In the XVII - XVIII centuries. to replace the Russian Renaissance. Comes new era, called by specialists the Russian Enlightenment. There is a radical reorientation of not only Russian culture, but also Russian society from the Byzantine East to the European West. The leadership role shifts from religious art to the secular. Through the strict outlines of the icon, the first contours of a secular portrait and landscapes are visible. From the depths of icon painting, painting makes its way to the light for a long time and painfully. Sensuality is replaced by rationalism. From feudalism, Russia is slowly turning to capitalism, and therefore, to a new economic structure, a new way of life. Changes took place in the ruling aristocracy: the Rurik dynasty was replaced by a completely different, unrelated Romanov dynasty (1613 - 1917).
The Russian Enlightenment can be conditionally divided into two stages: the 17th century, which is just a transitional era, and the 18th century, that is, the Enlightenment itself, the beginning of which was marked by the grandiose reforms of Peter I, and the highest point was the activities of Catherine II.
The greatest contribution to the Russian Enlightenment belongs to Catherine the Great, who, like other enlightened monarchs, played a key role in supporting the arts, sciences and education. Although in Russia, as in others European countries, in this era significant changes took place; the difference between Russia and the Western Enlightenment is that here not only did there not be a shift in public opinion towards the development of liberal ideas, but on the contrary, they were met with extreme caution.
In the 18th century, the foundations of a secular worldview were laid: a system of secular education was formed, art and science developed. However, the process of restructuring Russian society was completely completed only in the 19th century. Throughout the 18th century, there was a struggle between the old and the new, the pre-Petrine order and European customs, and painstaking work on educating people, invisible to the eye, took place.
The beginning of the 18th century was marked by a rapid transition from the national artistic tradition, dating back to Byzantine origins, to the Western European art tradition. Russia began to actively assimilate the experience of world culture and join in its achievements. That is why in Russian art of the 1st quarter of the 18th century. There is neither that depth of spiritual content, nor that organic unity of the ideological-figurative structure with artistic forms that are characteristic of art Ancient Rus'.
Culture of the first quarter of the 18th century. fed on the idea that the basis of historical progress and the strength of the state is science and education. Knowledge gained during practical activities, help to better understand nature, society, people, to identify patterns and logic in their development. The power of reason is capable of identifying the most rational forms of social structure and creativity.
How did you become acquainted with Western art?
In the workshops of the Armory Chamber in the second half of the 17th century, foreigners worked side by side with Russian craftsmen. The contracts concluded with them specifically stipulated a clause according to which they had to teach Russian students “everything that they themselves know”: how to build deep space, calculate the proportions of the human figure, convey it in the correct perspective, that is, in abbreviation, with complex rotation and movement. The models for our icon painters were engravings, which were then called "Fryazhsky sheets". Anyone could buy them on the bridge near the Spasskaya Tower of the Kremlin, as well as in the markets of large Russian cities. True, Western European engraving, which has firmly entered into artistic use, is being thoroughly reworked in the Russian way.
In the 18th century Traditional Russian icon painting is gradually declining. It is increasingly influenced by oil painting penetrating from the West, which by this time had come a long way in development from the Renaissance to the Baroque. Among the most famous representatives of icon painting of this period are G.T. Zinoviev, A. I. Kazantsev and S. S. Nekhlebaev. Thus, the “Europeanization” of Russian icon painting in the 18th century gradually led to the emergence secular painting, which did not exist before.
Appears with her new genre- an image of a certain person, “persona”, the so-called parsuna, which laid the foundations of portrait art of the 18th century. It was formed in the Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin - the center of the country's artistic life in the middle of the 17th century. The best painters of their time worked here: B. Saltykov, I. Bezmin, V. Poznansky, I. Maksimov, K. Ulanov, T. Filatyev, I. Pavlovets, F. Kozlov. Here I. Vladimirov And S. Ushakov The first theoretical treatises on painting in the history of Russian art were written.
The first Russian artists in the modern sense of the word, such as I. N. Nikitin and A. M. Matveev, studied abroad. Others (Schlüter, Caravaque) were invited from abroad and worked as court painters. They not only created the domestic school of painting (I. Ya. Vishnyakov, A. P. Antropov, A. I. Belsky), but also laid the foundation for a tradition that in modern art history is called Rossika, depictions of Russian life by Western European painters (Rotary, Grotto, Roslin).
After the opening of the Academy of Arts in 1757, Russian painting of the Enlightenment reached its peak in the works of outstanding masters D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, F. S. Rokotov.
The 18th and early 19th centuries were marked by two world-class cultural achievements: the architecture of St. Petersburg and portraiture. The emergence of world achievements in the field of secular culture testified to two facts: 1) secular art has become an independent cultural event in the life of society, no less. Than religious; 2) from now on, all or most cultural innovations should have been expected from the secular, and not from religious culture. Secular culture firmly captured the leadership and never lost it again. The great era of Russian church culture is a thing of the past, and the great era of Russian secular culture has arrived.
Russian art is mastering new means of conveying the appearance of the surrounding world. Direct perspective is used to convey the appearance of the surrounding world. Direct perspective is used to convey the depth and volume of what is depicted on the plane. Artists think about the relationship between light and color, about the role of color as one of the means of constructing volume and space. The ability to depict a specific material - fur, fabric - and show the features of the surface of the face and hands, the shine of the eyes, the softness of the hair is beginning to be appreciated.
In the era of favoritism of Peter the Great, when the greatness and wealth of a person could quickly increase and just as instantly he could fall into insignificance, many wealthy people wanted to leave their portrait to posterity, to be depicted in memory of their importance and panache in a luxurious wig, with orders, in a uniform , in suits decorated with gold embroidery; or they wanted to have an image of their benefactor (the king) in order to express their respect and devotion.
Russian portrait art reached a special development in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. This is the time of work of outstanding portrait painters, whose fame spread far beyond the borders of Russia: F.S. Rokotova, D.G. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky, I.N. Nikitin.
The first major master of this genre was I.N. Nikitin(1680 - not earlier than 1742). Personal master, favorite artist of Peter I, I. N. Nikitin was an example of the emperor’s patriotic pride in front of foreigners, “so that they know that there are good masters from among our people.” And Peter was not mistaken: the painter Ivan was the first Russian portrait painter of the European level. His work is the beginning of Russian painting of modern times (“Tsarevna Praskovya Ivanovna”, 1714, “Portrait of a Cossack in a red caftan”, 1715, “Portrait of Peter the Great”, 1725). Nikitin is one of the first Russian artists to move away from the traditional icon-painting style of Russian painting and begin to paint pictures with perspective, as they were painting in Europe at that time. Thus, he is the founder of the tradition of Russian painting, which continues to the present day.
F.S. Rokotov(1735 - 1808), coming from a family of serfs, is one of the best masters of the Age of Enlightenment. The gallery of his portraits is a poetic world in the image of his contemporaries, immersed in dreamy reverie, in subtle hidden movements of the soul.
Along with F.S. Rokotov and V.L. Borovikovsky D.M. Levitsky is considered one of the largest Russian portrait painters of the 18th - 19th centuries. In his youth he painted icons, and in 1771 - 1787. headed the portrait class at the Academy of Arts. The pinnacle of his art is a series of portraits of students of the Smolny Institute, “Smolnyanka”. In the picture they play music, dance, communicate with each other, performing a crafty picturesque theater in front of the viewer. Among the best works of Levitsky are also chest-length portraits of D. Diderot, M.A. Dyakova, N.I. Novikov and Catherine II, which is represented in the ancient temple of the goddess of justice.
Portraits V.L. Borovikovsky(1757 - 1825) are characterized by features of sentimentalism, a combination of decorative subtlety and elegance of rhythms with the correct transmission of character (“M.I. Lopukhina”). He received his initial artistic education from his father, an icon painter. After completing military service, he was engaged in religious painting in the traditions of Ukrainian Baroque. Having moved to St. Petersburg, he became close to outstanding intellectuals of the time. He painted icons and ceremonial portraits in the baroque and classicist styles. In 1804 - 1811 paints religious paintings for the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. In the later period, Borovikovsky was actively involved in teaching, organizing something like a private school at his home (among the students was A.G. Venetsianov).
Throughout the 18th century, the landscape genre was being formed; significant advances were made in graphics, which sought to capture the appearance of the young capital. M.I. Makhaev(1718 - 1770) - author large number views of St. Petersburg and its environs. Paintings were made based on his drawings, and the Twelve “most noble” perspectives of St. Petersburg, drawn by him, were engraved at the Academy of Sciences. Makhaev accurately conveys the appearance of a particular building, capturing it with almost photographic precision. Often the artist works with architectural projects, based on which he creates facades of buildings that no longer exist or are not yet completed.
Mahaev’s works create an image of a place, the nature of its everyday life. The figures of people are combined into genre scenes and correspond to the compositional center - the building: courtiers at the Summer Palace, carriages of dignitaries and horsemen in front of the State Collegiums, a crowd of city people and cab drivers next to the Exchange. The image of the city is complemented by trees, which gradually become more concrete and are more boldly introduced into the composition.
The art of engraving became widespread during the Petrine period. It is represented by the design or illustrations of books, or independent sheets. They were dominated by battle scenes and urban landscapes.
A major engraver of the early 18th century. was A.F. Zubov. He performed a “Panorama of St. Petersburg” of extraordinary complexity and grandeur. Another of his engravings, “The Gangut Triumph,” depicts the return of the Russian fleet to St. Petersburg, leading the Swedish ships captured in the battle. A number of engravings are dedicated to ceremonial acts and amusements of that time.
The main engraving center was initially the Armory Chamber, and from 1711 - the St. Petersburg Printing House.
Sculpture did not exist in the pre-Petrine period; this was due to the fact that, according to the Orthodox church canon, statues and relief images were not included among the sacred objects of religious art.
During the Peter the Great period the most famous sculptor was K.B. Rastrelli(1675-1744). On behalf of Peter I, he made statues for the Summer Garden. Rastrelli (father) worked a lot on the image of Peter I. Back in 1719, he took off his mask and sculpted a wax bust. In 1723, he created a bronze bust of Peter I. In his appearance, the sculptor emphasized intelligence, will, and energy.
Art of the first quarter of the 18th century. It is distinguished by its pronounced complexity and synthetic nature. The overall impression is created through the efforts of architecture, painting, sculpture, garden art, fountain making, vocal and instrumental music.
Thus, Russian art of the 18th century was a new stage in the development of Russian culture, when European trends were assimilated and synthesized with national ones. artistic traditions and a decisive shift occurred in the spiritual culture of society, which led to the advent of the “golden age” of Russian art and literature early XIX century.
1. I. Argunov. Portrait of a peasant woman in Russian costume. 1784. Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery. (I. Argounov. Paysanne en costume russe (Portrait d'une actrice). 1784, Galerie Tretiakov, Moscow.)
2. J.-B. Leprince. The interior of a peasant hut. Ink, Moscow, Museum of Fine Arts. A. S. Pushkin. (Jean-Baptiste Le Prince. Interieur d "une izba paysanne. Encre de Chine. Musee des Beaux-Arts Pouchkine, Moscow.)
5. Church of the Intercession in Fili in Moscow. 1693 - 1694. (Eglise de 1 "Intercession de la Vierge de Fili. Moscow. 1693 - 1694.)
7. Sun. Folk carving. XVIII century Moscow, Historical Museum. (Soleil. Sculpture sur bois folklorique. XVIIIe s. Musee d "Histoire de Moscou.)
8. M. Kazakov. Church of Metropolitan Philip in Moscow. 1777 - 1788. (M. Kazakov. L "Eglise du Metropolite Philippe. 1777 - 1788. Moscow.)
10. V. Bazhenov. Pashkov's house in Moscow. (State Library of the USSR named after V.I. Lenin). 1784-1786. (V. Bajenov. L "h6tel Pachkov. Bibliotheque nationale Lenine. 1784-1786. Moscow.)
20. Jug. Gzhel ceramics. 1791 Moscow, Historical Museum. (Cruche, Ceramiques de Gjelsk. 1791. Musee d'histoire, Moscow.)
It is known that the Age of Enlightenment was a time of profound economic and social life all over Europe. Manufactures are being replaced by large factories using machines. With the emancipation of the oppressed classes, more and more attention is paid to public welfare. The economic needs and aspirations of progressive minds are bringing the abolition of the feudal order closer. There are known differences between the defenders of various doctrines: defenders of reason and defenders of the exact sciences, adherents of antiquity and admirers of the human heart. If the Age of Enlightenment can be considered an era that ended with the abolition of the old order, then in fact the bourgeois revolution occurred only in France.
Russia remained a predominantly agricultural country. True, E. Tarle noted long ago that in the 18th century it was not indifferent to the industrial development of Europe ( E. Tarle, Was Russia under Catherine an economically backward country? - “Modern World”, 1910, May, p. 28.). Enlightenment quickly spread throughout the country. But the third estate, which in France led the struggle against the privileged classes, was little developed in Russia. The successes of capitalism did not improve the living conditions of serfs. On the contrary, the participation of landowners in trade led to an increase in corvee and quitrent. During the second half of the XVIII centuries, peasants rebelled several times. Pugachevism threatened the empire. Although the government dealt with the rebels, their resistance did not weaken.
In France, the complaints of rural residents show the belief that by satisfying their requests, their situation can be improved ( E. See, La France economique et sociale au XVIIIe siècle, 1925, p. 178.). In Russia, as one contemporary put it, the peasants were not even able to realize the full extent of their oppression ( G. Plekhanov, Works, vol. XXI, M.-L., 1925, p. 255.). One folk song of that time says that the masters were accustomed to treating them like cattle. To understand the Age of Enlightenment in Russia, one cannot avoid this main contradiction.
In its legislative initiatives and reforms, the government of Catherine II widely used the ideas of the Enlightenment. The order of the Commission of Representatives was expressed in such radical tones that the royal censorship banned it in France. Catherine felt the need to support public opinion in Europe. She called on the nobility to be more prudent so as not to cause an uprising of the oppressed ( “Anthology on the history of the USSR”, vol. II, M., 1949, p. 173.). But all of her domestic politics, especially in the second half of the reign, tended to strengthen the police regime ( "The Eighteenth Century". Historical collection, published by P. Bartenev, vol. Ill, M., p. 390.). Education became the privilege of the nobility. Liberation ideas were brutally persecuted. After 1789, suspicions of sympathies for Jacobinism could destroy anyone.
The Russian government relied on the nobility and the highest administration. But among the nobility there were people who realized the approaching crisis of the monarchy. They rebelled against corruption and the decline of morals and demanded that the nobility be more effective and virtuous. Only the fulfillment of civic duty can justify his privileges ( P. Berkov, L. Sumarokov, M.-L., 1949."). The conservative nobility thought only about amendments to what existed, not allowing the thought of changing the social order.
Another layer of the nobility, disappointed with the state of things, was inclined to such an attitude towards life that can be defined modern term“Escape” (escape). Russian Freemasons sought to improve their own personality. Tired of court and social life, the nobility was ready to admire the impulses of the heart and sensitivity, as well as the delights of rural nature ( G. Gukovsky, Essays on Russian literature of the 18th century, M. - L., 1937, p. 249.).
The most radical revolutionary views were defended by A. Radishchev. Formed under the influence of Enlightenment thinkers, Radishchev goes further than his inspirations. Sympathizing with the suffering of the human race, Lorenz Stern shines in “Sentimental Journey” most of all in the analysis of his deeply personal experiences. In “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” Radishchev is completely captured by the picture of the suffering of the people ( A. Radishchev, Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow. T. I-II, M.-L., 1935.). All his thoughts and aspirations are aimed at improving the lot of oppressed people in all latitudes of the world, including the New World. Novikova's satire exposed the vices of the privileged classes and thereby had a strong impact on the minds ( G. Makagonenko, N. Novikov and enlightenment in Russia in the 18th century, M.-L., 1951.).
Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Mably recognized the right of the people to rise up against feudal abuses. But Voltaire doubted the mental strength of the people and did not hide his contempt for the “rabble.” In the West, they argued that it was necessary to first free the soul, that is, to educate the people, before freeing their body. Russian educators had great confidence in ordinary people. Radishchev was convinced that as soon as the people gained freedom, they would give birth to heroes.
In search of a golden age, Western thinkers turned to the primitive societies of the Arabs and Indians. Russian thinkers discerned in the working and patriarchal life of Russian peasants the wisdom that secular society lacked. The modest gift Radishchev received from a blind beggar is considered by him as a sign of his heartfelt agreement with the people.
Representatives of the third estate in France paid little attention to the needs of the peasantry, and this became the source of their constant disagreements. In Russia, progressive representatives of the nobility were destined to defend the interests of the people. With their interest in epic poetry, fairy tales, and folklore, the Russians were ahead of Schlegel and Percy. The 18th century composer E. Fomin, whose significance was discovered quite recently, was the author of the opera “Coachmen”, entirely woven from folk tunes ( B. Dobrokhotov, E. Fomin, M.-L., 1949.).
During her lifetime, Catherine won European fame with her philanthropy. This fame continued long after her death. Catherine knew how to take advantage of the enormous resources at her disposal and guessed the talents of the poets and artists who surrounded her throne. One might think that in Russia in the 18th century everything happened in art at the will of the sovereigns and in their honor.
In reality, crowned patrons of the arts and their associates were not always sensitive to the needs of art. E. Falcone faced resistance from the imperial bureaucracy ( “Correspondence of Falconet.” Collection of the Imperial Russian Historical Society, St. Petersburg, 1879.). Grand Duchess reproached Cameron for violating the “rules of architecture” ( L. Hautecoeur, L "architecture classique a Saint-Petersbourg a la fin du XVIIIe siècle, Paris, 1912, p. 60.). But the main thing is that the meaning of the art of this era cannot be reduced to the glorification of the monarchy and serfdom. Lomonosov and Derzhavin were forced to devote their odes to the empresses, but most of all they were inspired by the glory of their homeland, the richness of its nature, and the fate of the people. Great architects of the 18th century, Russian and foreign, built palaces for sovereigns and nobles. But at court, shy etiquette and servility reigned, oppressive luxury. Meanwhile, in the park and in the pavilions of Pavlovsk, noble simplicity and a sense of proportion reign, worthy of a sage who left the depraved world. In his recent book, Rudolf Zeitler rightly notes the internal kinship between the utopias of this time and the statues and paintings of classicism ( R. Zeitler, Klassizismus und Utopie, 1914.). Many palaces and parks of the 18th century look like the embodiment of the dreams of humanists of the Enlightenment ( P. Chekalevsky, Discourses on the liberal arts with a description of the works of Russian artists. St. Petersburg, 1792. The author praises the artists of Ancient Greece, “since they did not humiliate their minds in order to decorate the house of a rich man with trifles according to his taste, since all works of art then corresponded to the thoughts of the entire people.” In this statement one can guess the aesthetic program of a Russian artist of the 18th century.).
It is not possible to associate each individual artist with a certain social stratum and consider it a representative ( V. Bogoslovsky, Social nature and ideological essence of the architecture of Russian classicism of the last thirds of the XVIII century. - “Scientific Notes of Leningrad University.” Series of Historical Sciences, vol. 2, 1955, p. 247.). It is more important not to lose sight of the general dependence of the art of the Enlightenment on social issues, the constant dependence of the best minds of the era on that ferment of thoughts. Russian artists of the Enlightenment era served the task of liberating humanity from the diseases of the age. Imagining a social system based on truth, nature, justice, they painted in their creativity ideal pictures of the sought-after harmony. This is the connection between art and the historical background of the era.
St. Petersburg is the most regular city among all the capitals of Europe; it is more imbued with the spirit of the Enlightenment than others. The Europeanization of Russian art was facilitated by the presence of first-class Western masters in Russia at that time and, on the other hand, by the educational travels of young Russian artists to France and Italy. The Age of Enlightenment was deeply imbued with the belief that the same moral and aesthetic principles could find application in all latitudes. The French language - as the universal language of the “republic of fine literature” - strengthened this confidence. As a result, the national character of culture often fell into oblivion. It was not for nothing that the admirer of everything French, Frederick II, did not show sensitivity to the German culture of his time.
The revival of the classical order and the veneration of the column in architecture, mythological motifs and allegories in sculpture, features of courtly secularism in portraiture - all this, to a greater or lesser extent, was characteristic of the art of the 18th century in all European countries. Until recently, it was generally accepted that Russia was no exception to this rule. At one time, A. Herzen believed that in the 18th century Russian civilization was entirely European. “What remained national in her,” in his words, “was only a certain rudeness” ( A. Herzen, On the development of revolutionary ideas in Russia. - Collection soch., vol. VII, M., 1956, pp. 133-262.). A close study of both the Russian culture of this time and other European countries convinces that each of them had its own characteristics.
According to the plan for the reconstruction of the Kremlin, developed by V. Bazhenov in 1769-1773, this sanctuary of the Mother See was to be turned into the center of the entire Russian Empire ( M. Ilyin, Bazhenov, M., 1945, p. 41; A. Mikhailov, Bazhenov, M., 1951, p. 31.). The main arteries of the country, roads from St. Petersburg, from Smolensk and from Vladimir, were supposed to converge on main square Kremlin. This was to a certain extent reminiscent of the arrangement of three roads that converged in front of the Palace of Versailles. The center of the residence of the French monarch was to be his luxurious bedchamber. Bazhenov's plan was more democratic in nature. The palace remained to the side; the center of the Kremlin was occupied by a wide round square, intended to serve as a place for national holidays. This semblance of an amphitheater was supposed to be filled with a crowd of spectators. In the words of the Russian architect, the rebuilt Kremlin was to serve “for the joy and pleasure of the people.” Bazhenov’s contemporaries guessed the utopianism of this project. Karamzin compares Bazhenov with Thomas More and Plato ( N. Karamzin, About the sights of Moscow. - Works, vol. IX, 1825, p. 252.). Bazhenov's project remained unfulfilled. Only a wooden model gives some idea about it. But the architectural thought of the great master was reflected later, in the semicircular square of K. Rossi in front of the Winter Palace ( A. Mikhailov, decree, op., p. 74.).
Bazhenov was not alone. The Tauride Palace, erected by I. Starov for Catherine's favorite Potemkin, was considered by contemporaries as an attempt to revive the glory of the capitals of the ancient world. Indeed, topped by a dome supported by columns, its central hall seems designed to rival the Roman Pantheon. The classicists of Western Europe did not set themselves such grandiose tasks. The interior of the Parisian Pantheon by J. Soufflot is more dissected, lighter and does not make such an impressive impression. A notable feature of Russian domed buildings is their pyramidal structure. Palaces, like ancient Russian temples, seem to grow out of the ground, forming an inseparable part of the nature that surrounds them. This is the epic power of Russian architecture.
The classicism of the 18th century in all European countries revered the ancient order with all its elements as an unshakable dogma. However, Goethe was already ahead of his age, admiring the Strasbourg Cathedral and the beauty in 1771 gothic architecture, at that time almost forgotten. Just four years after him, V. Bazhenov, who himself sought to get closer to folk traditions, recognized the artistic value of Russian medieval architecture and was inspired by it in his own creation.
In his buildings of the royal residence in Tsaritsyn near Moscow, this was reflected most clearly. One of Tsaritsyn’s buildings, the so-called Bread Gate, gives an idea of the method of the remarkable architect. In it one can see a peculiar fusion of the classical three-span arch of Septimius Severus and the purely Russian type of church - a tower topped with kokoshniks and a dome. One should not think that the artist limited himself to a mechanical combination of ancient and medieval motifs. The interaction and interpenetration of heterogeneous elements gives the creation of the Russian master a unique originality.
The departure from classical canons also makes itself felt in the Tsaritsyn Bridge, built of pink brick, with its pointed arches. Bazhenov's style in Tsaritsyn is usually called pseudo-Gothic or neo-Gothic. Meanwhile, there are no openwork structures characteristic of Gothic here. Bazhenov’s architecture is more juicy, full-blooded, the wall retains its meaning in it. The Tsaritsyn Bridge is closer to ancient Russian traditions. It resembles mosques and ivans Central Asia with their mighty pointed arches and colorful tiles.
Bazhenov’s architecture was prepared by the research of the architects B. Rastrelli, S. Chevakinsky and D. Ukhtomsky who worked before him in Russia. In Russian applied arts From this time, next to the strictly classical, beautiful, but somewhat cold forms of vases, more archaic, colorful types of jugs of a purely national character are preserved, especially in Gzhel ceramics. One of the buildings in Tsaritsyn is crowned with a round disk with Catherine’s monogram, which has no analogues in classical architecture. But it is very similar to the so-called “wooden suns” with which folk carvers decorated ships.
In his speech at the foundation stone of the Kremlin Palace, Bazhenov, as the most beautiful building in Moscow, mentions the bell tower of the Novo-Devichy Convent, a characteristic monument of the so-called “Naryshkin style.” But Bazhenov’s aspirations to revive national forms did not find support from the authorities. They say that Catherine called Tsaritsyn’s with disapproval construction of the prison and suspended further construction. Meanwhile, simultaneously with Bazhenov, another Russian architect, I. Starov, was building the Potemkin Palace in Ostrov on the Neva as a semblance of a medieval castle. He revived the whiteness and smoothness of the walls of ancient Novgorod architecture ( A. Belekhov and A. Petrov, Ivan Starov, M., 1951, p. 404.).
Russian taste in architecture was reflected not only in the nature of the decorations and walls, but also in the general arrangement of buildings. The palace in Pavlovsk, created by the great English master Charles Cameron, goes back to the Palladian type ( V. Taleporovsky, Ch. Cameron, M., 1939; G. Loukomsky, Ch. Cameron, London, 1943; M. Alpatov, Cameron and English classicism. - “Reports and communications of the philological faculty of Moscow University”, I, M., 1846, p. 55.). It is surrounded by an English park. But the location of the palace on a high hill above the Slavyanka River goes back to the ancient Russian tradition. The cubic volume of the building does not suppress the surrounding nature and does not come into conflict with it. It seems to grow out of the soil, like its dome from the cube of a building. Charles Cameron had the opportunity to learn Russian tradition and Russian tastes when, after arriving in Russia, he built a cathedral near Tsarskoe Selo ( S. Bronstein, Architecture of the city of Pushkin, M., 1940, fig. 146, 147.).
Russian classicism XVIII century prefers a freer arrangement of architectural masses than classicism in other European countries. The architectural mass of its buildings gives a more organic and lively impression. The Petit Trianon of A. J. Gabriel forms a cube, clear, balanced and isolated; a graceful cornice separates the top edge from the space. In the Palace of the Legion of Honor by the architect P. Rousseau, the cornice is more emphasized than the dome above it. There is nothing like this in the Pashkov house, created in 1784-1789 by Bazhenov. True, its elegant decoration is reminiscent of the so-called Louis XVI style ( N. Romanov, Western teachers of Bazhenov. - “Academy of Architecture”, 1937, No. 2, p. 16.). But the location of the building on a hill, its slender pyramidal silhouette, emphasized by the side wings, the upward movement of its middle building, and finally, its relief thanks to the belvedere (unfortunately, damaged in the fire of 1812) - all this, rather, goes back to the traditions of folk architecture of Ancient Rus' . IN western architecture In the 18th century one can find palaces with belvederes, but the organic growth of the building does not reach such a force of expression as in the building of Bazhenov and some of his compatriots. Here we also need to recall the works of Bazhenov’s contemporary and friend M. Kazakov. His Church of Metropolitan Philip of 1777-1788 in Moscow, with all the elements of its architecture, belongs to Palladian classicism: a portico, rectangular windows and windows with platbands, and finally, a light rotunda - all this is taken from the repertoire of classical forms. But the silhouette of this temple, its resemblance to a step pyramid, involuntarily makes us recall the Naryshkin churches, which were before the eyes of Moscow architects and always attracted their attention.
Western architects preferred symmetry or at least a stable balance of parts in their buildings. Two identical buildings on the Place de la Concorde in Paris can serve as an example of this. On the contrary, Russian architects of this time often deviated from strict order. The educational home in Moscow, built in 1764-1770 by the architect K. Blank, was conceived in the spirit of the pedagogical ideas of the Enlightenment and, accordingly, had a clear, rational plan. At the same time, the building is strongly stretched along the Moskva River embankment. The smooth white walls above which the tower rises are reminiscent of the monasteries of Ancient Rus', those impregnable fortresses located on the banks of lakes and rivers, with white stone walls and towers at the corners. These features give originality to Russian urban planning of the 18th century: there is less orderliness, balance and symmetry, but more sensitivity to the harmony between the building and the vast expanses of the country and the virgin nature surrounding the cities.
As for sculpture, Russia in the 18th century had no continuous connection with the tradition of the Middle Ages, which in all Western countries played a big role. However, thanks to the diligence of the French sculptor Gillet, a professor at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, a whole galaxy of Russian masters was formed at the end of the 18th century. Falconet's masterpiece Bronze Horseman"also contributed to the development of taste for this type of art. However, Russian masters did not limit themselves to imitation.
In his terracotta sketch “Ajax Saves the Body of Patroclus,” M. Kozlovsky, like many other masters of his time, was inspired by the ancient group “Menelaus with the body of Patroclus” in the Uffizi. But in the work of the Russian master there is not a trace of that sluggish and artificial classicism that was then instilled at the Academy. Ajax's tense body looks stronger in contrast to the body of his dead friend. His sculpting is emphasized. The drama of the hero's situation, saving a friend in the middle of a hot battle, is of a romantic nature. M. Kozlovsky anticipates the sculptural experiments of T. Gericault. It is not surprising that, unlike his contemporaries, Kozlovsky highly valued Michelangelo ( V. Petrov, Sculptor Kozlovsky. - Journal. “Art”, 1954, No. 1, p. 31.). Perhaps the posture of his Ajax indirectly reflected something of the valor of Suvorov’s warriors, which then aroused general admiration, something of that faith in man that underlies the “art of winning” of the great Russian commander.
In the 18th century, the peasant genre nowhere had such a unique character as in Russia. French painter J.-B. Leprince, as a foreign traveler, did not notice the miserable existence of Russian serfs. Internal view The peasant hut in his drawing of the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts looks like a mythological scene in the spirit of Boucher. The hut is spacious and illuminated, like a palace hall, and accordingly, the figures of its inhabitants are easily and gracefully conveyed. We find something completely different in the drawings of I. Ermenev, a Russian draftsman of the 18th century, almost unknown until recently, who has now occupied almost the same place in Russian art as Radishchev in literature ( About Ermenev: “Russian academic art school", M.-L., 1934; "Literary Heritage", vol. XXIX-XXX, M., 1937, p. 385.). (To understand Ermenev’s state of mind, one must remember that when he was in France, he witnessed the storming of the Bastille and captured this event in one of his drawings.) The plight of Russian peasants, the poor, and the blind is expressed by Ermenev with merciless truthfulness. The balance of the composition and the lapidary forms enhance the impact of these drawings, in which the master did not have to resort to the techniques of grotesque and hyperbolization. This artist of the Enlightenment, in essence, anticipated much of what later attracted the Wanderers. His small drawings look like sketches for monumental frescoes. Their power of influence surpasses even the epic images of M. Shibanov in his paintings “Peasant Wedding” and “Peasant Lunch” in the Tretyakov Gallery.
One must assume that D. Diderot would have approved of the portrait of a peasant woman, or rather, the portrait of the serf actress Count Sheremetyev in Russian folk costume(Tretyakov Gallery), since the “social state” of a person is very clearly expressed in it. This creation of the serf artist Ivan Argunov captivates with its deep humanity, which was often lacking in secular portraits ( I. Danilova, Ivan Argunov, M., 1949; T. Selinova, I. P. Argunov. - Magazine “Art”, 1952, September-October.). The cuteness of the young woman, her spiritual purity - all this anticipates the peasant images in Venetsianov and in the novels of Turgenev and Tolstoy. It is necessary to compare this still slightly timid and constrained image of a serf woman with the elegant secular portraits of the 18th century by F. Rokotov and D. Levitsky in order to measure the depth of the abyss that divided the then Russian society.
Canons of a Baroque ceremonial portrait A. P. Antropov (1716 -1795) Portrait of Emperor Peter III 1762 Charles-Joseph Natoire (1700 -1777) Portrait of Louis, Dauphine of France 1747
Variations of the imperial ceremonial portrait A. P. Antropov (1716 -1795) Emperor Peter III against the background of the battle 1762 A. P. Antropov (1716 -1795) Portrait of Emperor Peter III Sketch, 1762
Church (ecclesiastic) portrait A. P. Antropov (1716 -1795) Portrait of an archbishop Portrait of Archbishop S. P. Kulyabka. 1760 Plato (Levshin). 1775 Anton Raphael Mengs (1728 -1779) Portrait of Pope Clement XIII 1758
Allegories of the reign of Catherine II Francesco Fontebasso (1709 -1768/9) Allegory of the accession to the throne of Catherine II 1762 Stefano Torelli (1712 -1780) Allegory of the conquest of the Turks and Tatars by Catherine II Around 1772
Early (student?) work by F. S. Rokotov (1732? 5? -1808) Portrait of Empress Catherine II 1760s. Martin van Meytens (1695 -1770) Portrait of Empress Maria Theresa 1759
Portrait by Rokotov - “Roslin type” F. S. Rokotov (1732? 5? -1808) Portrait of Catherine II 1780 Alexander Roslin (1718 -1793) Portrait of Catherine II. OK. 1780 Drottingholm, royal palace
Portraits of “high-ranking children” Portrait of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich; 1761 F. S. Rokotov (1732? 5? -1808) Portrait of Princess E. B. Yusupova; beginning 1760s
“Hero, drink and caustic time” Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732 -1806) Inspiration Approx. 1769 F. S. Rokotov (1732? 5? -1808) Portrait of the poet V. I. Maykov Approx. 1766 “Then for the sake of glorious deeds from the time of protection, Piitas are born into the world with the heroes, In order to impose shackles on it And to destroy the power of its causticity. So, when the singers sang of heroes, They hoped to live with heroes forever. Forgive me, great husband, you are my weakness, I want to live forever with your glory; When descendants begin to read these poems, Of course, they will remember me with you too.” V. I. Maikov “Message to Count P. I. Rumyantsev”, 1775
“Mysterious hero” of the Enlightenment era F. S. Rokotov (1732? 5? -1808) Portrait of a young man in a cocked hat Early 1770s. Benjamin West (1738 -1820) Self-Portrait 1770
“Eccentric hero” of the Enlightenment era F. S. Rokotov (1732? 5? -1808) Portrait of N. E. Struisky 1772 Joseph Ducrot (1725 -1805) Self-portrait as a scoffer 1789 -91
“Mystery” and coquetry (?) F. S. Rokotov (1732? 5? -1808) Portrait of A. P. Struyskaya 1772 Alexander Roslin (1718 -1793) Portrait of a lady with a veil 1769
Young lady of the “Rococo style” F. S. Rokotov (1732? 5? -1808) Portrait of an unknown woman in a pink dress. 1770s Alexander Roslin (1718 -1793) Portrait of Madame de Lamballe 1770s.
Nude figure in the “Rococo style” F. S. Rokotov (1732? 5? -1808) Nude girl 1770-80s. Francois Boucher (1703 -1770) Toilet of Venus 1740s.
An elderly lady in Russia and France I. P. Argunov (1729 -1802) Portrait of A. A. Lazareva Late 1760s. Louis Toquet (1696 -1772) Portrait of Madame Danget at her needlework 1753
“Natural Man” in the lap of nature Adolf Ulric Wertmüller (1751 -1811) Madame d’O, friend of Queen Marie Antoinette, dressed as a milkmaid. 1787 I. P. Argunov (1729 -1802) Portrait of a young woman in a peasant costume 1784 “The sun ends its circle, spring comes to the meadows, Amuses the creature and renews the light. The snow has disappeared, the zephyr is blowing on the flock: The springs are murmuring, and the lark is singing. Those dearest hours have come, For the shepherd to see the shepherd’s beauty.” A. P. Sumarokov (1717 -1777) Eclogue “Palmyra”, 1787
Eclogue and pastoral on the theater stage N. I. Argunov (1771 -1829?) Actor I. Ya. Yakimov in the role of Cupid 1790 Laurent Pache the Younger (1733 -1805) Actors dancing on stage 1760s.
Status / role self-portrait of the artist D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Self-portrait 1783? (1790s?) Joseph Ducrot (1725 -1805) Self-portrait in a naval uniform 1795
Portrait of an “enlightened ruler” D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Catherine II the legislator in the Temple of Justice. 1783 Pompeo Girolamo Batoni (1708 -1787) Emperor Francis I Stefan, defender of justice. 1768
Aspects of the image of the “enlightened empress” D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Catherine II legislator in the temple of justice. 1783 F. I. Shubin (1740 -1805) Catherine II - legislator 1789 -90 D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of Catherine II (in the form of Minerva). 1780s
Portrait of an enlightened nobleman (I) D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of the architect A. F. Kokorinov 1769 -1770 Anton von Maron (1733 -1808) Portrait of Johann Joachim Winckelmann 1768
Portrait of an enlightened nobleman (II) D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of P. A. Demidov 1773 Jean-Louis de Velli (1730 -1804) Portrait of Count I. I. Shuvalov 1755 -57
“To soften morals and create a new breed of people” D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of F. S. Rzhevskaya and N. M. Davydova 1772 George Romney (1734 -1802) Portrait of the Cumberland girls 1772 -73
Study program at Smolny: dance D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of Ekaterina Nelidova 1773 Jacques-Louis David (1748 -1825) Mademoiselle Gimar as Terpsichore 1773 -74
Study program at Smolny: secular manners D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of Natalia Borschova 1776 Thomas Gainsborough (1727 -1788) Portrait of Giovanna Baccelli 1782
Study program at Smolny: music D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of Glafira Alymova 1776 Pompeo Girolamo Batoni (1708 -1787) Princess Hyacinth Orsini Buoncampagni Ludovisi. 1770s
Study program at Smolny: natural science D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of Ekaterina Molchanova 1776 Jacques-Louis David (1748 -1825) Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier with his wife 1788
Enlightened leadership of the “free arts” D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of Count I. I. Shuvalov 1780s. Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723 -1792) Self-portrait as President of the Royal Academy of Arts 1773
Reason and feelings in the “enlightened life” (I) D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of Ursula Mnischek 1782 Joseph Ducrot (1725 -1805) Portrait of Queen Marie Antoinette 1782
Play and passion in the “enlightened life” D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of the actress Anna Davia Bernuzzi 1782 Thomas Gainsborough (1727 -1788) Portrait of the actress Sarah Siddons 1783 -85
Reason and feelings in the “enlightened life” (II) D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of A. D. Lansky 1782 Johann Baptist Lampi (1751 -1830) Portrait of His Serene Highness Prince G. A. Potemkin-Tavrichesky. 1792
Enlightened mind: philosopher D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of Denis Diderot (?) 1773 -74 Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732 -1806) Portrait of Denis Diderot Ok. 1769
Enlightened mind: mystic D. G. Levitsky (1735 -1822) Portrait of N. I. Novikov 1797 (?) Carl Frederick von Breda (1759 -1818) Portrait of Emmanuel Swedenborg 1817
E. -M. Falconet - the main artist of the Sevres manufactory Etienne-Maurice Falconet (1716 -1791) Allegory of winter Cupid shaking a finger Flora 1771 1757 1750s.
“Sculptural allegory of the Russian Enlightenment” Marie-Anne Collot (1748 -1821) Head of Peter I Bas-relief of Peter I 1767 1769 -70 Etienne-Maurice Falconet (1716 -1791) Monument to Peter I on Senate Square 1766 -1782
“Enlightenment allegory” in the urban environment “The grand opening of the monument to Peter I on August 18, 1782” Engraving by A. Melnikov (1830) based on a drawing by A. F. Davydov; 1782 ↖ Unknown artist Transportation of the “Thunder-Stone” (November 1769 – February 1770) Colorized engraving, 1780s. ← Benjamin Patersen (1748 -1815) View of Senate Square and the monument to Peter I. 1799
Catherine's courtyard - in sculpture F. I. Shubin (1740 -1805) Portrait of a field marshal Portrait of the Secretary of State, Chief Chamberlain Portrait of P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky A. A. Bezborodko M. V. Lomonosov 1778 1798 1792
Allegory of art: “the painter is the monkey of God” I. I. Firsov (c. 1733 -1785) Young painter After 1765 Jean-Baptiste Simeon Chardin (1699 -1779) Monkey-painter Paris, 1740
Didactic “everyday scene” ← I. F. Tupylev (1758 -1821) Prankster game 1790s Georges de La Tour (1593 -1672) Fraud with the Ace of Diamonds. 1635 -47 Michelangelo da Caravaggio (1571 -1610) Card swindlers. 1596.
“The reverse side” of the Enlightenment (I) ← Unknown artist Portrait of D. -A. -F. de Sade Early 1760s Unknown artist Portrait of A. N. Radishchev (1749 -1802) Around 1790 Donatien-Alphonse-François Marquis de Sade (1740 -1814) First edition of the novel “Justine, or the Misfortunes of Virtue” (Amsterdam/Paris, 1791)
“The Reverse Side” of the Enlightenment (II) Jean-François Turcati (1763 -?) Jean-Paul Marat on the podium From the original by S. Petit; OK. 1792 Unknown artist Portrait of E. I. Pugachev (c. 1742 -1775) Approx. 1775 -80 G. -H. Siewking (1751 -1799) Execution of King Louis XVI on January 21, 1793 Colored engraving, 1793
“Natural man” is immersed in nature (I) V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Catherine II on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo Park. 1794 Francois Boucher (1703 -1770) Jeanne-Atnoinette Poisson, Marquise de Pompadour. 1759
“Natural man” is immersed in nature (II) V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Catherine II on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo park. 1790s Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun (1755 -1842) Queen Marie Antoinette with a rose in her hand. 1783
New “canon of sentimental portrait” V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Portrait of E. N. Arsenyeva. OK. 1795 Portrait of Skobeeva. OK. 1795
Sentimentalism or Empire style? (I) V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Portrait of M. I. Lopukhina 1797 Jacques-Louis David (1748 -1825) Portrait of an unknown young lady 1798 
“Natural man” is immersed in nature (III) V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Portrait of D. A. Derzhavina 1813 Antoine-Jean Gros (1771 -1835) Portrait of Christine Boyer Ok. 1800
“The Beginning of Russian Orientalism” V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Murtaza Quli Khan, brother of the Persian Shah Agha Mohammed. 1796 Jacques-André-Joseph Aved (1702 -1766) Pasha Mehmed Said, ambassador of the Turkish Sultan to France. 1742
The image of the military hero Antoine-Jean Gros (1771 -1835) General Bonaparte on the Arcole Bridge. 1796 V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Portrait of General F. A. Borovsky 1799 “Like a storm, gloomy lightning, Flapping wings of noise in the ravine, The Russians rushed to battle again. Their spear does not know rest, Their chests rise from the frequent puff, Sweat and blood flow from them in a stream” V.P. Petrov (1736 -1799) “Ode on the Capture of Ishmael” (1790)
Lady's “empire” portrait (I) V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Portrait of E. V. Rodzianko 1821 Jean-Auguste-Domenic Ingres (1780 -1867) Portrait of Madame Leblanc 1823
Lady's “empire” portrait (II) V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Portrait of Madame A. -L. -AND. de Stael Around 1812 Jacques-Louis David (1748 -1825) Portrait of Madame Henriette de Verignac 1802
Stability of the canon of a ceremonial portrait V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Portrait of Prince A. B. Kurakin, vice-chancellor of the court of Paul I 1801 -02 Antoine-Jean Gros (1771 -1835) J. -C. -M. Duroc, Duke of Friulia, Marshal of the Court of Napoleon I 1804
Stability of the canon of the “most august” portrait (I) V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Portrait of Emperor Paul I 1800 Robert Lefebvre (1755 -1830) Coronation portrait of Napoleon I 1804
Ascetic (quasi-romantic?) portrait of S. S. Shchukin (1762 -1828) Portrait of Emperor Paul I 1797 -99 Antoine-Jean Gros (1771 -1835) Bonaparte - first consul 1802
Stability of the canon of the “most august” portrait (II) V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Portrait of Emperor Alexander I 1807 -08 Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769 -1830) Portrait of George IV, King of England 1820
Religious painting of the Enlightenment V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 -1825) Virgin and Child with Angels ← 1823 Dead Christ in the tomb 1824 -25 ↓ Jacques-Louis David (1748 -1825) Crucified Christ 1782
The general concept of “Enlightenment”: the era of rationalism, belief in the omnipotence of reason, “encyclopedism,” “enlightened monarchy.” Empress Catherine II (1762-1769), her cultural policy, patronage of the arts and sciences. New charter of the Academy of Arts, building of the Academy (architects A.F. Kokorinov and J.-B. Vallin-Delamott; 1764-1788). The most important portrait painters: painter F.S. Rokotov (1735?-1808), master of psychological characterization: “Portrait of the poet V.I. Maykova" (c. 1765); "Portrait of A.P. Struyskoy" (1772); “Portrait of Countess E.V. Santi" (1785). -Painter D.G. Levitsky (1735-1822), author of program works: “Catherine II the Legislator” (with variants, 1783), a series of portraits of students of the Smolny Institute - “Smolyans” E.I. Nelidova (1773), E.N. Khrushchova and E.N. Khovanskaya (1773), G.I. Alymova (1776; the entire series is in the State Russian Museum). Stylistic features of “Enlightenment” ceremonial portraits. - Sculptor EM. Falcone (1716-1791): monument to Peter I in St. Petersburg = “Bronze Horseman” (portrait head executed by M.-A. Callot; 1782). - Painter V.L. Borovikovsky (1757-1825), creator of the “sentimental” trend in the portrait genre: “natural man in the lap of nature.” “Catherine II on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo Park” (with variants, 1794-1800s), “Portrait of M.I. Lopukhina" (1797); “Portrait of Countess A. Bezborodko with her daughters” (1803), “Portrait of Emperor Paul I in the vestments of the Grand Master of the Order of Malta” (1800). Religious painting by Borovikovsky. Russian art and the “later” European Enlightenment - related features and differences.
Literature
Alekseeva T.V. Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky and Russian culture at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. - M.: Art, 1975;
Gershenzon-Chegodaeva N.M. Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky. - M.: Art, 1964;
Evangulova O.S., Karev A.A. Portraiture of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. - M.: Art, 1994;
Kuznetsov S. Unknown Levitsky. Portrait work of the painter in the context of St. Petersburg myth. - St. Petersburg: Logos, 1996;
Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky 1735 - 1822. Catalog [exhibitions from the collection of the State Russian Museum]. - L.: Art, 1987;
Moleva N.M. Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky. - M.: Art, 1980;
Russia - France: Age of Enlightenment. Russian-French cultural relations in the 18th century [Exhibition catalogue]. - L.: publishing house State Hermitage, 1987.
Topic 6. Russian Academy of Arts at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries: principles of education, normative aesthetics, system of genres
St. Petersburg Academy of Arts is an educational institution and a stronghold of “normative aesthetics.” Art as an exceptional creation of beauty: “An artist who wants to make his work elegant must try to surpass the substance itself with the image of mental beauty” (from “Discourse” by P.P. Chekalevsky, 1792). Students' orientation towards the idealization of nature: an “anatomizing” view ( écorche), the use of motifs and poses of ancient sculpture, copying paintings by masters of the Renaissance and classicism of the 17th century. The importance of the “moral super task”; hierarchy of genres; the meaning of historical and mythological painting. - A.P. Losenko (1737-1773), founder of the historical genre in Russian painting. Losenko's training in Russia, France and Italy; the most important works: “The Sacrifice of Abraham” (1765), “Zeus and Thetis” (1769). The painting “Vladimir and Rogneda” (1770) is the first work based on a plot from national history. Other works: “Hector and Andromache” (1773); portraits of Losenko.
Other academic historical painters and their works: P.I. Sokolov (1753-1791) “Mercury and Argus” (1776), “Venus and Adonis” (1782); - G.I. Ugryumov (1764-1823) “Test of the strength of Jan Usmar” (1796), “The calling of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov to the kingdom” (1797-99); - A.I. Ivanov (1776-1848)“The Feat of a Young Kievite” (c. 1810), “The Duel of Prince Mstislav the Udal with Rededey” (1812); - A.E. Egorov (1776-1851)“The Torment of the Savior” (1814): the use of ancient “visual codes” to idealize/glorify characters. The significance of the works of these authors; general conclusion about the “academic approach” to representation and artistic heritage.
Academic sculpture (brief description). M.I. Kozlovsky (1753-1802) “Monument to A.V. Suvorov" (1799-1801): the commander is depicted as the god of war, Mars; - I.P. Martos (1754-1835) “Monument to Minin and Pozharsky” in Moscow (1804-1818): ancient stylization/heroization; - IN AND. Demut-Malinovsky (1784-1833)“The Russian Scaevola” (1813): the national hero is presented as a Roman character. Ancient heroes B.I. Orlovsky (1797-1837): “Paris” (1824), “Faun playing the syringa” (1825-1838).
Literature
Daniel S. European classicism. - St. Petersburg: ABC-classic, 2003;
Kaganovich A.L. Anton Losenko and Russian art of the mid-18th century. - M.: Art, 1963;
Karev A. Classicism in Russian painting. - M.: White city, 2003;
Kovalenskaya N.N. Russian classicism: painting, sculpture, graphics. - M.: Art, 1964;
Moleva N., Belyutin E. Pedagogical system of the Academy of Arts of the 18th century. - M.: Art, 1956;
Moleva N., Belyutin E. Russian art school of the first half of the 19th century. - M.: Art, 1963.
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Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education
Russian State University of Justice
Central branch
Faculty of Continuing Education for the Training of Specialists for the Judicial System
Department of General Educational Disciplines
Essay
By academic subject: "Culturology"
On the topic: “Architecture and fine arts of the Enlightenment”
Completed by: 1st year student of group 102
Voronova Yu.S.
Scientific supervisor: Art. teacher
Kolupaeva E.A.
Voronezh, 2015
Introduction
Chapter 1. Architecture of the Age of Enlightenment
1.1 Architecture of the Enlightenment in Europe
1.2 Baroque architecture
1.3 Classicism style in architecture
1.4 Architecture of the Age of Enlightenment in Russia
Chapter 2. Fine art of the era of enlightenment
2.1 Fine art of the Enlightenment in Europe
2.2 Fine art of the Enlightenment in Russia
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Relevance. The Enlightenment movement was pan-European, but it originated and became most effective in France, where a new ideology, a new morality and a new aesthetics ultimately led to the devastating consequences of the Great French Revolution.
Enlighteners considered the driving force of the historical process to be the struggle between reason and superstition. The formation of personality is decisively influenced by the social and natural (geographical) environment, and the feudal public order, its political institutions, legal and moral norms are destructive for humans. Social well-being, in their opinion, was hampered by ignorance, superstition, and prejudices generated by feudal orders and the spiritual dictatorship of the church. That is why Voltaire hated the church so furiously. His phrase: “Crush the reptile!” became winged. The mind was declared to be the most powerful tool for transforming the world around us.
The key principle of the political program of the Enlightenment was the law, which automatically assumed the existence of Freedom, Equality, and Fraternity. The enlighteners understood freedom as voluntary submission to the law. Equality is the equal right before the law of every person from the shepherd to the king. The brotherhood had a purely emotional sound. Subject to the rule of law, the form of state power was not of fundamental importance for the enlighteners. “The best government is one in which only laws are obeyed,” wrote Voltaire in his Philosophical Letters.
The desire to have a direct influence on the minds, characteristic of the figures of the Enlightenment, determined the emphasized journalistic nature of their work and its edifying tone. Enlightenment scholars recognized the enormous role of art in public life, seeing in it perhaps the most important means of enlightenment. The principle of “educating while entertaining,” which has existed in aesthetics since antiquity, received a new interpretation from enlighteners: literature and art are called upon not only to instruct, but also to educate, to form a person in the ideals of reason.
As for Russia, in Russia the Age of Enlightenment occupies mainly the 18th century, when the government actively promoted the development of sciences and arts. During this period, the first Russian universities, libraries, theater, public museums and a relatively independent press emerged. The greatest contribution to the Russian Enlightenment belongs to Catherine the Great, who, like other enlightened monarchs, played a key role in supporting the arts, sciences and education. Although in Russia, as in other European countries, significant changes occurred during this era, the difference between Russia and the Western Enlightenment is that here not only did there not be a shift in public opinion towards the development of liberal ideas, but on the contrary, they were met with extreme wary. The Russian nobility in particular resisted attacks on serfdom. However, the Pugachev uprising and the Great French revolution and in Russia they gave rise to illusions of impending political changes and influenced significant influence on the intellectual development of society. Russia's place in the world in this era was actively discussed by Denis Fonvizin, Mikhail Shcherbatov, Andrei Bolotov, Ivan Boltin and Alexander Radishchev. Subsequently, these discussions gave rise to a split in Russian society into Westerners and Slavophiles.
Purpose of the study: Study the architecture and fine arts of the Age of Enlightenment.
Itemresearch: Architecture and fine arts of the Age of Enlightenment.
Chapter1. Architecture of the Age of Enlightenment
1.1 Architecture of the Age of Enlightenment in Europe
European culture of the Enlightenment gave us two great styles through which the self-expression of the fundamental ideas of that time took place. These great movements were Baroque and Classicism. What they have in common is that the basis on which they appeared was the Renaissance. But at the same time, both styles received completely different figurative and ideological foundations. Both Baroque and Classicism had a strong influence on various areas of culture - literature, painting, architecture, music, theater.
1.2 Baroque architecture
The transition from the Renaissance to the Baroque was due to the deep religious and spiritual crisis that gripped the continent as a result of the Reformation. Italy at that time was weak and fragmented, and its nobility, primarily religious, did not have enough funds to build new palaces. The emerging movement known as the Counter-Reformation sought to restore the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Due to lack of funds, Special attention architects switched to rich decoration of existing temples.
Gradually, mainly in the north of Italy, the Baroque architectural style was formed. It had its roots in Renaissance architecture, but significantly surpassed it in picturesqueness and diversity. Straight lines here gave way to broken and winding ones (hence the name of the style - “pretentious”, “curl”). Sophisticated decorations - statues, stucco moldings, flowerpots - became indispensable attributes of the style. Thanks to the play of chiaroscuro and countless reflections in many mirrors, the illusion of expanding space was created. Buildings built in this style are characterized by profiled facade cornices, columns, pilasters and half-columns several stories high, and concave or convex sculptural details. All these elements make the building look alive and moving. There are no independent details, but everything is subordinated to the architectural ensemble. Baroque principles spread to urban architectural and landscape planning.
The most famous buildings in the Baroque style were: the creation of Lorenzo Bernini - the ensemble of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in the Vatican, and in absolutist France - the Palace of Versailles with a park ensemble.
1.3 Classicism style in architecture
Classicism arose only a little later than the Baroque, and its very emergence was caused by an attempt to challenge the ideas and principles preached by the Baroque style. It reflected the demands of the emerging bourgeois class and its inherent philosophy of rationalism. The preachers of classicism believed that the Baroque was “wrong,” unclear and confusing from the point of view of the clearly formulated and balanced norms of ancient classics. Masters of art who worked in the style of classicism, following the geniuses of the Renaissance, sought to revive the style of ancient Greece. Everything was performed according to classical canons, order was strictly observed.
Classical architecture is personified by a Greek facade with a triangular pediment or a portico with columns. The body of the building is block-shaped, divided by pilasters and cornices. Columns not only decorate the walls, but also carry the load of the beam system. The decor is moderate, without baroque pomp. Symmetry reigns everywhere. Massive urban planning projects of that time were implemented in Europe in the style of classicism. Their motto was large-scale construction without masterpieces; the goal is to build buildings of different functionality, and not just temples and palaces; approach - rationality and laconicism.
1.4 Architecture of the Age of Enlightenment in Russia
The Age of Enlightenment in Russian architecture and urban planning is considered important and significant. It is characterized by three movements - Baroque, Rococo and Classicism, which appeared successively during the 18th century. During this period, new cities appeared, objects were created that in our time are considered recognized historical and architectural monuments.
Despite the fact that the death of Peter I was a great loss for the state, it no longer had a significant impact on the development of urban planning and architecture of that period. Russian architects working in St. Petersburg under the supervision of foreigners adopted their experience, and those who were sent to study abroad also returned to their homeland. The country at that time had strong personnel. The leading Russian architects of that period were Eropkin, Usov, Korobov, Zemtsov, Michurin, Blank and others.
The style characteristic of this period is called Rococo and is a combination of Baroque and emerging classicism. It shows gallantry and confidence. Rococo is more typical for interior solutions of that time. In the construction of buildings, the pomp and pomp of Baroque is still noted, and the strict and simple features of classicism begin to appear.
This period, which coincided with the reign of Peter's daughter Elizabeth, is marked by the work of Rastrelli the son. Brought up on Russian culture, in his works he demonstrated not only the brilliance and luxury of palace architecture, but also an understanding of the Russian character, Russian nature. His projects, together with the work of his contemporaries Kvasov, Chevakinsky, Ukhtomsky, organically fit into the history of Russian architecture of the 18th century. With the light hand of Rastrelli, domed compositions began to appear not only in the capital, but also in other Russian cities, gradually replacing spire-shaped ones. The pomp and scale of his palace ensembles have no analogues in Russian history. But with all the recognition and luxury, the art of Rastrelli and his contemporaries did not last long, and in the second half of the 18th century it was replaced by a wave of classicism. During this period, the most large-scale projects were created - a new master plan for St. Petersburg and a redevelopment project for Moscow.
In Russian architecture in the last third of the 18th century, the features of a new direction began to appear, which was later called Russian classicism. By the end of the century, classicism was firmly established as the main direction of art and architecture. This trend is characterized by the rigor of ancient forms, simplicity and rationality of designs. In contrast to the buildings in the Baroque style that filled St. Petersburg and its environs, classicism most manifested itself in Moscow buildings of that time. Among many, it is worth noting the Pashkov house, the Senate building, the Tsaritsyn complex, the Golitsyn house, the Razumovsky palace, which are considered the most striking examples of classicism in architecture. In St. Petersburg at that time the Tauride Palace, the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, the Marble Palace, the Hermitage, the Hermitage Theater, and the Academy of Sciences were being built. Outstanding architects of that time, Kazakov, Bazhenov, Ukhtomsky and many others are rightfully considered.
baroque classicism fine arts
Chapter 2.Fine art of the age of enlightenment
2.1 Fine art of the Enlightenment in Europe
It is no coincidence that the 17th century (the century of the Enlightenment in Europe) is sometimes called the century of painting. It was during this period that unsurpassed masterpieces of European painting were created - just remember the paintings of Rembrandt and Velazquez, Hals and Rubens, Poussin and Caravaggio. The main thing in this unprecedented flowering of art is the previously unimaginable expansion of the possibilities of painting, an active attitude towards reality, the depth of psychological penetration into inner world person.
One of the main themes of the art of the 17th century is man, the formation of his character in a struggle that knew both the highest ups and defeats. In it, a person learned his strengths and revealed his best qualities. This central problem was solved in different types of art, but, above all, in literature and painting.
In the 17th century, the problem became of great importance artistic style. If at previous stages of the development of art a style could exist due to its stability and refinement for an extremely long time, now, within one century, several styles are born and coexist. Thus, in the 17th century, two leading styles of the era emerged simultaneously and developed in parallel - Baroque and Classicism. The fact that in a number of countries Baroque became more widespread than classicism, which dominated mainly in France, is explained by the peculiarities historical development these countries, but by no means, classicism compared to baroque. Moreover, the extraordinary breadth of coverage of life phenomena that had previously remained outside the boundaries of art, as well as the variety of new artistic means, no longer made it possible to express the entire artistic content of the era within the framework of only two styles. For the first time in history, artistic phenomena arise that cannot be attributed to either of the two main stylistic movements and which form, as it is sometimes called, an extra-left line.
The Baroque style, which emerged at the beginning of the 17th century, unlike classicism, did not have its own detailed aesthetic theory. It is still unclear even the meaning of this word, which began to be used in the 18th century. For Baroque art, striving to create big style, was characterized by the idea of the world as a kind of cosmic unity, a powerful element that unites heaven and earth, gods and people and is in constant movement and change. The compositions of baroque paintings are imbued with increased dynamics. All forms are in rapid motion, human emotions are always elevated, and passions sometimes border on effect. Baroque painting is characterized by a certain theatricality.
As for classicism, this style gave preference to plastic and linear-graphic principles. The attitude of classicism to color and picturesqueness is perfectly expressed by Poussin’s brief definition, which sounds like an aphorism: ... colors in painting are like bait.
It would be naive and incorrect to contrast baroque and classicism, both of these styles, with the art of the so-called extra-left line from the point of view of their more or less progressiveness, realism and artistic significance. Each of them reflected different, but very significant aspects of reality and made their contribution to the history of art. And yet the emergence of a leftist line was something fundamentally new. It testified to the extraordinary expansion of the possibilities of art, to the inclusion in its sphere of such life phenomena that could no longer be reflected within the framework of canonized forms of artistic generalization, which is essentially any stylistic system. A variety of artists can be attributed to this extra-left line - from Rembrandt and Velazquez to small or French masters of the peasant genre. And there is one more feature of the art of the 17th century, which previous eras did not know - the simultaneous development of art in several countries at once, the absence of national isolation, the strengthening in comparison with the past of what in modern language is usually called “cultural contacts” (communication between artists of different countries, training and trips to other countries, etc.)
2.2 Fine art of the Enlightenment in Russia
The 18th century is an important milestone in the development of Russian culture. The reforms of Peter I affected all layers of society and all aspects of the life of the Russian state. City and country royal residences and palaces of the nobility began to be decorated with round easel sculpture, decorative sculptures and portrait busts. Without waiting for the personnel to be formed domestic school, Peter ordered to buy abroad antique statues and works of modern sculpture. Russian youths went to Europe to study the art of sculpture.
At the beginning of the 18th century. Monumental and decorative sculpture became especially widespread. At this time, high relief is often found, and one in which plastic volumes were strongly separated from the background. In those cases when masters created bas-relief, they willingly used the type of so-called pictorial relief, in which, like in paintings, plans alternate, a perspective reduction of objects is conveyed, and landscape elements are used. Purely ornamental compositions are solved most flatly.
All this can be seen in the example of the sculptural decorations of the Dubrovitsky Church (1690-1704) and the Menshikov Tower (1701-1707) in Moscow, the elegant carved decoration of Peter’s office in the Great Palace of Peterhof, executed in 1718-1721. Nicola Pino, bas-reliefs on the walls of the Summer Palace in St. Petersburg (1710-1714), allegorically depicting the events of the Northern War. Their author, the outstanding German sculptor and architect Andreas Schlüter, died just six months after his arrival in St. Petersburg and, naturally, did not have time to create anything more during this period.
A unique branch of sculpture, in particular decorative sculpture, is the carving of wooden iconostases, altar vestibules, etc. Particularly noteworthy are the works of Ivan Petrovich Zarudny, who was also involved in painting and architecture.
With advances in the field of decorative plastics, serious progress is being made in the development of sculptural miniatures. In the 40s, thanks to the efforts of the prominent Russian scientist D.I. Vinogradov, a friend of M.V. Lomonosov, a porcelain factory was founded in St. Petersburg, the third in Europe in terms of its establishment. In 1766 Gardner's private plant opens in Verbilki near Moscow. These factories, along with dishes, snuff boxes and other household items, also produced works of small plastic art that attracted attention with their grace.
An exceptional contribution to Russian culture in the mid-century was made by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, who revived the art of mosaic, already known by the masters of Kievan Rus. The secrets of making smalts - colored glassy masses of various shades - were kept in strict confidence in Western Europe. To obtain smalts, Lomonosov had to develop the technology and technique for their production. The richest “palette” of glass colors, not inferior in strength and beauty to those famous in the 18th century. Italian smalts, was obtained by scientists at a factory in Ust-Ruditsa near St. Petersburg after conducting more than four thousand experimental melts. In 1758 M.V. Lomonosov submitted to the competition, organized by the Senate on his initiative, a project for a monument to Peter I in the Peter and Paul Cathedral, where the emperor is buried.
Wide opportunities to use their strengths and abilities attracted people to Russia a large number of foreigners - artists, sculptors, architects, etc. Many beautiful foreign masters entered the history of Russian art by participating in the artistic life of Russia and being engaged in teaching activities here.
Second half of the 18th century. - a period of high rise of sculpture. All its main types are developing: relief, statue, portrait bust, along with monumental and decorative works, easel works also become favorites.
In the Russian province, sculpture in its composition and features differed from the sculpture of St. Petersburg and Moscow. The estates of the aristocracy only occasionally contained works by famous metropolitan masters. The bulk of the works belonged to local sculptors, mainly wood carvers, and, as a rule, were of a clearly decorative nature (architectural details, carvings of iconostases).
Floral ornamental motifs, gilding and bright colors of wood-carved forms were abundantly used. Many museums contain round sculpture of a religious nature: numerous versions of statues on the themes “Christ in prison,” “Crucifixion,” etc. Some of them, dating back to the 18th century, are primitive in nature and stylistically go back to the most ancient layers of Russian artistic culture. Other works, also from the 18th century, speak of familiarity with the works of professional sculptors of the first half of the 18th century. or even early classicism.
Monuments of fine folklore are of great interest and aesthetic value. These are plastically designed household items of the Russian peasantry (carved wooden products, ceramics, toys, etc.)
XVIII century - this is the heyday of portraiture. The artistic line of Russian portraiture has retained its originality, but at the same time adopted the best Western traditions.
In the art of the 18th century. The image of nature acquires independence. Landscape is developing as a separate genre, where prominent masters were Semyon Shchedrin, Mikhail Ivanov, Fyodor Alekseev. The first two often depicted the environs of Tsarskoe Selo, Pavlovsk, Gatchina, and conveyed impressions of travel in Italy, Switzerland, and Spain. Alekseev, who studied at Imperial Academy arts, and then improved in Venice. “View of the Palace Embankment and the Peter and Paul Fortress” is one of his most famous paintings, which conveys the expanses of the Neva banks, the varied play of light on the water, and the austere beauty of the palaces of classical architecture.
End of the 18th century marked by the appearance of large works of Russian academic painting. One of the richest art collections in the world is being formed - the Hermitage. It is based on a private collection of paintings by Western European masters (since 1764) of Catherine II. Opened to the public in 1852.
For Russian culture of the 18th century. became a period of development of secular art, a stage of accumulation of creative forces. Russian painting was not only not inferior to European, but also reached its peak. The canvases of the great portrait painters - Rokotov, Levitsky, Borovikovsky - clearly outlined the achievements along this path and influenced the further fruitful growth of the Russian art school.
Conclusion
During the Age of Enlightenment, the transition to modern culture. Was taking shape new image life and thinking, which means that the artistic self-awareness of a new type of culture also changed. The name “Enlightenment” well characterizes the general spirit of this movement in the field of cultural and spiritual life, which sets itself the goal of replacing views based on religious or political authorities with those resulting from the requirements of the human mind.
Theater in England Theater audiences of the 18th century. has become much more democratic. Simple benches were installed in the stalls for the townspeople. The racks were filled with servants, students and small craft people. During the performances, the audience behaved very actively, reacting animatedly to what was shown on stage. Thus, in England, the theater of the Enlightenment criticized the vices of the emerging bourgeois system.
The process of democratization of society during the Enlightenment brought to life a new dramatic genre - bourgeois drama, the creators of which in France were D. Diderot, M. J. Seden, L. S. Mercier. The petty-bourgeois drama marked the victory of educational realism, bringing the themes of dramatic works closer to everyday reality. The main content of the new genre was criticism of the vices of noble society, contrasting them with the ideals of the third estate. However, endowing their positive hero - the bourgeois - with high civic and moral virtues, playwrights and educators introduced into their works. Features of idyllicity and didacticism. The French artist Jean Baptiste Greuze also consistently used art as a means moral education person. All of the painter’s genre compositions, not without reason, seem boring to the modern viewer, and his paintings are edifying. IN famous works“The Paralytic”, “The Spoiled Child”, “A Visit to the Priest”, Grez’s main attention is paid to a detailed narrative, from which morality must necessarily follow.
The Enlightenment of England looks different. Not one of the European styles existed in the art of this country in its pure form, since all of them came to English soil much later than to other countries. Therefore, the features of Baroque (a style in European art of the late 16th - mid-18th centuries) and classicism could be originally intertwined in the work of one architect or artist. For English art typical great attention to a person’s emotional life, a constant search for means that could express the complex and changing world of feelings and sensations. All this was brilliantly embodied in portraiture. Another, no less important feature of English artistic culture is its keen attention to problems of ethics and morality. One of the leading genres in painting has become the everyday genre, which has acquired a bright satirical coloring. The feeling of the originality of national culture was very important for the English enlighteners: it aroused the desire to go their own way in everything, and the experience of European painting was often perceived critically
Bibliography
1. Cultural studies. History of world culture: Textbook for universities/Ed. prof. A.N. Markova. -- 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITY, 2000. - 600 p.
2. Evsina N.A. Russian architecture in the era of Catherine II./Evsina N.A. --M.: Nauka, 1994. --223 p.
3. Zamyatin D. N. Culture and space: modeling of geographical images. / Zamyatin D. N. - M.: Znak, 2006. 488 p.
4. Horkheimer M., Adorno T. Dialectics of Enlightenment. Philosophical fragments./ Horkheimer M., Adorno T. -M.; St. Petersburg: Medium, Yuventa, 1997. 54 p.
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