. Monomakh says that one should look at how the natural world works and try to organize social relations according to the model of a harmonious world order. The teaching of Vladimir Monomakh is addressed to descendants.
The word is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of Old Russian eloquence is the Tale of Igor's Campaign. This work is the subject of much controversy regarding its authenticity. This is because the original text of the Lay of Igor’s Campaign has not been preserved. It was destroyed by fire in 1812. Only copies have survived. Since that time it has become fashionable to refute it according to
- The genres of ancient Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying.
Primary
Uniting
- A genre is a historically established type of literary work, an abstract pattern on the basis of which the texts of specific literary works are created. The system of genres of literature of Ancient Rus' differed significantly from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed from it a system of genres, reworking them on a national basis: the specificity of the genres of Old Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. The genres of ancient Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying.
- The genres of ancient Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying.
Primary
1) Genre Life. It was created by people who were directly familiar with the person who was canonized and canonized after his death.2) Old Russian eloquence. It was borrowed from Byzantium and served as a form of oratory.
3) Teaching. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person: both for the prince and for the commoner.
4) Word. The word is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of Old Russian eloquence is the Tale of Igor's Campaign.
5) Tale. This is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, military
exploits, about princely crimes.Uniting
1) A chronicle is a narrative about historical events. This is the most ancient genre of ancient Russian literature.
2) Chronograph are texts containing a description of the time of the 15-16 centuries.
3) Cheti-menaia (literally reading by month) a collection of works about holy people.
4) Patericon a description of the life of the holy fathers.
5) Apocrypha is literally translated from ancient Greek as intimate, secret. These are works of a religious and legendary nature.
One of the leading genres of ancient Russian literature was the chronicle. This is an original Russian genre, not known Byzantine literature, its structure and principles were developed gradually by Russian scribes and finally took shape in the second half of the 11th century. beginning of XII century.
The contents of the chronicle, its main topic- history of the Russian land in its own right in a broad sense words. The chronicle tells about campaigns and battles, about the military exploits of the princes and their activities in organizing the Russian land, about princely feuds and diplomatic relations with other countries, about the founding of monasteries and the lives of saints. The chronicle also tells about the construction of cities, the construction of fortress walls, churches and princely chambers. The chronicler notes the most significant natural phenomena: prolonged rains and droughts, eclipses of the sun and moon, the appearance of comets. Such thematic breadth involves the use of sources of different content and origin - oral tales and legends, literary works (lives of saints, military stories, princely biographies, walks, etc.), business documents.
Each chronicle is a kind of “collection” of numerous historical sources and literary texts. The chronicler arranges all this heterogeneous material in strict order - according to annual articles, each of which begins with the words “In the summer...” and the date from the creation of the world. Creating a new chronicle is creative process, not a mechanical connection different materials. When compiling a new chronicle, the chronicler uses, first of all, previously created chronicles, he supplements them with new messages, edits, omits something, changes something according to his views on historical events. The chronicler strives for completeness of presentation, accuracy, and specificity; he conducts the narration calmly and unhurriedly, trying to be objective and impartial.
A great many chronicles were kept in Ancient Rus'. There were grand ducal and metropolitan chronicles, monastic and church chronicles, chronicles of individual cities and princes, many of them have survived to this day. Let us name only the most ancient manuscripts that have reached us, in which chronicle texts are read: the Synodal copy of the Novgorod Noah Chronicle (XIII century), the Laurentian Chronicle (1377), the Ipatiev Chronicle (beginning of the 15th century). Most of the lists of Russian chronicles are from a later time, the end of the 15th-18th centuries.
In the initial ancient period There is a lot of unclear information in Russian chronicles. This is due to the fact that the texts of the first Russian chronicles did not reach us or were preserved not in their original form, but as part of later chronicle collections, where they were revised and supplemented. Most scientists (A. A. Shakhmatov, M. D. Priselkov, D. S. Likhachev and others) believe that the first Russian chronicles began to be created in the middle of the 11th century, but they disagree about what their texts were, about what they said.
The Kiev-Pechersk Monastery became one of the centers of chronicle writing in the second half of the 11th century. Scientists suggest that in the 60-70s one of the oldest chronicle codes was created here, the author of which is considered to be the monk Nikon. Nikon collected legends about the first Russian princes, recorded historical information and stories about events of our time and the recent past.
In the 90s of the 11th century (about 1095), a new chronicle vault, conventionally called the “Initial” one, was created within the walls of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. The compiler of the “Initial Code” supplemented Nikon’s work with notes about the events of the 70s–90s, giving the entire narrative a journalistic character: he reproaches the contemporary princes for destroying the Russian land in internecine wars and being unable to protect it from the ruinous Polovtsian raids. Like Nikon’s code, the text of the “Initial Code” has not reached us; in a revised form, it became part of the 1st Novgorod Chronicle.
The oldest chronicle, the text of which has survived to this day, is the Tale of Bygone Years, created by the scribe of the same Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor no later than 1115.
Okhotnikova V.I. Old Russian literature: Textbook for grades 5-9 / Ed. O.V. Tvorogova. - M.: Education, 1997