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Content
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………3
XIXcentury……………………………………………………………..6
General characteristics aesthetics of romanticism…………………………….6
Features of Romanticism in Germany……………………………………...10
2.1. General characteristics of the category of tragic…………………………….13
Chapter 3. Criticism of Romanticism……………………………………………………………...33
3.1. The critical position of Georg Friedrich Hegel……………………………..
3.2. The critical position of Friedrich Nietzsche…………………………………..
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………
Bibliography………………………………………………………
Introduction
Relevance This study lies, firstly, in the perspective of considering the problem. The work combines the analysis of worldview systems and the creativity of two outstanding representatives German romanticism from different spheres of culture: Johann Wolfgang Goethe and Arthur Schopenhauer. This, according to the author, is the element of novelty. The study makes an attempt to combine the ideological foundations and works of two famous personalities based on the predominance of the tragic orientation of their thinking and creativity.
Secondly, the relevance of the chosen topic lies inthe degree of study of the problem. There are many major studies on German romanticism, as well as on the tragic in different spheres of life, but the topic of the tragic in German romanticism is represented mainly by small articles and individual chapters in monographs. Therefore, this area has not been thoroughly studied and is of interest.
Thirdly, the relevance of this work lies in the fact that the research problem is considered from different positions: not only representatives of the era of romanticism are characterized, proclaiming romantic aesthetics with their ideological positions and creativity, but also criticism of romanticism by G.F. Hegel and F. Nietzsche.
Target research - identify specific features the philosophy of art of Goethe and Schopenhauer, as representatives of German romanticism, taking as a basis the tragic orientation of their worldview and creativity.
Tasks research:
Identify common characteristic features of romantic aesthetics.
Reveal specific features German romanticism.
Show the change in the immanent content of the category of tragic and its understanding in different historical eras.
To identify the specific manifestations of the tragic in the culture of German romanticism using the example of a comparison of ideological systems and the creativity of two major representatives of German cultureXIXcentury.
To identify the limits of romantic aesthetics, considering the problem through the prism of the views of G.F. Hegel and F. Nietzsche.
Object of study is the culture of German romanticism,subject - mechanism of the constitution of romantic art.
Research sources are:
Monographs and articles on romanticism and its manifestations in GermanyXIXcentury: Asmus V., “Musical aesthetics of philosophical romanticism”, Berkovsky N.Ya., “Romanticism in Germany”, Vanslov V.V., “Aesthetics of romanticism”, Lucas F.L., “The decline and collapse of the romantic ideal”, "Musical aesthetics of GermanyXIXcentury", in 2 volumes, comp. Mikhailov A.V., Shestakov V.P., Solleritinsky I.I., “Romanticism, its general and musical aesthetics", Teteryan I.A., "Romanticism as an integral phenomenon."
Works of the studied personalities: Hegel G.F. “Lectures on Aesthetics”, “On the Essence of Philosophical Criticism”; Goethe I.V., “The Sorrows of Young Werther”, “Faust”; Nietzsche F., “The Fall of Idols”, “Beyond Good and Evil”, “The Birth of the Tragedy of Their Spirit of Music”, “Schopenhauer as an Educator”; Schopenhauer A., “The World as Will and Representation” in 2 volumes, “Thoughts”.
Monographs and articles dedicated to the personalities under study: Antiks A.A., “Goethe’s creative path”, Vilmont N.N., “Goethe. The story of his life and work,” Gardiner P., “Arthur Schopenhauer. Philosopher of German Hellenism”, Pushkin V.G., “Hegel’s philosophy: the absolute in man”, Sokolov V.V., “Historical and philosophical concept of Hegel”, Fischer K., “Arthur Schopenhauer”, Eckerman I.P., “ Conversations with Goethe in the last years of his life."
Textbooks on the history and philosophy of science: Kanke V.A., “Main philosophical directions and concepts of science”, Koir A.V., “Essays on the history of philosophical thought. On the influence of philosophical concepts on development scientific theories", Kuptsov V.I., "Philosophy and methodology of science", Lebedev S.A., "Fundamentals of the philosophy of science", Stepin V.S., "Philosophy of science. General problems: a textbook for graduate students and candidates for the academic degree of candidate of sciences."
Reference literature: Lebedev S.A., “Philosophy of Science: Dictionary of Basic Terms”, “Modern Western Philosophy. Dictionary", comp. Malakhov V.S., Filatov V.P., “Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary”, comp. Averintseva S.A., “Aesthetics. Theory of literature. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Terms", comp. Borev Yu.B.
Chapter 1. General characteristics of the aesthetics of romanticism and its manifestations in Germany XIX century.
General characteristics of the aesthetics of romanticism
Romanticism is an ideological and artistic movement in European culture, which embraced all forms of art and science, and flourished at the end ofXVIII– beginningXIXcentury. The term “romanticism” itself has a complex history. In the Middle Ages the word "romance" meant national languages formed from the Latin language. Terms "enromancier», « romancar" And "romanz” meant writing books in the national language or translating them into the national language. INXVIIcentury the English word "romance"was understood as something fantastic, bizarre, chimerical, too exaggerated, and its semantics was negative. In French varied "romanesque"(also with a negative connotation) and "romantic”, which meant “tender”, “soft”, “sentimental”, “sad”. In England in this sense the word was used inXVIIIcentury. In Germany the word "romantic» used inXVIIcentury in the French sense "romanesque", and from the middleXVIIIcenturies in the meaning of “soft”, “sad”.
The concept of “romanticism” is also polysemantic. According to the American scientist A.O. Lovejoy, the term has so many meanings that it means nothing, it is both irreplaceable and useless; and F.D. Lucas, in his book The Decline and Fall of the Romantic Ideal, counted 11,396 definitions of romanticism.
The first to use the term "romantic"in literature by F. Schlegel, and in relation to music - E.T. A. Hoffman.
Romanticism was generated by a combination of many reasons, both socio-historical and intra-artistic. The most important among them was the impact of the new historical experience that the Great French Revolution brought with it. This experience required comprehension, including artistic comprehension, and forced us to reconsider creative principles.
Romanticism arose in the pre-storm environment of social storms and was the result of public hopes and disappointments in the possibilities of a reasonable transformation of society based on the principles of freedom, equality and fraternity.
The invariant artistic concept of the world and personality for the romantics was a system of ideas: evil and death are irreducible from life, they are eternal and immanently contained in the very mechanism of life, but the struggle against them is also eternal; world sorrow is a state of the world that has become a state of spirit; resistance to evil does not give him the opportunity to become the absolute ruler of the world, but also cannot radically change this world and eliminate evil completely.
A pessimistic component appears in Romanesque culture. “The morality of happiness”, affirmed by philosophyXVIIIcentury is replaced by an apology for heroes deprived of life, but also drawing inspiration from their misfortune. The romantics believed that history and the human spirit move forward through tragedy, and they recognized universal variability as the basic law of existence.
Romantics are characterized by dualistic consciousness: there are two worlds (the world of dreams and the world of reality), which are opposite. Heine wrote: “The world split, and a crack passed through the poet’s heart.” That is, the consciousness of the romantic was split into two parts - the real world and the illusory world. This dual world is projected onto all spheres of life (for example, the characteristic romantic opposition between the individual and society, the artist and the crowd). This gives rise to the desire for a dream that is unattainable, and as one of the manifestations of this is the desire for exoticism (exotic countries and their cultures, natural phenomena), unusualness, fantasy, transcendence, various kinds of extremes (including in emotional states) and motive of wandering, wandering. This is due to the fact that real life, according to romantics, is located in an unreal world - a dream world. Reality is irrational, mysterious and opposed to human freedom.
Another characteristic feature of romantic aesthetics is individualism and subjectivity. The creative personality becomes the central figure. The aesthetics of romanticism put forward and first developed the concept of the author and recommended creating a romantic image of the writer.
It was in the era of romanticism that special attention to feeling and sensitivity appeared. It was believed that an artist should have a sensitive heart and compassion for his heroes. Chateaubriand emphasized that he strives to be a sensitive writer, appealing not to the mind, but to the soul, to the feelings of the readers.
In general, the art of the era of romanticism is metaphorical, associative, symbolic and gravitates towards the synthesis and interaction of genres, types, as well as to a connection with philosophy and religion. Each art, on the one hand, strives for immanence, but on the other, tries to go beyond its own boundaries (this expresses another characteristic feature of the aesthetics of romanticism - the desire for transcendence, transcendence). For example, music interacts with literature and poetry, as a result of which programmatic musical works appear; genres such as ballad, poem, and later fairy tale, legend are borrowed from literature.
ExactlyXIXcentury, the genre of the diary (as a reflection of individualism and subjectivity) and the novel appeared in literature (according to romantics, this genre unites poetry and philosophy, eliminates the boundaries between artistic practice and theory, and becomes a reflection in miniature of the entire literary era).
Small forms appear in music as a reflection of a certain moment of life (this can be illustrated by the words of Goethe’s Faust: “Stop, moment, you are beautiful!”). In this moment, romantics see eternity and infinity - this is one of the signs of the symbolism of romantic art.
In the era of romanticism, interest in the national specifics of art arose: in folklore, romantics saw a manifestation of the nature of life, in folk songs - a kind of spiritual support.
In romanticism, the features of classicism are lost - evil begins to be depicted in art. Berlioz took a revolutionary step in this in his Symphony Fantastique. It was during the era of romanticism that a special figure appeared in music - a demonic virtuoso, striking examples which are Paganini and Liszt.
Summing up some of the results of this section of the study, the following should be noted: since the aesthetics of romanticism was born as a result of disappointment in the Great french revolution and similar idealistic concepts of enlighteners, it has a tragic orientation. The main characteristic features of romantic culture are dualistic worldview, subjectivity and individualism, the cult of feeling and sensitivity, interest in the Middle Ages, the Eastern world and in general all manifestations of the exotic.
The aesthetics of romanticism manifested itself most clearly in Germany. Next we will try to identify the specific features of the aesthetics of German romanticism.
Features of Romanticism in Germany.
In the era of romanticism, when disappointment in bourgeois transformations and their consequences became universal, the peculiar features of the spiritual culture of Germany acquired pan-European significance and had a strong impact on social thought, aesthetics, literature and art of other countries.
German romanticism can be divided into two stages:
Jensky (about 1797-1804)
Heidelberg (after 1804)
There are different opinions regarding the period of development of romanticism in Germany when it flourished. For example: N.Ya. Berkovsky in the book “Romanticism in Germany” writes: “Almost all early romanticism comes down to the deeds and days of the Jena school, which developed in Germany at the very end of the 17th century.Icenturies. The history of German romance has long been divided into two periods: heyday and decline. It flourished during the Jena period.” A.V. Mikhailov in his book “The Aesthetics of the German Romantics” emphasizes that the heyday period was the second stage of the development of romanticism: “Romantic aesthetics in its central, “Heidelberg” period is a living aesthetics of the image.”
One of the features of German romanticism is its universality.
A.V. Mikhailov writes: “Romanticism claimed a universal view of the world, a comprehensive coverage and generalization of all human knowledge, and to a certain extent it really was a universal worldview. His ideas related to philosophy, politics, economics, medicine, poetics, etc., and always acted as ideas of extremely general significance.
This universality was represented in the Jena school, which united people of different professions: the Schlegel brothers, August Wilhelm and Friedrich, were philologists, literary critics, art critics, publicists; F. Schelling - philosopher and writer, Schleiermacher - philosopher and theologian, H. Steffens - geologist, I. Ritter - physicist, Gulsen - physicist, L. Tick - poet, Novallis - writer.
The romantic philosophy of art received a systematic form in the lectures of A. Schlegel and the works of F. Schelling. Also, representatives of the Jena school created the first examples of the art of romanticism: L. Tieck's comedy "Puss in Boots" (1797), "Hymns for the Night" lyrical cycle (1800) and the novel "Heinrich von Ofterdingen" (1802) by Novalis.
The second generation of German romantics, the “Heidelberg” school, was distinguished by an interest in religion, national antiquity, and folklore. Major contribution to German culture a collection appeared folk songs“The Boy’s Magic Horn” (1806-1808), compiled by L. Arnim and C. Berntano, as well as “Children’s and Family Tales” by the brothers J. and W. Grimm (1812-1814). Lyric poetry also reached high perfection at this time (the poems of J. Eichendorff can be cited as an example).
Based on the mythological ideas of Schelling and the Schlegel brothers, the Heidelberg romantics finally formalized the principles of the first deep scientific direction in folklore and literary criticism - the mythological school.
The next characteristic feature of German romanticism is the artistry of its language.
A.V. Mikhailov writes: “German romanticism is by no means reduced to art, literature, poetry, however, both in philosophy and in the sciences it does not cease to use artistic and symbolic language. The aesthetic content of the romantic worldview lies equally in poetic creations and in scientific experiments.”
In late German romanticism, motives of tragic hopelessness, a critical attitude towards modern society and a feeling of discord between dreams and reality grew. The democratic ideas of late romanticism found their expression in the works of A. Chamisso, the lyrics of G. Müller, and in the poetry and prose of Heinrich Heine.
Another characteristic feature relating to the late period of German romanticism was the increasing role of the grotesque as a component of romantic satire.
Romantic irony has become more cruel. The ideas of the representatives of the Heidelberg school often contradicted the ideas of the early stage of German romanticism. If the romantics of the Jena school believed in correcting the world with beauty and art, they called Raphael their teacher,
(self-portrait)
the generation that replaced them saw the triumph of ugliness in the world, turned to the ugly, and in the field of painting perceived the world of old age
(elderly woman reading)
and collapse, and at this stage called Rembrandt his teacher.
(self-portrait)
The mood of fear in front of an incomprehensible reality intensified.
German romanticism is a special phenomenon. In Germany, the trends characteristic of the entire movement received a unique development, which determined the national specifics of romanticism in this country. Having existed for a relatively short time (according to A.V. Mikhailov, from the very endXVIIIcenturies until 1813-1815), it was in Germany that romantic aesthetics acquired its classical features. German romanticism had a strong influence on the development of romantic ideas in other countries and became their fundamental basis.
2.1. General characteristics of the category of tragic.
Tragic is a philosophical and aesthetic category that characterizes the destructive and unbearable aspects of life, the insoluble contradictions of reality, presented in the form of an insoluble conflict. The clash between man and the world, personality and society, hero and fate is expressed in the struggle of strong passions and great characters. Unlike the sad and terrible, the tragic as a type of threatened or accomplished destruction is not caused by chance external forces, but stems from the internal nature of the dying phenomenon itself, its insoluble self-division in the process of its implementation. The dialectic of life turns to man in its tragic and pathetic and destructive side. The tragic is akin to the sublime in that it is inseparable from the idea of the dignity and greatness of man, manifested in his very suffering.
The first awareness of the tragic were the myths relating to the “dying gods” (Osiris, Serapis, Adonis, Mithras, Dionysus). On the basis of the cult of Dionysus, during its gradual secularization, the art of tragedy developed. Philosophical understanding of the tragic was formed in parallel with the formation of this category in art, in reflection on the painful and gloomy aspects of private life and history.
Tragic in ancient times characterized by a certain underdevelopment of the personal principle, above which the good of the polis rises (on its side are the gods, the patrons of the polis), and an objectivist-cosmological understanding of fate as an indifferent force that dominates nature and society. Therefore, the tragic in antiquity was often described through the concepts of fate and fate, as opposed to modern European tragedy, where the source of the tragic is the subject himself, the depths of his inner world and the actions caused by it. (as, for example, in Shakespeare).
Ancient and medieval philosophy does not know special theory tragic: the doctrine of the tragic constitutes here an undivided moment of the doctrine of being.
An example of the understanding of the tragic in ancient Greek philosophy, where it acts as an essential aspect of the cosmos and the dynamics of the opposing principles in it, can be the philosophy of Aristotle. Summarizing the practice of Attic tragedies played out during the annual festivals dedicated to Dionysus, Aristotle identifies the following moments in the tragic: a pattern of action characterized by a sudden turn for the worse (peripeteia) and recognition, the experience of extreme misfortune and suffering (pathos), purification (catharsis).
From the point of view of the Aristotelian doctrine of nous (“mind”), the tragic arises when this eternal, self-sufficient “mind” is surrendered to the power of otherness and becomes from the eternal temporary, from the self-sufficient - subordinate to necessity, from the blessed - suffering and sorrowful. Then human “action and life” begins with its joys and sorrows, with its transitions from happiness to unhappiness, with its guilt, crimes, retribution, punishment, desecration of the eternally blissful innocence of “nous” and restoration of the desecrated. This escape of the mind into the power of “necessity” and “chance” constitutes an unconscious “crime”. But sooner or later, a recollection or “recognition” of the previous blissful state occurs, the crime is exposed and assessed. Then comes the time of tragic pathos, caused by the shock of the human being from the contrast of blissful innocence and the darkness of vanity and crime. But this recognition of the crime also means the beginning of the restoration of the violated, which occurs in the form of retribution, carried out through “fear” and “compassion”. The result is a “purification” of passions (catharsis) and restoration of the disturbed balance of the “mind”.
Ancient Eastern philosophy (including Buddhism, with its heightened awareness of the pathetic essence of life, but a purely pessimistic assessment of it), did not develop the concept of the tragic.
The medieval worldview, with its unconditional faith in divine providence and final salvation, overcoming the entanglements of fate, essentially eliminates the problem of the tragic: the tragedy of the world's fall, the falling away of created humanity from the personal absolute, is overcome in the atoning sacrifice of Christ and the restoration of creation to its pristine purity.
Tragedy received a new development during the Renaissance, then gradually transforming into classicist and romantic tragedy.
During the Age of Enlightenment, interest in the tragic in philosophy revived; At this time, the idea of a tragic conflict as a clash of duty and feeling was formulated: Lessing called the tragic “a school of morality.” Thus, the pathos of the tragic was reduced from the level of transcendental understanding (in antiquity, the source of the tragic was fate, inevitable fate) to a moral conflict. In the aesthetics of classicism and the Enlightenment, analyzes of tragedy as a literary genre appear - in N. Boileau, D. Diderot, G.E. Lessing, F. Schiller, who, developing the ideas of Kantian philosophy, saw the source of the tragic in the conflict between the sensual and moral nature of man (for example, the essay “On the Tragic in Art”).
Isolating the category of the tragic and its philosophical understanding carried out in German classical aesthetics, primarily in Schelling and Hegel. According to Schelling, the essence of the tragic lies in “... the struggle of freedom in the subject and the necessity of the objective...”, and both sides “... are simultaneously presented as both victorious and defeated - in complete indistinguishability.” Necessity, fate makes the hero guilty without any intention on his part, but due to a predetermined combination of circumstances. The hero must fight necessity - otherwise, with its passive acceptance, there would be no freedom - and be defeated by it. Tragic guilt lies in “also voluntarily incurring punishment for an inevitable crime, in order to prove precisely this freedom by the very loss of one’s freedom and to perish, declaring one’s free will.” Schelling considered the work of Sophocles to be the pinnacle of tragedy in art. He placed Calderon above Shakespeare, since his key concept of fate was of a mystical nature.
Hegel sees the theme of the tragic in the self-division of moral substance as the area of will and accomplishment. Its constituent moral forces and active characters are different in their content and individual identification, and the deployment of these differences necessarily leads to conflict. Each of the various moral forces strives to realize a certain goal, is overwhelmed by a certain pathos, realized in action, and in this one-sided certainty of its content inevitably violates the opposite side and collides with it. The death of these colliding forces restores the disturbed balance at a different, higher level and thereby moves forward the universal substance, contributing to the historical process of self-development of the spirit. Art, according to Hegel, tragically reflects a special moment in history, a conflict that has absorbed all the acuteness of the contradictions of a particular “state of the world.” He called this state of the world heroic, when morality had not yet taken the form of established state laws. The individual bearer of tragic pathos is the hero, who completely identifies himself with the moral idea. In the tragedy, isolated moral forces are presented in a variety of ways, but can be reduced to two definitions and the contradiction between them: “moral life in its spiritual universality” and “natural morality,” that is, between the state and the family.
Hegel and the romantics (A. Schlegel, Schelling) provide a typological analysis of the new European understanding of the tragic. The latter proceeds from the fact that man himself is guilty of the horrors and suffering that befell him, whereas in antiquity he acted rather as a passive object of the fate he endured. Schiller understood the tragic as a contradiction between the ideal and reality.
In the philosophy of romanticism, the tragic moves into the area of subjective experiences, the inner world of a person, especially the artist, which is contrasted with the deceit and inauthenticity of the external, empirical social world. The tragic was partly replaced by irony (F. Schlegel, Novalis, L. Tieck, E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. Heine).
For Zolger, the tragic is the basis of human life, it arises between essence and existence, between the divine and the phenomenon, the tragic is the death of an idea in a phenomenon, of the eternal in the temporal. Reconciliation is possible not in the final human existence, but only with the destruction of existing existence.
Close to the romantic understanding of the tragic is S. Kierkegaard, who connects it with the subjective experience of “despair” by a person who was at the stage of his ethical development (which is preceded by the aesthetic stage and which leads to the religious one). Kierkugaard notes the different understanding of the tragedy of guilt in ancient times and in modern times: in ancient times, tragedy is deeper, the pain is less, in modern times it is the other way around, since pain is associated with awareness of one’s own guilt and reflection on it.
If German classical philosophy, and above all the philosophy of Hegel, in its understanding of the tragic, proceeded from the rationality of the will and the meaningfulness of the tragic conflict, where the victory of the idea was achieved at the cost of the death of its bearer, then in the irrationalistic philosophy of A. Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche there is a break with this tradition, since the very existence of any meaning in the world is called into question. Considering the will to be immoral and unreasonable, Schopenhauer sees the essence of the tragic in the self-confrontation of blind will. In Schopenhauer’s teachings, the tragic lies not only in a pessimistic view of life, for misfortune and suffering constitute its essence, but in the denial of its highest meaning, as well as the world itself: “the principle of the existence of the world has absolutely no basis, i.e. represents the blind will to live." The tragic spirit therefore leads to the renunciation of the will to live.
Nietzsche characterized the tragic as the original essence of existence - chaotic, irrational and formless. He called the tragic “pessimism of force.” According to Nietzsche, the tragic was born from the Dionysian principle, opposite to the “Apollonian instinct of beauty.” But the “Dionysian underground of the world” must be overcome by the enlightened and transformative Apollonian force, their strict correlation is the basis of the perfect tragic art: chaos and order, frenzy and serene contemplation, horror, blissful delight and wise peace in images is tragedy.
INXXcentury, the irrationalistic interpretation of the tragic was continued in existentialism; the tragic began to be understood as an existential characteristic of human existence. According to K. Jaspers, the truly tragic consists in the realization that “... universal collapse is the basic characteristic of human existence.” L. Shestov, A Camus, J.-P. Sartre associated the tragic with the groundlessness and absurdity of existence. The contradiction between the thirst for life of a person “of flesh and blood” and the testimony of reason about the finitude of his existence is the core of the teaching of M. de Unamuno about “The tragic sense of life among people and nations” (1913). Culture, art and philosophy itself are viewed by him as a vision of “dazzling Nothingness”, the essence of which is total randomness, lack of conformity with law and absurdity, “the logic of the worst”. T. Adrono examines the tragic from the angle of criticism of bourgeois society and its culture from the position of “negative dialectics.”
In the spirit of the philosophy of life, G. Simmel wrote about the tragic contradiction between the dynamics of the creative process and those stable forms in which it crystallizes, F. Stepun - about the tragedy of creativity as the objectification of the inexpressible inner world of the individual.
The tragic and its philosophical interpretation became a means of criticizing society and human existence. In Russian culture, the tragic was understood as the futility of religious and spiritual aspirations, extinguished in the vulgarity of life (N.V. Gogol, F.M. Dostoevsky).
Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1794-1832) - German poet, writer, thinker. His work spans the last three decadesXVIIIcentury - the period of pre-romanticism - and the first thirty yearsXIXcentury. The first most significant period of the poet’s work, which began in 1770, is associated with the aesthetics of Sturm and Drang.
Sturm und Drang is a literary movement in Germany in the 70sXVIIIcentury, named after the drama of the same name by F. M. Klinger. The work of writers of this direction - Goethe, Klinger, Leisewitz, Lenz, Bürger, Schubert, Voss - reflected the growth of anti-feudal sentiments and was imbued with the spirit of rebellious rebellion. This movement, which owed much to Rousseauism, declared war on aristocratic culture. In contrast to classicism with its dogmatic norms, as well as the mannerisms of Rococo, the “stormy geniuses” put forward the idea of “characteristic art,” original in all its manifestations; they demanded from literature the depiction of bright, strong passions, characters not broken by the despotic regime. The main area of creativity of the Sturm und Drang writers was drama. They sought to establish a third-class theater that actively influenced public life, as well as a new dramatic style, the main features of which were emotional richness and lyricism. By making it an object artistic image the inner world of man, they developed new techniques for individualizing characters and created a lyrically colored, pathetic and figurative language.
Goethe's lyrics from the period of "Sturm und Drang" are one of the most brilliant pages in the history of German poetry. Goethe's lyrical hero appears as the embodiment of nature or in an organic fusion with it (“The Traveler,” “The Song of Mohammed”). He turns to mythological images, interpreting them in a rebellious spirit (“The Song of a Wanderer in the Storm,” a monologue of Prometheus from an unfinished drama).
The most perfect creation of the Sturm und Drang period is the novel in letters “The Sorrows of Young Werther,” written in 1774, which brought the author worldwide fame. This is the piece that appeared at the endXVIIIcentury, can be considered a harbinger and symbol of the entire coming era of romanticism. Romantic aesthetics forms the semantic center of the novel, manifesting itself in many aspects. Firstly, the very theme of personal suffering and the derivation of the hero’s subjective experiences are not the first plan; the special confessionalism inherent in the novel is a purely romantic tendency. Secondly, the novel contains a dual world characteristic of romanticism - a dream world, objectified in the form of the beautiful Lotte and faith in mutual love and a world of cruel reality, in which there is no hope for happiness and where the sense of duty and the opinion of the world are higher than the most sincere and deepest feelings. Thirdly, there is a pessimistic component characteristic of romanticism, which grows to the gigantic scale of tragedy.
Werther is a romantic hero who, with the final shot, challenges the cruel, unfair world - the world of reality. He rejects the laws of life, in which there is no place for happiness and the fulfillment of his dreams, and prefers to die rather than give up the passion born of his fiery heart. This hero is the antipode of Prometheus, and yet Werther-Prometheus are the final links of one chain of Goethe’s images from the period of Sturm and Drang. Their existence equally unfolds under the sign of doom. Werther empties himself in attempts to defend the reality of his fictional world, Prometheus seeks to perpetuate himself in the creation of “free” beings independent of the power of Olympus, creates slaves of Zeus, people subordinate to superior, transcendent forces.
The tragic conflict associated with Lotte's line, in contrast to Werther's, is largely associated with the classicist type of conflict - a conflict of feeling and duty, in which the latter wins. Indeed, according to the novel, Lotte is very attached to Werther, but her duty to her husband and younger brothers and sisters, left in her care by her dying mother, takes precedence over her feelings, and the heroine has to choose, although she does not know until the last moment that she will have to choose between life and the death of someone dear to her. Lotte, like Werther, is a tragic heroine, because perhaps only in death she learns the true extent of her love and Werther’s love for her, and the inseparability of love and death is another feature inherent in romantic aesthetics. The theme of the unity of love and death will be relevant throughoutXIXcentury, all the major artists of the Romantic era would turn to it, but it was Goethe who was one of the first to reveal its potential in his early tragic novel “The Sorrows of Young Werther.”
Despite the fact that during his lifetime Goethe was primarily the renowned author of The Sorrows of Young Werther, his most grandiose creation is the tragedy Faust, which he wrote over the course of almost sixty years. It was started during the period of Sturm and Drang, but ended in an era when the romantic school dominated in German literature. Therefore, “Faust” reflects all the stages through which the poet’s work followed.
The first part of the tragedy is in close connection with the period of “Storm and Drang” in Goethe’s work. The theme of an abandoned beloved girl who, in a fit of despair, becomes a child killer, was very common in the literature of the "Sturmanddrang"("The Child Killer" by Wagner, "The Priest's Daughter from Taubenheim" by Burger). The appeal to the age of fiery Gothic, knittelfers, monodrama - all this speaks of a connection with the aesthetics of Sturm und Drang.
The second part, reaching special artistic expression in the image of Helen the Beautiful, is more closely associated with the literature of the classical period. Gothic contours give way to ancient Greek ones, Hellas becomes the scene of action, the knittelfers is replaced by poems of an antique style, the images acquire some kind of special sculptural compactness (this expresses Goethe’s predilection in maturity for the decorative interpretation of mythological motifs and purely spectacular effects: masquerade - 3 scene of act 1, classic Walpurgis Night and the like). In the final scene of the tragedy, Goethe already pays tribute to romanticism, introducing a mystical chorus and opening the gates of heaven to Faust.
“Faust” occupies a special place in the work of the German poet - it is the ideological result of all his creative activity. The novelty and unusualness of this tragedy is that its subject was not one life conflict, but a consistent, inevitable chain of deep conflicts throughout a single life path, or, in Goethe’s words, “a series of increasingly higher and purer types of activity of the hero.”
In the tragedy "Faust", as in the novel "The Sorrows of Young Werther", there are many characteristic features of romantic aesthetics. The same dual world in which Werther lived is also characteristic of Faust, but unlike Werther, the doctor has the fleeting pleasure of fulfilling his dreams, which, however, leads to even greater sorrow due to the illusory nature of dreams and the fact that they collapse, bringing grief is not only for himself. As in the novel about Werther, in Faust the subjective experiences and sufferings of the individual are placed at the center, but unlike in The Sorrows of Young Werther, where the theme of creativity is not the leading one, in Faust it plays a very important role. At the end of the tragedy, Faust's creativity takes on enormous scope - this is his idea of a colossal construction project on land reclaimed from the sea for the happiness and well-being of the whole world.
It is interesting that the main character, although in alliance with Satan, does not lose his morality: he strives for sincere love, beauty, and then universal happiness. Faust does not use the forces of evil for evil, but as if he wants to turn them into good, therefore his forgiveness and salvation are natural and expected; the cathartic moment of his ascension to paradise is not unexpected.
Another characteristic feature of the aesthetics of romanticism is the theme of the inseparability of love and death, which in Faust goes through three stages: the love and death of Gretchen and her daughter with Faust (as the objectification of this love), the final departure to the kingdom of the dead of Helen the Beautiful and the death of her and Faust's son (as in the case of daughter Gretchen, the objectification of this love), Faust's love for life and all humanity and the death of Faust himself.
“Faust” is not only a tragedy about the past, but about the future of human history, as it seemed to Goethe. After all, Faust, according to the poet, is the personification of all humanity, and his path is the path of all civilization. Human history is a story of search, trial and error, and the image of Faust embodies faith in the limitless possibilities of man.
Now let us turn to the analysis of Goethe's work from the point of view of the category of the tragic. The fact that the German poet was an artist of a tragic nature is supported, for example, by the predominance of tragic-dramatic genres in his work: “Goetz von Berlichingen”, the tragically ending novel “The Sorrows of Young Werther”, the drama “Egmont”, the drama “Torquato Tasso”, tragedy “Iphigenia in Tauris”, drama “Citizen General”, tragedy “Faust”.
The historical drama "Götz von Berlichingen", written in 1773, reflected the events on the eve of the Peasants' WarXVIcentury, sounding a harsh reminder of the princely tyranny and tragedy of the fragmented country. In the drama "Egmont", written in 1788 and connected with the ideas of "Storm and Drang", at the center of events is the conflict between foreign oppressors and the people, whose resistance is suppressed, but not broken, and the ending of the drama sounds like a call to fight for freedom. The tragedy “Iphigenia in Tauris” is based on the plot of an ancient Greek myth, and its main idea is the victory of humanity over barbarism.
The Great French Revolution is directly reflected in Goethe's "Venetian Epigrams", the drama "Citizen General" and the short story "Conversations of German Emigrants". The poet does not accept revolutionary violence, but at the same time recognizes the inevitability of social reorganization - on this topic he wrote the satirical poem “Reinecke the Fox,” denouncing feudal tyranny.
One of Goethe’s most famous and significant works, along with the novel “The Sorrows of Young Werther” and the tragedy “Faust,” is the novel “The Teaching Years of Wilhelm Meister.” In it one can again trace romantic tendencies and themes characteristic ofXIXcentury. In this novel, the theme of the death of dreams appears: the protagonist’s stage hobbies subsequently appear as a youthful delusion, and in the finale of the novel he sees his task in practical economic activity. The Meister is the antipode of Werther and Faust - creative heroes burning with love and dreams. His life drama lies in the fact that he abandoned his dreams, choosing routine, boredom and the actual meaninglessness of existence, because his creativity, which gives the true meaning of existence, went out when he gave up his dream of becoming an actor and playing on stage. Much later in literatureXXcentury, this theme is transformed into the theme of the tragedy of the little man.
The tragic direction of Goethe's work is obvious. Despite the fact that the poet did not create a complete philosophical system, his works set forth a deep philosophical concept associated with both the classicist picture of the world and romantic aesthetics. Goethe’s philosophy, revealed in his works, is in many ways contradictory and ambiguous, like his main work of life “Faust”, but it clearly shows, on the one hand, an almost Schopenhauerian vision of the real world as bringing severe suffering to a person, awakening dreams and desires, but not fulfilling them, preaching injustice, routine, routine and death of love, dreams and creativity, but on the other hand, faith in the limitless possibilities of man and the transformative powers of creativity, love and art. In a polemic against the nationalist tendencies that developed in Germany during and after the Napoleonic wars, Goethe put forward the idea of “world literature”, without sharing Hegel’s skepticism in assessing the future of art. Goethe also saw in literature and art in general a powerful potential for influencing a person and even the existing social system.
Thus, perhaps Goethe's philosophical concept can be expressed as follows: the struggle of the creative creative forces of man, expressed in love, art and other aspects of existence, with the injustice and cruelty of the real world and the victory of the former. Despite the fact that most of Goethe's struggling and suffering heroes die in the end. The catharsis of his tragedies and the victory of the bright beginning are obvious and large-scale. In this regard, the end of Faust is indicative, when both the main character and his beloved Gretchen receive forgiveness and go to heaven. Such an end can be projected onto the majority of Goethe's searching and suffering heroes.
Arthur Schopenhauer (1786-1861) – representative of the irrational trend in the philosophical thought of Germany in the first halfXIXcentury. The main role in the formation of Schopenhauer's worldview system was played by influences from three philosophical traditions: Kantian, Platonic and ancient Indian Brahmanistic and Buddhist philosophy.
The views of the German philosopher are pessimistic, and his concept reflects the tragedy of human existence. The center of Schopenhauer's philosophical system is the doctrine of the negation of the will to live. He views death as a moral ideal, as the most highest goal human existence: “Death, undoubtedly, is the real goal of life, and at the moment when death comes, everything is accomplished for which throughout our entire life we have only been preparing and starting. Death is the final conclusion, a summary of life, its result, which immediately unites into one whole all the partial and scattered lessons of life and tells us that all our aspirations, the embodiment of which was life, that all these aspirations were in vain, vain and contradictory and that salvation lies in renunciation of them.”
Death is the main goal of life, according to Schopenhauer, because this world, according to his definition, is the worst possible: “Leibniz’s obviously sophistic proofs that this world is the best of possible worlds can be quite seriously and conscientiously countered with the proof that this world - the worst of all possible worlds" .
Human existence is placed by Schopenhauer in the world of “inauthentic being” of ideas, determined by the world of the Will - truly existing and self-identical. Life in the time stream seems to be a bleak chain of suffering, a continuous series of large and small adversities; a person cannot find peace in any way: “... in the sufferings of life we console ourselves with death, and in death we console ourselves with the sufferings of life.”
In the works of Schopenhauer one can often find the idea that both this world and people should not exist at all: “... the existence of the world should not please us, but rather sadden us;... its non-existence would be preferable to its existence;... it represents something that really shouldn’t exist.”
Human existence is just an episode that disturbs the peace of absolute existence, which must end with the desire to suppress the will to live. Moreover, according to the philosopher, death does not destroy true existence (the world of Will), since it represents the end of a temporary phenomenon (the world of ideas), and not the innermost essence of the world. In the chapter “Death and Its Relation to the Indestructibility of Our Being” of his large-scale work “The World as Will and Idea,” Schopenhauer writes: “... nothing invades our consciousness with such an irresistible force as the thought that creation and destruction do not affect the real essence of things , that the latter is inaccessible to them, that is, incorruptible, and that therefore everything that wills life really continues to live without end... Thanks to him, despite thousands of years of death and decay, nothing has yet perished, not a single atom of matter and, even less, not a single fraction of that inner essence which appears to us as nature.”
The timeless existence of the world of Will knows neither gains nor losses, it is always identical to itself, eternal and true. Therefore the state into which death takes us is the “natural state of the Will.” Death destroys only the biological organism and consciousness, and knowledge allows one to understand the insignificance of life and overcome the fear of death, as Schopenhauer claims. He expresses the idea that with knowledge, on the one hand, a person’s ability to feel grief, the true nature of this world, which brings suffering and death, increases: “A person, along with reason, inevitably developed a terrifying certainty of death.” . But, on the other hand, the ability of cognition leads, in his opinion, to a person’s awareness of the indestructibility of his true being, which manifests itself not in his individuality and consciousness, but in the world will: “The horrors of death are mainly based on the illusion that with itI disappears, but the world remains. In fact, rather the opposite is true: the world disappears, and the innermost coreI , the bearer and creator of that subject, in whose representation the world alone has its existence, remains.”
Awareness of the immortality of the true essence of man, according to the views of Schopenhauer, is based on the fact that one cannot identify oneself only with one’s own consciousness and body and make distinctions between the external and internal world. He writes that “death is a moment of liberation from the one-sidedness of the individual form, which does not constitute the innermost core of our being, but rather is a kind of perversion of it.”
Human life, according to Schopenhauer's concept, is always accompanied by suffering. But he perceives them as a source of purification, since they lead to the denial of the will to live and do not allow a person to take the wrong path of its affirmation. The philosopher writes: “The entire human existence speaks quite clearly that suffering is the true destiny of man. Life is deeply engulfed in suffering and cannot escape it; our entry into it is accompanied by words about this; in its essence it always proceeds tragically, and its end is especially tragic... Suffering, this is truly the purifying process that alone in most cases sanctifies a person, that is, turns him away from the wrong way the will of life."
An important place in A. Schopenhauer's philosophical system is occupied by his concept of art. He believes that the highest goal of art is to free the soul from suffering and find spiritual peace. However, he is attracted only by those types and kinds of art that are close to his own worldview: tragic music, dramatic and tragic genre of stage art, and the like, since they are the ones who are able to express the tragic essence of human existence. He writes about the art of tragedy: “The peculiar effect of tragedy, in essence, is based on the fact that it shakes the indicated innate delusion (that a person lives in order to be happy - approx.), clearly embodying futility in a great and striking example human aspirations and the insignificance of all life and thereby revealing the deepest meaning of existence; That’s why tragedy is considered the most sublime kind of poetry.”
The German philosopher considered music to be the most perfect art. In his opinion, in her highest achievements she is capable of mystical contact with the transcendental World Will. Moreover, in strict, mysterious, mystically colored and tragic music, the World Will finds its most possible embodiment, and this embodiment is precisely that feature of the Will that contains its dissatisfaction with itself, and therefore, the future attraction to its redemption and self-denial. In the chapter “On the Metaphysics of Music,” Schopenhauer writes: “...music, considered as an expression of the world, is an extremely universal language, which even relates to the universality of concepts almost as they relate to individual things... music differs from all other arts in that , that it does not reflect phenomena, or, more correctly speaking, the adequate objectivity of the will, but directly reflects the will itself and, thus, for everything physical in the world it shows the metaphysical, for all phenomena - the thing in itself. Therefore, the world can be called both embodied music and embodied will.
The category of the tragic is one of the most important in the philosophical system of A. Schopenhauer, since human life itself is perceived by him as a tragic mistake. The philosopher believes that from the moment a person is born, endless suffering begins that lasts a lifetime, and all joys are short-lived and illusory. Existence contains a tragic contradiction, which lies in the fact that man is endowed with a blind will to live and an endless desire to live, but his existence in this world is finite and full of suffering. Thus, a tragic conflict arises between life and death.
But Schopenhauer's philosophy contains the idea that with the advent of biological death and the disappearance of consciousness, the true human essence does not die, but continues to live forever, incarnating in something else. This idea of the immortality of man's true essence is akin to the catharsis that comes at the end of tragedy; Therefore, we can conclude not only that the category of the tragic is one of the basic categories of Schopenhauer’s worldview system, but also that his philosophical system as a whole reveals similarities with tragedy.
As was said earlier, Schopenhauer assigns an important place to art, especially music, which he perceives as the embodied will, the immortal essence of being. In this world of suffering, according to the philosopher, a person can follow the right path only by denying the will to live, embodying asceticism, accepting suffering and purifying himself both with its help and thanks to the cathartic influence of art. Art and music in particular contribute to a person’s knowledge of his true essence and the desire to return to the sphere of true existence. Therefore, one of the ways of purification, according to the concept of A. Schopenhauer, runs through art.
Chapter 3. Criticism of Romanticism
3.1. Critical position of Georg Friedrich Hegel
Despite the fact that romanticism became an ideology that spread throughout the world for some time, romantic aesthetics was criticized both during its existence and in the following centuries. In this part of the work we will look at the criticism of romanticism carried out by Georg Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Nietzsche.
There are significant differences in the philosophical concept of Hegel and the aesthetic theory of romanticism, which caused criticism of the romanticists by the German philosopher. Firstly, from the very beginning, romanticism ideologically opposed its aesthetics to the Age of Enlightenment: it appeared as a protest against Enlightenment views and in response to the failure of the French Revolution, on which the Enlightenment had placed great hopes. The romantics contrasted the classicist cult of reason with the cult of feeling and the desire to deny the basic postulates of the aesthetics of classicism.
In contrast, G. F. Hegel (like J. W. Goethe) considered himself the heir of the Enlightenment. Criticism of the Enlightenment by Hegel and Goethe never turned into a denial of the heritage of this period, as is the case with the romantics. For example, for the question of collaboration between Goethe and Hegel, it is extremely characteristic that Goethe in the first yearsXIXcentury discovers and, having translated, immediately publishes Diderot’s “Ramo’s Nephew” with his comments, and Hegel immediately uses this work to reveal with extraordinary plasticity the specific form of the dialectic of the Enlightenment. The images created by Diderot occupy a decisive place in the most important chapter of the Phenomenology of Spirit. Therefore, the position of the romantics contrasting their aesthetics with the aesthetics of classicism was criticized by Hegel.
Secondly, the dual world characteristic of the romantics and the conviction that everything beautiful exists only in the world of dreams, and the real world is a world of sadness and suffering, in which there is no place for the ideal and happiness, is opposed to the Hegelian concept that the embodiment of the ideal is this is not a departure from reality, but, on the contrary, its deep, generalized, meaningful image, since the ideal itself is presented as rooted in reality. The vitality of the ideal rests on the fact that the main spiritual meaning, which should be revealed in the image, completely penetrates into all the particular aspects of the external phenomenon. Consequently, the image of the essential, characteristic, the embodiment of spiritual meaning, the transmission of the most important tendencies of reality is, according to Hegel, the disclosure of the ideal, which in this interpretation coincides with the concept of truth in art, artistic truth.
The third aspect of Hegel's criticism of Romanticism is subjectivity, which is one of the most important features of Romantic aesthetics; Hegel is especially critical of subjective idealism.
In subjective idealism, the German thinker sees not just a certain false direction in philosophy, but a direction whose emergence was inevitable, and to the same extent it was inevitably false. Hegel's proof of the falsity of subjective idealism is at the same time a conclusion about its inevitability and necessity and about the limitations associated with it. Hegel comes to this conclusion in two ways, which are closely and inextricably linked for him - historically and systematically. From a historical point of view, Hegel proves that subjective idealism arose from the deepest problems of our time and its historical significance, the preservation of its greatness for a long time, is explained precisely by this. At the same time, however, he shows that subjective idealism, of necessity, can only guess the problems posed by the times and translate these problems into the language of speculative philosophy. Subjective idealism has no answers to these questions, and this is precisely where its inadequacy lies.
Hegel believes that the philosophy of subjective idealists consists of a stream of emotions and empty declarations; he criticizes the romantics for the dominance of the sensual over the rational, as well as for the unsystematization and incompleteness of their dialectics (this is the fourth aspect of Hegel’s criticism of romanticism)
An important place in Hegel's philosophical system is occupied by his concept of art. Romantic art, according to Hegel, begins with the Middle Ages, but he includes Shakespeare, Cervantes, and artistsXVII- XVIIIcenturies, and German romantics. The romantic art form, according to his concept, is the disintegration of romantic art in general. The philosopher hopes that from the collapse of romantic art a new form of free art will be born, the germ of which he sees in the work of Goethe.
Romantic art, according to Hegel, includes painting, music and poetry - those types of art that, in his opinion, can best express the sensual side of life.
The medium of painting is a colorful surface, a living play of light. It is freed from the sensory spatial fullness of the material body, since it is limited to a plane, and therefore is able to express the entire scale of feelings, mental states, and depict actions full of dramatic movement.
The elimination of spatiality is achieved in the next form of romantic art - music. Its material is sound, the vibration of a sounding body. Matter here no longer appears as spatial, but as temporal ideality. Music goes beyond sensory contemplation and covers exclusively the area of inner experiences.
In the last romantic art - poetry - sound enters as a sign that has no meaning in itself. The main element of poetic imagery is poetic representation. According to Hegel, poetry can depict absolutely everything. Its material is not just sound, but sound as meaning, as a sign of representation. But the material here is not arranged freely and arbitrarily, but according to the rhythmic musical law. In poetry, all types of art again seem to be repeated: it corresponds to the visual arts as an epic, as a calm narrative with rich images and picturesque pictures of the history of peoples; it is music as lyrics because it reflects the inner state of the soul; it is the unity of these two arts as dramatic poetry, as a depiction of the struggle between active, conflicting interests rooted in the characters of individuals.
We briefly examined the main aspects of G. F. Hegel's critical position in relation to romantic aesthetics. Now we turn to the criticism of romanticism carried out by F. Nietzsche.
3.2. Critical position of Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche's worldview system can be defined as philosophical nihilism, since criticism occupied the most important place in his work. The characteristic features of Nietzsche's philosophy are: criticism of church dogmas, revaluation of all existing human concepts, recognition of the limitations and relativity of all morality, the idea of eternal formation, the idea of a philosopher and historian as a prophet who overthrows the past for the sake of the future, problems of the place and freedom of the individual in society and history , denial of unification and leveling of people, a passionate dream of a new historical era, when the human race matures and realizes its tasks.
In the development of the philosophical views of Friedrich Nietzsche, two stages can be distinguished: the active development of the culture of vulgar literature, history, philosophy, music, accompanied by a romantic worship of antiquity; criticism of the foundations of Western European culture (“The Wanderer and His Shadow”, “Morning Dawn”, “The Gay Science”) and the overthrow of idolsXIXcenturies and past centuries (“The Fall of the Idols”, “Zarathustra”, the doctrine of the “superman”).
At the early stage of his creativity, Nietzsche’s critical position had not yet taken final shape. At this time, he was interested in the ideas of Arthur Schopenhauer, calling him his teacher. However, after 1878, his position was reversed, and the critical orientation of his philosophy began to emerge: in May 1878, Nietzsche published the book “Humanity, All Too Human” with the subtitle “A Book for Free Minds”, where he publicly broke with the past and its values: Hellenism , Christianity, Schopenhauer.
Nietzsche considered his main merit to be that he undertook and carried out a revaluation of all values: everything that is usually recognized as valuable, in fact, has nothing to do with true value. In his opinion, everything needs to be put in its place - in place of imaginary values, put true values. In this revaluation of values, which essentially constitutes Nietzsche’s philosophy, he sought to stand “beyond good and evil.” Ordinary morality, no matter how developed and complex it is, is always enclosed within a framework, the opposite sides of which constitute the idea of good and evil. Their limits exhaust all forms of existing moral relations, while Nietzsche wanted to go beyond these boundaries.
F. Nietzsche defined his contemporary culture as being at the stage of decline and decay of morality. Morality corrupts culture from the inside, since it is a tool for controlling the crowd and its instincts. According to the philosopher, Christian morality and religion affirm an obedient “slave morality.” Therefore, it is necessary to carry out a “reassessment of values” and identify the foundations of morality “ strong man" Thus, Friedrich Nietzsche distinguishes between two types of morality: master and slave. The morality of the “masters” affirms the value of life, which is most manifested against the background of the natural inequality of people, due to the difference in their wills and vital forces.
All aspects of Romantic culture were sharply criticized by Nietzsche. He overthrows the romantic dual world when he writes: “There is no point in writing fables about the “other” world, except if we have a strong urge to slander life, to belittle it, to look at it suspiciously: in the latter case, we take revenge on life with phantasmagoria.” different”, “better” life.”
Another example of his opinion on this issue is the statement: “The division of the world into “true” and “apparent”, in the sense of Kant, indicates decline - it is a symptom of a declining life...”
Here are excerpts from his quotes about some representatives of the era of romanticism: “”Unbearable:... - Schiller, or the trumpeter of morality from Säckingen... - V. Hugo, or a lighthouse on a sea of madness. - Liszt, or the school of bold onslaught in pursuit of women. - George Sand, or milk abundance, which in German means: a cash cow with “beautiful style”. - Offenbach's music. - Zola, or "love of stench."
About the bright representative of romantic pessimism in philosophy, Arthur Schopenhauer, whom Nietzsche first considered and admired as his teacher, it will later be written: “Schopenhauer is the last of the Germans who cannot be passed over in silence. This German, like Goethe, Hegel and Heinrich Heine, was not only a “national”, local phenomenon, but also a pan-European one. It is of great interest to the psychologist as a brilliant and malicious challenge to the name of the nihilistic devaluation of life, the opposite of the worldview - the great self-confirmation of the “will to live”, the form of abundance and excess of life. Art, heroism, genius, beauty, great compassion, knowledge, the will to truth, tragedy - all this, one after another, Schopenhauer explained as phenomena accompanying the “denial” or impoverishment of the “will”, and this makes his philosophy the greatest psychological falsehood in history of mankind."
He gave a negative assessment to most of the prominent representatives of the culture of past centuries and contemporary ones. His disappointment in them is contained in the phrase: “I looked for great people and always found only monkeys of my ideal.” .
One of the few creative personalities who aroused Nietzsche’s approval and admiration throughout his life was Johann Wolfgang Goethe; he turned out to be an undefeated idol. Nietzsche wrote about him: “Goethe is not a German, but a European phenomenon, a majestic attempt to overcome the eighteenth century by returning to nature, by ascending to the naturalness of the Renaissance, an example of self-overcoming from the history of our century. All his strongest instincts were combined in him: sensitivity, passionate love for nature, ahistorical, idealistic, unrealistic and revolutionary instincts (this last is only one of the forms of the unreal)... he did not distance himself from life, but went deeper into it, he did not lose heart and how much he could take on himself, into himself and beyond himself... He achieved integrity; he fought against the disintegration of reason, sensuality, feeling and will (preached by Kant, Goethe’s antipode, in disgusting scholasticism), he educated himself towards integrity, he created himself... Goethe was a convinced realist in an unrealistically inclined age.”
In the quote above, there is another aspect of Nietzsche’s criticism of romanticism - his criticism of the detachment from reality of romantic aesthetics.
About the age of romanticism, Nietzsche writes: “Isn’t thereXIXcentury, especially at its beginning, only intensified, coarsenedXVIIIcentury, in other words: a decadent century? And isn’t Goethe, not for Germany alone, but for all of Europe, just an accidental phenomenon, lofty and vain?” .
Nietzsche's interpretation of the tragic is interesting, connected, among other things, with his assessment of romantic aesthetics. The philosopher writes about this: “The tragic artist is not a pessimist, he more willingly takes on everything mysterious and terrible, he is a follower of Dionysus.” . The essence of not understanding the tragic Nietzsche is reflected in his statement: “What does the tragic artist show us? Doesn't it show a state of fearlessness in the face of the terrible and mysterious? This state alone is the highest good, and those who have experienced it rank it infinitely highly. The artist conveys this state to us; he must convey it precisely because he is an artist—a genius of transmission. Courage and freedom of feeling in the face of a powerful enemy, in the face of great grief, in front of a task that inspires horror—this victorious state is chosen and glorified by the tragic artist!” .
Drawing conclusions on the criticism of romanticism, we can say the following: many arguments related to the aesthetics of romanticism negatively (including G.F. Hegel and F. Nietzsche) really do exist. Like any manifestation of culture, this type has both positive and negative sides. However, despite the censures of many contemporaries and representativesXXcentury, romantic culture, which includes romantic art, literature, philosophy and other manifestations, is still relevant and arouses interest, transforming and reviving in new ideological systems and directions of art and literature.
Conclusion
Having studied philosophical, aesthetic and musicological literature, as well as familiarized ourselves with works of art related to the area of the problem under study, we came to the following conclusions.
Romanticism arose in Germany in the form of an “aesthetics of disillusionment” in the ideas of the Great French Revolution. The result of this was a romantic system of ideas: evil, death and injustice are eternal and cannot be eliminated from the world; world sorrow is the state of the world, which has become the state of the spirit of the lyrical hero.
In the fight against the injustice of the world, death and evil, the soul of the romantic hero seeks a way out and finds it in the world of dreams - this reveals the dualism of consciousness characteristic of the romantics.
Another important characteristic of romanticism is that romantic aesthetics tends towards individualism and subjectivity. The result of this was the increased attention of romantics to feelings and sensitivity.
The ideas of the German romantics were universal and became the foundation of the aesthetics of romanticism, influencing its development in other countries. German romanticism is characterized by a tragic orientation and artistic language, which manifested itself in all spheres of life.
The understanding of the immanent content of the category of tragic has changed significantly from era to era, reflecting changes in the general picture of the world. In the ancient world, the tragic was associated with a certain objective principle - fate, fate; in the Middle Ages, tragedy was viewed primarily as the tragedy of the Fall, which Christ redeemed with his feat; in the Age of Enlightenment, the concept of a tragic collision between feeling and duty was formed; in the era of romanticism, the tragic appeared in an extremely subjective form, putting the suffering person at the center tragic hero, who is faced with the evil, cruelty and injustice of people and the entire world order and tries to fight it.
outstanding cultural figures of German romanticism - Goethe and Schopenhauer - are united by the tragic orientation of their worldview systems and creativity, and they consider art to be a cathartic element of tragedy, a kind of atonement for the suffering of earthly life, giving a special place to music.
The main aspects of criticism of romanticism come down to the following. The Romantics are criticized for their desire to contrast their aesthetics with the aesthetics of a bygone era, classicism, and their rejection of the legacy of the Enlightenment; dual world, which is considered by critics as a disconnect from reality; lack of objectivity; exaggeration emotional sphere and downplaying the rational; unsystematic and incompleteness of the romantic aesthetic concept.
Despite the validity of the criticism of romanticism, the cultural manifestations of this era are relevant and arouse interest even inXXIcentury. Transformed echoes of the romantic worldview can be found in many areas of culture. For example, we believe that the basis of the philosophical systems of Albert Camus and Jose Ortega y Gasset was German romantic aesthetics with its tragic dominant, but rethought by them in cultural conditionsXXcentury.
Our research helps not only to identify the general characteristic features of romantic aesthetics and the specific features of German romanticism, to show the change in the immanent content of the category of the tragic and its understanding in different historical eras, as well as to identify the specifics of the manifestation of the tragic in the culture of German romanticism and the limits of romantic aesthetics, but also contributes understanding the art of the Romantic era, finding its universal imagery and themes, as well as building a meaningful interpretation of the work of the Romantics.
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Zweig was right: Europe has not seen such a wonderful generation as the romantics since the Renaissance. Marvelous images of the dream world, naked feelings and the desire for sublime spirituality - these are the colors that paint the musical culture of romanticism.
The emergence of romanticism and its aesthetics
While the industrial revolution was taking place in Europe, the hopes placed on the Great French Revolution were crushed in the hearts of Europeans. The cult of reason, proclaimed by the Age of Enlightenment, was overthrown. The cult of feelings and the natural principle in man has ascended to the pedestal.
This is how romanticism appeared. In musical culture it existed for a little more than a century (1800-1910), while in related fields (painting and literature) its term expired half a century earlier. Perhaps music is “to blame” for this - it was music that was at the top among the arts among the romantics as the most spiritual and freest of the arts.
However, the romantics, unlike representatives of the eras of antiquity and classicism, did not build a hierarchy of arts with its clear division into types and. The romantic system was universal; the arts could freely transform into each other. The idea of a synthesis of arts was one of the key ones in the musical culture of romanticism.
This relationship also concerned the categories of aesthetics: the beautiful was combined with the ugly, the high with the base, the tragic with the comic. Such transitions were connected by romantic irony, which also reflected a universal picture of the world.
Everything that had to do with beauty took on a new meaning among the romantics. Nature became an object of worship, the artist was idolized as the highest of mortals, and feelings were exalted over reason.
Spiritless reality was contrasted with a dream, beautiful but unattainable. The romantic, with the help of his imagination, built his new world, unlike other realities.
What themes did Romantic artists choose?
The interests of the romantics were clearly manifested in the choice of themes they chose in art.
- Theme of loneliness. An underrated genius or a lonely person in society - these were the main themes among composers of this era ("The Love of a Poet" by Schumann, "Without the Sun" by Mussorgsky).
- Theme of "lyrical confession". In many opuses of romantic composers there is a touch of autobiography (“Carnival” by Schumann, “Symphony Fantastique” by Berlioz).
- Theme of love. Basically, this is the theme of unrequited or tragic love, but not necessarily (“Love and Life of a Woman” by Schumann, “Romeo and Juliet” by Tchaikovsky).
- Theme of the path. She is also called theme of wanderings. The romantic soul, torn by contradictions, was looking for its path (“Harold in Italy” by Berlioz, “The Years of Wandering” by Liszt).
- Theme of death. Basically it was spiritual death (Tchaikovsky's Sixth Symphony, Schubert's Winterreise).
- Nature theme. Nature in the eyes of romance and a protective mother, and an empathetic friend, and punishing fate (“Hebrides” by Mendelssohn, “In Central Asia" Borodin). The cult of the native land (polonaises and ballads of Chopin) is also connected with this theme.
- Fantasy theme. The imaginary world for romantics was much richer than the real one (“The Magic Shooter” by Weber, “Sadko” by Rimsky-Korsakov).
Musical genres of the Romantic era
The musical culture of romanticism gave impetus to the development of the genres of chamber vocal lyrics: ballad("The Forest King" by Schubert), poem("Maid of the Lake" by Schubert) and songs, often combined into cycles("Myrtles" by Schumann).
Romantic opera was distinguished not only by the fantastic nature of the plot, but also by the strong connection between words, music and stage action. The opera is being symphonized. Suffice it to recall Wagner’s “Ring of the Nibelungs” with its developed network of leitmotifs.
Among the instrumental genres of romance are piano miniature. To convey one image or a moment's mood, a short play is enough for them. Despite its scale, the play bubbles with expression. She could be "song without words" (like Mendelssohn) mazurka, waltz, nocturne or pieces with programmatic titles (“The Rush” by Schumann).
Like songs, plays are sometimes combined into cycles (“Butterflies” by Schumann). At the same time, the parts of the cycle, brightly contrasting, always formed a single composition due to musical connections.
The Romantics loved program music, which combined it with literature, painting or other arts. Therefore, the plot in their works was often controlled. One-movement sonatas (Liszt's B minor sonata), one-movement concertos (Liszt's First Piano Concerto) and symphonic poems (Liszt's Preludes), and a five-movement symphony (Berlioz's Symphony Fantastique) appeared.
The musical language of romantic composers
The synthesis of arts, glorified by the romantics, influenced the means musical expressiveness. The melody has become more individual, sensitive to the poetics of the word, and the accompaniment has ceased to be neutral and typical in texture.
The harmony was enriched with unprecedented colors to tell about the experiences of the romantic hero. Thus, the romantic intonations of languor perfectly conveyed altered harmonies that increased tension. Romantics loved the effect of chiaroscuro, when the major was replaced by the minor of the same name, and the chords of the side steps, and the beautiful comparisons of tonalities. New effects were also discovered in music, especially when it was necessary to convey the folk spirit or fantastic images in music.
In general, the melody of the romantics strived for continuity of development, rejected any automatic repetition, avoided regularity of accents and breathed expressiveness in each of its motives. And texture has become such an important link that its role is comparable to the role of melody.
Listen to what a wonderful mazurka Chopin has!
Instead of a conclusion
The musical culture of romanticism at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries experienced the first signs of crisis. The “free” musical form began to disintegrate, harmony prevailed over melody, the sublime feelings of the romantic soul gave way to painful fear and base passions.
These destructive trends brought Romanticism to an end and opened the way for Modernism. But, having ended as a movement, romanticism continued to live both in the music of the 20th century and in the music of the current century in its various components. Blok was right when he said that romanticism arises “in all eras of human life.”
Ideological and artistic movement in European and American culture of the late 18th - 1st half of the 19th centuries. Originating as a reaction to the rationalism and mechanism of the aesthetics of classicism and the philosophy of the Enlightenment, established in the era of the revolutionary breakdown of feudal society, the former, seemingly unshakable world order, romanticism (both as a special type of worldview and as an artistic movement) has become one of the most complex and internally contradictory phenomena in cultural history.
Disappointment in the ideals of the Enlightenment, in the results of the Great French Revolution, denial of the utilitarianism of modern reality, the principles of bourgeois practicality, the victim of which human individuality became, a pessimistic view of the prospects for social development, and the mentality of “world sorrow” were combined in romanticism with the desire for harmony in the world order, spiritual integrity of the individual , with a gravitation towards the “infinite”, with the search for new, absolute and unconditional ideals. The acute discord between ideals and oppressive reality evoked in the minds of many romantics a painfully fatalistic or indignant feeling of dual worlds, a bitter mockery of the discrepancy between dreams and reality, elevated in literature and art to the principle of “romantic irony.”
A kind of self-defense against the growing leveling of personality became the deepest interest in the human personality inherent in romanticism, understood by the romantics as the unity of individual external characteristics and unique internal content. Penetrating into the depths of human spiritual life, the literature and art of romanticism simultaneously transferred this acute sense of the characteristic, original, unique to the destinies of nations and peoples, to historical reality itself. The enormous social changes that took place before the eyes of the romantics made the progressive course of history clearly visible. In their best works romanticism rises to the creation of symbolic and at the same time vital, associated with modern history images But images of the past, drawn from mythology, ancient and medieval history, were embodied by many romantics as a reflection of real conflicts.
Romanticism became the first artistic movement in which the awareness of the creative personality as a subject of artistic activity was clearly manifested. The Romantics openly proclaimed the triumph of individual taste and complete freedom of creativity. Attaching decisive importance to the creative act itself, destroying the obstacles that held back the artist’s freedom, they boldly equated the high and the low, the tragic and the comic, the ordinary and the unusual.
Romanticism captured all spheres of spiritual culture: literature, music, theater, philosophy, aesthetics, philology and other humanities, plastic arts. But at the same time, it was no longer the universal style that classicism was. Unlike the latter, romanticism had almost no state forms of its expression (therefore, it did not significantly affect architecture, influencing mainly landscape architecture, the architecture of small forms and the direction of the so-called pseudo-Gothic). Being not so much a style as a social artistic movement, romanticism opened the way for the further development of art in the 19th century, which took place not in the form of comprehensive styles, but in the form of separate movements and directions. Also for the first time in Romanticism, language was not completely rethought artistic forms: to a certain extent, the stylistic foundations of classicism have been preserved, significantly modified and rethought in certain countries (for example, in France). At the same time, within the framework of a single stylistic direction, the artist’s individual style received greater freedom of development.
Romanticism was never a clearly defined program or style; This wide circle ideological and aesthetic trends, in which the historical situation, country, and interests of the artist created certain accents.
Musical romanticism, which clearly manifested itself in the 20s. XIX century, was a historically new phenomenon, but showed connections with the classics. Music mastered new means that made it possible to express both the strength and subtlety of human emotional life, lyricism. These aspirations brought many musicians in common in the second half of the 18th century. literary movement "Storm and Drang".
Musical romanticism was historically prepared by the literary romanticism that preceded it. In Germany - among the “Jena” and “Heidelberg” romantics, in England – among the poets of the “Lake” school. Further, musical romanticism was significantly influenced by such writers as Heine, Byron, Lamartine, Hugo, Mickiewicz.
The most important areas of creativity of musical romanticism include:
1. lyrics – are of paramount importance. In the hierarchy of the arts, music was given the most honorable place, since feeling reigns in music and therefore the work of the romantic artist finds its highest goal in it. Consequently, music is lyricism, it allows a person to merge with the “soul of the world”, music is the antipode of prosaic reality, it is the voice of the heart.
2. fantasy - acts as freedom of imagination, free play of thoughts and feelings, freedom of knowledge, striving into the world of the strange, wonderful, unknown.
3. folk and nationally distinctive - the desire to recreate authenticity, primacy, integrity in the surrounding reality; interest in history, folklore, cult of nature (pristine). Nature is a refuge from the troubles of civilization; it consoles a restless person. Characterized by a great contribution to the collection of folklore, as well as a general desire for the faithful transmission of the folk-national artistic style (“local color”) is common feature musical romanticism different countries and schools.
4. characteristic – strange, eccentric, caricatured. To identify it is to break through the leveling gray veil of ordinary perception and touch the motley seething life.
Romanticism sees in all types of art a single meaning and goal - merging with the mysterious essence of life; the idea of a synthesis of arts acquires new meaning.
“The aesthetics of one art is the aesthetics of another,” said R. Schumann. The combination of different materials increases the impressive power of the artistic whole. In a deep and organic fusion with painting, poetry and theater, new opportunities opened up for art. In the field of instrumental music, the principle of programming has acquired great importance, i.e. inclusion of literary and other associations in the composer’s concept and process of music perception.
Romanticism is especially widely represented in the music of Germany and Austria (F. Schubert, E. T. A. Hoffmann, K. M. Weber, L. Spohr), then the Leipzig School (F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy and R. Schumann). In the second half of the 19th century. – R. Wagner, I. Brahms, A. Bruckner, H. Wolf. In France - G. Berlioz; in Italy - G. Rossini, G. Verdi. F. Chopin, F. Liszt, J. Meyerbeer, N. Paganini are of pan-European importance.
The role of miniatures and large one-part forms; new interpretation of cycles. Enrichment of expressive means in the field of melody, harmony, rhythm, texture, instrumentation; renewal and development of classical patterns of form, development of new compositional principles.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, late romanticism reveals a hypertrophy of the subjective principle. Romantic tendencies also appeared in the works of composers of the 20th century. (D. Shostakovich, S. Prokofiev, P. Hindemith, B. Britten, B. Bartok, etc.).
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1 PROGRAM - MINIMUM candidate exam in the specialty "Musical Art" in art history Introduction The program involves testing the knowledge of graduate students and candidates for the academic degree of candidate of sciences regarding the achievements and problems of modern musicology, in-depth knowledge of the theory and history of music, orientation in the problems of modern musicology, mastering the skills of independent analysis and systematization of material, mastering methods research work and skills of scientific thinking and scientific generalization. The candidate minimum is designed for conservatory graduates with a basic education. An important place in the training of scientific and creative personnel is given to familiarization with the problems of modern musicology (including interdisciplinary), in-depth study of the history and theory of music, including such disciplines as analysis of musical forms, harmony, polyphony, history of domestic and foreign music. A worthy place in the program is given to the problems of creating, preserving and distributing music, issues of profiling the scientific research of graduate students (applicants), their scientific views and interests related to the topic of the dissertation. Postgraduate students (applicants) taking an exam in this specialty are also required to master special concepts of musicology, which make it possible to use concepts and provisions that are new to them in scientific and creative activities. An important requirement factor is mastery modern technologies research activities, ability and skills to use theoretical material in practical (performing, teaching, scientific) activities. The requirement factor is mastery of modern research technologies, the ability to use theoretical material in practical (performing, teaching, scientific) activities. The program was developed by the Astrakhan Conservatory on the basis of the minimum program of the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory, approved by the expert council of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education of Russia in philology and art history. QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAM: 1. Theory of musical intonation. 2. Classic style V music XVIII century. 3. Theory of musical dramaturgy. 4. Musical baroque. 5. Methodology and theory of folklore.
2 6. Romanticism. His general and musical aesthetics. 7. Genre in music. 8. Artistic and stylistic processes in Western European music of the second half of the 19th century. 9. Style in music. Polystylistics. 10. Mozartianism in the music of the 19th and 20th centuries. 11. Theme and thematism in music. 12. Imitation forms of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. 13. Fugue: concept, genesis, typology of form. 14. Mussorgsky’s traditions in Russian music of the twentieth century. 15. Ostinata and ostinato forms in music. 16. Mythopoetics of Rimsky-Korsakov’s operatic creativity. 17. Musical rhetoric and its manifestation in the music of the 19th and 20th centuries. 18. Stylistic processes in the musical art of the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. 19. Modality. Modus. Modal technique. Modal music of the Middle Ages and 20th centuries. 20. “Faustian” theme in music of the 19th and 20th centuries. 21. Series. Serial technology. Seriality. 22. Music of the twentieth century in the light of the ideas of synthesis of arts. 23. Opera genre and its typology. 24. The genre of the symphony and its typology. 25. Expressionism in music. 26. Theory of functions in musical form and harmony. 27. Stylistic processes in Russian music of the second half of the twentieth century. 28. Characteristics sound organization of music of the twentieth century. 29. Artistic trends in Russian music of the 20th century. 30. Harmony in music of the 19th century. 31. Shostakovich in the context of the musical culture of the twentieth century. 32. Modern musical theoretical systems. 33. Creativity of I.S. Bach and its historical significance. 34. The problem of classification of chord material in modern musical theories. 35. Symphony in modern Russian music. 36. Problems of tonality in modern musicology. 37. Stravinsky in the context of the era. 38. Folklorism in the music of the twentieth century. 39. Word and music. 40. Main trends in Russian music of the 19th century.
3 REFERENCES: Recommended basic literature 1. Alshvang A.A. Selected works in 2 vols. M., 1964, Alshvang A.A. Tchaikovsky. M., Ancient aesthetics. Introductory essay and collection of texts by A.F. Losev. M., Anton Webern. Lectures on music. Letters. M., Aranovsky M.G. Musical text: structure, properties. M., Aranovsky M.G. Thinking, language, semantics. //Problems of musical thinking. M., Aranovsky M.G. Symphonic quests. L., Asafiev B.V. Selected works, volume M., Asafiev B.V. A book about Stravinsky. L., Asafiev B.V. Musical form as a process, book. 1 2 (). L., Asafiev B.V. Russian music of the 19th and early 20th centuries. L., Asafiev B.V. Symphonic etudes. L., Aslanishvili Sh. Principles of shape formation in the fugues of J. S. Bach. Tbilisi, Balakirev M.A. Memories. Letters. L., Balakirev M.A. Research. Articles. L., Balakirev M.V. and V.V. Stasov. Correspondence. M., 1970, Barenboim L.A. A.G. Rubinstein. L., 1957, Barsova I.L. Essays on the history of score notation (XVI - first half of the XVIII century). M., Bela Bartok. Sat.Articles. M., Belyaev V.M. Mussorgsky. Scriabin. Stravinsky. M., Bershadskaya T.S. Lectures on harmony. L., Bobrovsky V.P. On the variability of the functions of musical form. M., Bobrovsky V.P. Functional foundations of musical form. M., Bogatyrev S.S. Double canon. M. L., Bogatyrev S.S. Reversible counterpoint. M.L., Borodin A.P. Letters. M., Vasina-Grossman V.A. Russian classical romance. M., Volman B.L. Russian printed music of the 18th century. L., Memoirs of Rachmaninov. In 2 vols. M., Vygotsky L.S. Psychology of art. M., Glazunov A.K. Musical heritage. In 2 vols. L., 1959, 1960.
4 32. Glinka M.I. Literary heritage. M., 1973, 1975, Glinka M.I. Collection of materials and articles / Ed. Livanova T.M.-L., Gnesin M. Thoughts and memories of N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. M., Gozenpud A.A. Musical theater in Russia. From the origins to Glinka. L., Gozenpud A.A. N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Themes and ideas of his operatic work. 37. Gozenpud A.A. Russian Opera House of the 19th and early 20th centuries. L., Grigoriev S.S. Theoretical course of harmony. M., Gruber R.I. History of musical culture. Volume 1 2. M. L., Gulyanitskaya N.S. Introduction to modern harmony. M., Danilevich L. The last operas of Rimsky-Korsakov. M., Dargomyzhsky A.S. Autobiography. Letters. Memories. Pg., Dargomyzhsky A.S. Selected letters. M., Dianin S.A. Borodin. M., Diletsky N.P. The idea of a Musikian grammar. M., Dmitriev A. Polyphony as a factor in shaping. L., Documents of the life and work of Johann Sebastian Bach. / Comp. H.-J. Schulze; lane with him. and comment. V.A.Erokhina. M., Dolzhansky A.N. On the modal basis of Shostakovich's works. (1947) // Features of the style of D. D. Shostakovich. M., Druskin M.S. About Western European music of the twentieth century. M., Evdokimova Yu.K. History of polyphony. Issues I, II-a. M., 1983, Evdokimova Yu.K., Simakova N.A. Music of the Renaissance (cantus firmus and work with it). M., Evseev S. Russian folk polyphony. M., Zhitomirsky D.V. Ballets by Tchaikovsky. M., Zaderatsky V. Polyphonic thinking of I. Stravinsky. M., Zaderatsky V. Polyphony in the instrumental works of D. Shostakovich. M., Zakharova O. Musical rhetoric. M., Ivanov Boretsky M.V. Musical-historical anthology. Issue 1-2. M., History of polyphony: in 7 issues. You.2. Dubrovskaya T.N. M., History of Russian music in materials / Ed. K.A. Kuznetsova. M., History of Russian music. In 10 vols. M.,
5 61. Kazantseva L.P. Author in musical content. M., Kazantseva L.P. Fundamentals of the theory of musical content. Astrakhan, Kandinsky A.I. From the history of Russian symphonism of the end XIX beginning XX centuries // From the history of Russian and Soviet music, vol. 1. M., Kandinsky A.I. Monuments of Russian musical culture (choral works a capella by Rachmaninov) // Soviet music, 1968, Karatygin V.G. Selected articles. M.L., Catuar G.L. Theoretical course of harmony, part 1 2. M., Keldysh Yu.V. Essays and studies on the history of Russian music. M., Kirillina L.V. Classical style in music of the 18th and early 19th centuries: 69. Self-awareness of the era and musical practice. M., Kirnarskaya D.K. Musical perception. M., Claude Debussy. Articles, reviews, conversations. / Per. from French M. L., Kogan G. Questions of pianism. M., Kon Yu. On the issue of the concept of “musical language”. //From Lully to the present day. M., Konen V.D. Theater and symphony. M., Korchinsky E.N. On the question of the theory of canonical imitation. L., Korykhalova N.P. Interpretation of music. L., Kuznetsov I.K. Theoretical foundations of polyphony of the twentieth century. M., Course E. Fundamentals of linear counterpoint. M., Kurt E. Romantic harmony and its crisis in Wagner’s “Tristan”, M., Kushnarev Kh.S. Questions of history and theory of Armenian monodic music. L., Kushnarev Kh.S. About polyphony. M., Cui C. Selected articles. L., Lavrentyeva I.V. Vocal forms in the course of analysis musical works. M., Laroche G.A. Selected articles. In 5 issue. L., Levaya T. Russian music late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century in the artistic 86. context of the era. M., Livanova T.N. Bach's musical dramaturgy and its historical connections. M. L., Livanova T.N., Protopopov V.V. M.I.Glinka, t M.,
6 89. Lobanova M. Western European musical Baroque: problems of aesthetics and poetics. M., Losev A.F. On the concept of the artistic canon // The problem of the canon in ancient and medieval art of Asia and Africa. M., Losev A.F., Shestakov V.P. History of aesthetic categories. M., Lotman Yu.M. Canonical art as an information paradox. // The problem of the canon in ancient and medieval art of Asia and Africa. M., Lyadov An.K. Life. Portrait. Creation. Pg Mazel L.A. Questions of music analysis. M., Mazel L.A. About the melody. M., Mazel L.A. Problems of classical harmony. M., Mazel L.A., Tsukkerman V.A. Analysis of musical works. M., Medushevsky V.V. Intonation form of music. M., Medushevsky V.V. Musical style as a semiotic object. //SM Medushevsky V.V. On the laws and means of the artistic influence of music. M., Medtner N. Muse and fashion. Paris, 1935, reprint Medtner N. Letters. M., Medtner N. Articles. Materials. Memoirs / Comp. Z. Apetyan. M., Milka A. Theoretical foundations of functionality. L., Mikhailov M.K. Style in music. L., Music and musical life of old Russia / Ed. Asafieva. L Musical culture of the ancient world / Ed. R.I. Gruber. L., Musical aesthetics of Germany in the 19th century. / Comp. Al.V. Mikhailov. In 2 vols. M., Musical aesthetics of the Western European Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Compiled by V.P. Shestakov. M., Musical aesthetics of France in the 19th century. M., Tchaikovsky's musical heritage. M., Musical content: science and pedagogy. Ufa, Mussorgsky M.P. Literary heritage. M., Muller T. Polyphony. M., Myaskovsky N. Musical and critical articles: in 2 vols. M., Myasoedov A.N. About harmony classical music(roots of national specificity). M., 1998.
7 117. Nazaykinsky E.V. The logic of musical composition. M., Nazaykinsky E.V. On the psychology of musical perception. M., Nikolaeva N.S. "Das Rheingold" is a prologue to Wagner's concept of the universe. // 120. Romantic problems music of the XIX century. M., Nikolaeva N.S. Symphonies by Tchaikovsky. M., Nosina V.B. Symbolism of J. S. Bach's music and its interpretation in the “Well 123. tempered clavier”. M., About Rachmaninov’s symphony and his poem “Bells” // Soviet music, 1973, 4, 6, Odoevsky V.F. Musical and literary heritage. M., Pavchinsky S.E. Scriabin's works of the late period. M., Paisov Yu.I. Polytonality in the works of Soviet and foreign composers of the twentieth century. M., In memory of S.I. Taneev. M., Prout E. Fuga. M., Protopopov V.V. "Ivan Susanin" by Glinka. M., Protopopov V.V. Essays on the history of instrumental forms of the 16th and early 19th centuries. M., Protopopov V.V. Principles of musical form by J. S. Bach. M., Protopopov V.V., Tumanina N.V. Operatic works of Tchaikovsky. M., Rabinovich A.S. Russian opera before Glinka. M., Rachmaninov S.V. Literary heritage / Comp. Z.Apetyan M., Riemann H. Simplified harmony or the doctrine of tonal functions of chords. M., Rimsky-Korsakov A.N. N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Life and creativity. M., Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. Memoirs of V.V. Yastrebtseva. L., 1959, Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. Literary heritage. T M., Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. Practical textbook of harmony. Complete works, vol.iv. M., Richard Wagner. Selected works. M., Rovenko A. Practical foundations of strettno imitative polyphony. M., Romain Rolland. Music historical heritage. Vyp M., Rubinshtein A.G. Literary heritage. T. 1, 2. M., 1983, 1984.
8 145. Russian book about Bach / Ed. T.N. Livanova, V.V. Protopopov. M., Russian music and the 20th century. M., Russian artistic culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. Book 1, 3. M., 1969, Ruchevskaya E.A. Functions theme song. L., Savenko S.I. I.F. Stravinsky. M., Saponov M.L. Minstrels: essays on the musical culture of the Western Middle Ages. M.: Prest, Simakova N.A. Vocal genres of the Renaissance. M., Skrebkov S.S. Textbook of polyphony. Ed. 4. M., Skrebkov S.S. Artistic principles of musical styles. M., Skrebkov S.S. Artistic principles of musical styles. M., Skrebkova-Filatova M.S. Texture in music: Artistic possibilities, structure, functions. M., Skryabin A.N. To the 25th anniversary of his death. M., Skryabin A.N. Letters. M., Skryabin A.N. Sat. Art. M., Smirnov M.A. The emotional world of music. M., Sokolov O. On the problem of music typology. genres. //Problems of music of the twentieth century. Gorky, Solovtsov A.A. The life and work of Rimsky-Korsakov. M., Sokhor A. Questions of sociology and aesthetics of music. Part 2. L., Sokhor A. Theory of music. genres: tasks and prospects. //Theoretical problems of musical forms and genres. M., Sposobin I.V. Lectures on the course of harmony. M., Stasov V.V. Articles. About music. In 5th issue. M., Stravinsky I.F. Dialogues. M., Stravinsky I.F. Correspondence with Russian correspondents. T/Ed-com. V.P.Varunts. M., Stravinsky I.F. Collection of articles. M., Stravinsky I.F. Chronicle of my life. M., Taneev S.I. Analysis of modulations in Beethoven’s sonatas // Russian book about Beethoven. M., Taneev S.I. From the scientific and pedagogical heritage. M., Taneev S.I. Materials and documents. M., Taneev S.I. A moving counterpoint to strict writing. M., Taneev S.I. The doctrine of the canon. M., Tarakanov M.E. Alban Berg Musical Theatre. M., 1976.
9 176. Tarakanov M.E. New tonality in the music of the twentieth century // Problems of musical science. M., Tarakanov M.E. New images, new means // Soviet music, 1966, 1, Tarakanov M.E. The work of Rodion Shchedrin. M., Telin Yu.N. Harmony. Theoretical course. M., Timofeev N.A. Transformability of simple canons of strict writing. M., Tumanina N.V. Tchaikovsky. In 2 vols. M., 1962, Tyulin Yu.N. The art of counterpoint. M., Tyulin Yu.N. On the origin and initial development of harmony in folk music // Questions of musical science. M., Tyulin Yu.N. Modern harmony and its historical origin /1963/. // Theoretical problems of music of the twentieth century. M., Tyulin Yu.N. The Doctrine of Harmony (1937). M., Franz Liszt. Berlioz and his symphony “Harold” // Liszt F. Selections. articles. M., Ferman V.E. Opera House. M., Fried E.L. Past, present and future in Mussorgsky's Khovanshchina. L., Kholopov Yu.N. The changing and the unchanging in the evolution of music. thinking. // Problems of tradition and innovation in modern music. M., Kholopov Yu.N. Shostakovich's frets // Dedicated to Shostakovich. M., Kholopov Yu.N. About three foreign systems of harmony // Music and modernity. M., Kholopov Yu.N. Structural levels harmony // Musica theorica, 6, MGK. M., 2000 (manuscript) Kholopova V.N. Music as an art form. St. Petersburg, Kholopova V.N. Musical theme. M., Kholopova V.N. Russian musical rhythm. M., Kholopova V.N. Texture. M., Tsukkerman V.A. “Kamarinskaya” by Glinka and its traditions in Russian music. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Analysis of musical works: Variational form. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Analysis of musical works: General principles of development and formation in music, simple forms. M., 1980.
10 200. Tsukkerman V.A. Expressive means of Tchaikovsky's lyrics. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Musical theoretical essays and studies. M., 1970, Tsukkerman V.A. Musical theoretical essays and studies. M., 1970., issue. II. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Musical genres and basics of musical forms. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Liszt's Sonata in B minor. M., Tchaikovsky M.I. Life of P.I. Tchaikovsky. M., Tchaikovsky P.I. and Taneev S.I. Letters. M., Tchaikovsky P.I. Literary heritage. T M., Tchaikovsky P.I. Guide to the practical study of harmony /1872/, Complete collection of works, vol.iii-a. M., Cherednichenko T.V. On the problem of artistic value in music. // Problems of music science. Issue 5. M., Chernova T.Yu. Dramaturgy in instrumental music. M., Chugaev A. Features of the structure of Bach’s keyboard fugues. M., Shakhnazarova N.G. Music of the East and music of the West. M., Etinger M.A. Early classical harmony. M., Yuzhak K.I. Theoretical essay on the polyphony of free writing. L., Yavorsky B.L. Basic elements of music // Art, 1923, Yavorsky B.L. The structure of musical speech. Ch M., Yakupov A.N. Theoretical problems of musical communication. M., Das Musikwerk. Eine Beispielsammlung zur Musikgeschichte. Hrsg. von K. G. Fellerer. Koln: Arno Volk Denkmaler der Tonkunst in Osterreich (DTO) [Multi-volume series “Monuments of musical art in Austria”] Denkmaler Deutscher Tonkunst (DDT) [Multi-volume series “Monuments of German art”].
Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation PROGRAM - MINIMUM candidate exam in the specialty 17.00.02 “Musical Art” in art history The minimum program contains 19 pages.
Introduction Program for candidate examination in specialty 17.00.02 musical art involves clarifying the knowledge of graduate students and candidates for the academic degree of candidate of sciences about achievements and problems
Approved by the decision of the Academic Council of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Krasnodar State Institute of Culture" dated March 29, 2016, protocol 3 PROGRAM OF THE ENTRANCE TEST for applicants to study
Contents of the entrance exam for the specialty 50.06.01 Art History 1. Interview on the topic of the essay 2. Answering questions on the history and theory of music Requirements for a scientific essay Entrance
QUESTIONS FOR THE CANDIDATE EXAM IN THE SPECIALTY Direction of study 50.06.01 “Art History” Focus (profile) “Musical art” Section 1. History of music History of Russian music
Program compiler: A.G. Alyabyeva, Doctor of Art History, Professor of the Department of Musicology, Composition and Methods of Music Education. Purpose of the entrance exam: assessment of the applicant’s maturity
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RF Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Murmansk State Humanitarian University" (MSGU) WORKING
EXPLANATORY NOTE A creative competition to identify certain theoretical and practical creative abilities of applicants is held at the academy according to a program developed by the academy
Tambov regional state budgetary educational institution of higher education “Tambov State Musical and Pedagogical Institute named after. S.V.Rachmaninov" ENTRANCE PROGRAM
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Performing
1 თბილისის ვანო სარაჯიშვილის სახელობის სახელმწიფო კონსერვატორია სადოქტორო პროგრამა: საშემსრულებლო ხელოვნება სპეციალობა აკადემიური სიმღერა მისაღები გამოცდების მოთხოვნები მოთხოვნები მოთხოვნები სპეციალობა სოლო სიმღერა - 35-40
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “Russian State University named after. A.N. Kosygina (Technology. Design. Art)"
Contents of the entrance test in the field of 50.06.01 Art History 1. Interview on the topic of the essay. 2. Answering questions on the history and theory of music. Entrance test form
MINISTRY OF CULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION "ORYOL STATE INSTITUTE OF CULTURE" (FSBEI HE "OGIK") FACULTY
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Murmansk State Humanitarian University" (MSGU) WORKING
The program was discussed and approved at a meeting of the Department of History and Theory of Music of the Tambov State Musical and Pedagogical Institute named after. S.V. Rachmaninov. Protocol 2 of September 5, 2016. Developers:
2. Professional test (solfeggio, harmony) Write a two-three-voice dictation (harmonic type with melodically developed voices, using alteration, deviations and modulations, including
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Performing Faculty Department of History and Theory
ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE PROGRAM Musical literature(foreign and domestic) 2013 The curriculum of the academic discipline was developed on the basis of the Federal State Educational Standard (hereinafter
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)
The program was approved at a meeting of the Department of History and Theory of Music of the Federal Targeted Program, protocol 5 dated April 09, 2017. This program is intended for applicants entering graduate school at Orthodox St. Tikhon
MINISTRY OF CULTURE OF THE REPUBLIC OF CRIMEA STATE BUDGETARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF CRIMEA "CRIMEA UNIVERSITY OF CULTURE, ARTS AND TOURISM" (GBOU HE RK "KUKIIT")
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE LUGANSK PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC LUGANSK UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER TARAS SHEVCHENKO Institute of Culture and Arts PROGRAM of the profile entrance test in the specialty "Music"
Explanatory note Work program academic subject“Music” for grades 5-7 was developed in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for Basic General Education
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)
Department of Culture of Moscow State Budgetary Educational Institution of Education and Culture of Moscow "Voronovskaya Children's School of Art" Adopted by the Pedagogical Council Protocol of 2012 “Approved” by the Director of the State Budgetary Institution for Traffic Inspection (Gracheva I.N.) 2012. Teacher's work program
Planning music lessons. 5th grade. Theme of the year: “Music and Literature” “Russian Classical Music School”. 5. Introduction to large symphonic forms. 6. Broadening and deepening the presentation
Compiled by: Sokolova O. N., Candidate of Science, Associate Professor Reviewer: Grigorieva V. Yu., Candidate of Science, Associate Professor The program was approved at a meeting of the Department of History and Theory of Music of the Federal Targeted Program, protocol 1 of 01.09.2018 2 This program
Compiler of the program: Compilers of the program: T.I. Strazhnikova, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department of Musicology, Composition and Methods of Music Education. The program is intended
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Nizhny Novgorod State Conservatory named after. M. I. Glinka L. A. Ptushko HISTORY OF NATIONAL MUSIC OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE XX CENTURY A textbook for music students
State Classical Academy named after. Maimonides Faculty of World Musical Culture Department of Theory and History of Music Approved by: Rector of the State Academy of Music named after. Maimonides Prof. Sushkova-Irina Ya.I. Subject program
SCHOOL DISCIPLINE PROGRAM Musical literature (foreign and domestic) 208. The academic discipline program was developed on the basis of the Federal State Educational Standard (hereinafter
DEPARTMENT OF CULTURE AND TOURISM OF THE VOLOGDA REGION budgetary professional educational institution of the Vologda region "VOLOGDA REGIONAL COLLEGE OF ARTS" (BPOU HE "Vologda Regional College
Class: 6 Hours per week: Total hours: 35 I trimester. Total weeks 0.6 total lesson hours Thematic planning Subject: Music Section. “The transformative power of music” The transformative power of music as a form
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Nizhny Novgorod State Conservatory (Academy) named after. M. I. Glinka Department of Choral Conducting G. V. Suprunenko Principles of theatricalization in modern choir
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Performing
Additional general developmental program “Performing arts (piano) preparation for the level of higher education programs, bachelor’s programs, specialty programs” References 1. Alekseev
Budgetary professional educational institution of the Udmurt Republic "Republican music college» ASSESSMENT FUNDS CONTROL AND EVALUATION MATERIALS FOR EXAMINATION Specialty 02/53/07
1. EXPLANATORY NOTE Admission to the field of study 53.04.01 “Musical and Instrumental Art” is carried out with higher education of any level. Applicants for training under this
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education Moscow State Institute of Culture APPROVED by the Dean of the Faculty of Musical Art Zorilova L.S. 18
Explanatory note. The work program is based on a standard program for “musical literacy and listening to music”, N.S. Blagonravova. The work program is designed for grades 1-5. To the musical
Explanatory note Entrance tests in the direction of “Musical and instrumental art”, the profile “Piano” reveal the level of pre-university preparation of applicants for further improvement
Programs for additional entrance examinations of creative and (or) professional orientation according to the specialist training program: 53.05.05 Musicology Additional entrance tests for creative
Municipal autonomous institution additional education of the urban district "City of Kaliningrad" "Children's music school named after D.D. Shostakovich" Examination requirements for the subject "Musical
EDUCATIONAL PRIVATE INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION "ORTHODOX ST. Tikhon's HUMANITARIAN UNIVERSITY" (PSTGU), Moscow, APPROVED Vice-Rector for Scientific Work, Fr. K. Polskov, Ph.D. Philosopher
Luchina Elena Igorevna, Candidate of Art History, Associate Professor of the Department of History of Music Born in Karl-Marx-Stadt (Germany). Graduated from the theoretical and piano departments of the Voronezh Music College
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Performing Faculty
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY OF MOSCOW State autonomous educational institution of higher education of the city of Moscow "Moscow City pedagogical university» Institute of Culture and Arts
Code of training direction For 2016-2017 academic year PROGRAM for entrance examinations to graduate school Name Name of focus area of training (profile) of the training program 1 2 3
Explanatory note Entrance exams for the specialty “Musical and Theatrical Art”, specialization “The Art of Opera Singing” reveal the level of pre-university preparation of applicants for further
Explanatory note The work program of the academic subject "MUSIC" for grades 5-7 was developed in accordance with the main educational program of the basic general education of the Murmansk Municipal Budgetary Educational Institution "Secondary
Municipal budgetary educational institution of additional education for children School of Arts of Zavitinsky district Calendar plans for the subject Musical literature First year of study First year
Municipal budgetary institution of additional education of the city of Astrakhan “Children’s Art School named after M.P. Maksakova" Additional general developmental educational program "Fundamentals of Music
“APPROVED” Rector of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education MGUDT V.S. Belgorod 2016 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION federal state budgetary educational institution of higher professional
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Performing