Peoples' Friendship University of Russia
Faculty of Philology
Department of Russian and foreign literature
course "History of Russian literature of the 19th century"
Subject:
"Classicism. Basic principles. The originality of Russian classicism"
Performed by student Ivanova I.A.
Group FZHB-11
Scientific supervisor:
Associate Professor Pryakhin M.N.
Moscow
The concept of classicism
Philosophical teaching
Ethical and aesthetic program
Genre system
List of used literature
The concept of classicism
Classicism is one of the most important trends in the literature of the past. Having established itself in the works and creativity of many generations, having put forward a brilliant galaxy of poets and writers, classicism left such milestones along the way artistic development humanity, like the tragedies of Corneille, Racine, Milton, Voltaire, the comedies of Moliere and many other literary works. History itself confirms the viability of the traditions of the classicist artistic system and the value of the underlying concepts of the world and human personality, primarily the moral imperative characteristic of classicism.
Classicism did not always remain identical to itself in everything, but was constantly developing and improving. This is especially obvious if we consider classicism from the perspective of its three-century existence and in the different national versions in which it appears to us in France, Germany and Russia. Taking its first steps in the 16th century, that is, during the mature Renaissance, classicism absorbed and reflected the atmosphere of this revolutionary era, and at the same time it carried new trends that were destined to manifest themselves energetically only in the next century.
Classicism is one of the most studied and theoretically thought-out literary movements. But, despite this, its detailed study is still an extremely relevant topic for modern researchers, largely due to the fact that it requires special flexibility and subtlety of analysis.
The formation of the concept of classicism requires systematic, purposeful work of the researcher based on attitudes towards artistic perception and the development of value judgments when analyzing the text.
Russian classicism literature
Therefore in modern science Contradictions often arise between new tasks of literary research and old approaches to the formation of theoretical and literary concepts about classicism.
Basic principles of classicism
Classicism as artistic direction It is typical to reflect life in ideal images that gravitate towards the universal “norm” model. Hence the cult of antiquity of classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of perfect and harmonious art.
Both high and low genres were obliged to instruct the public, elevate its morals, and enlighten its feelings.
The most important standards of classicism are the unity of action, place and time. In order to more accurately convey the idea to the viewer and inspire him to selfless feelings, the author should not have complicated anything. The main intrigue should be simple enough so as not to confuse the viewer and not deprive the picture of its integrity. The requirement for the unity of time was closely related to the unity of action. The unity of the place was expressed in different ways. This could be the space of one palace, one room, one city, and even the distance that the hero could cover within twenty-four hours.
Classicism is formed, experiencing the influence of other pan-European trends in art that are directly in contact with it: it builds on the aesthetics of the Renaissance that preceded it and opposes Baroque.
Historical background classicism
The history of classicism begins in Western Europe from the end of the 16th century. In the 17th century reaches its highest development associated with the blossoming absolute monarchy Louis XIV in France and the highest rise of theatrical art in the country. Classicism continued to exist fruitfully in the 18th and early 19th centuries, until it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.
How art system classicism finally took shape in the 17th century, although the concept of classicism itself was born later, in the 19th century, when an irreconcilable war was declared on it by romance.
Having studied the poetics of Aristotle and the practice of Greek theater, the French classics proposed rules of construction in their works, based on the foundations of rationalistic thinking of the 17th century. First of all, this is strict adherence to the laws of the genre, division into the highest genres - ode (a solemn song (lyric) poem glorifying glory, praise, greatness, victory, etc.), tragedy (a dramatic or stage work that depicts an irreconcilable conflict between the individual and forces opposing it), epic (depicts actions or events in an objective narrative form, characterized by a calmly contemplative attitude towards the depicted object) and lower - comedy (a dramatic performance or composition for the theater, where society is presented in a funny, amusing form), satire (a type of comic , differing from other types (humor, irony) in the sharpness of its exposure).
The laws of classicism are most characteristically expressed in the rules for constructing tragedy. The author of the play was, first of all, required that the plot of the tragedy, as well as the passions of the characters, be believable. But the classicists have their own understanding of verisimilitude: not just the similarity of what is depicted on stage with reality, but the consistency of what is happening with the requirements of reason, with a certain moral and ethical norm.
Philosophical teaching
The central place in Classicism was occupied by the idea of order, in the establishment of which the leading role belongs to reason and knowledge. From the idea of the priority of order and reason followed a characteristic concept of man, which could be reduced to three leading principles or principles:
) the principle of the priority of reason over passions, the belief that the highest virtue consists in resolving contradictions between reason and passions in favor of the former, and the highest valor and justice lie respectively in actions prescribed not by passions, but by reason;
) the principle of primordial morality and law-abidingness of the human mind, the belief that it is reason that is capable of leading a person to truth, goodness and justice in the shortest way;
) the principle of social service, which asserted that the duty prescribed by reason lies in the honest and selfless service of a person to his sovereign and the state.
In socio-historical, moral and legal terms, Classicism was associated with the process of centralization of power and the strengthening of absolutism in a number of European states. He took on the role of ideology, defending the interests of the royal houses seeking to unite the nations around them.
Ethical and aesthetic program
The initial principle of the aesthetic code of classicism is imitation of beautiful nature. Objective beauty for the theorists of classicism (Boileau, Andre) is the harmony and regularity of the universe, which has as its source a spiritual principle that shapes matter and puts it in order. Beauty, therefore, as an eternal spiritual law, is the opposite of everything sensual, material, changeable. Therefore, moral beauty is higher than physical beauty; the creation of human hands is more beautiful than the rough beauty of nature.
The laws of beauty do not depend on the experience of observation; they are extracted from the analysis of internal spiritual activity.
The ideal of the artistic language of classicism is the language of logic - accuracy, clarity, consistency. The linguistic poetics of classicism avoids, as far as possible, the objective figurativeness of the word. Her usual remedy is an abstract epithet.
The relationship between the individual elements of a work of art is built on the same principles, i.e. a composition that is usually a geometrically balanced structure based on a strict symmetrical division of the material. Thus, the laws of art are likened to the laws of formal logic.
The political ideal of classicism
In his political struggle The revolutionary bourgeois and plebeians in France, both in the decades preceding the revolution and in the turbulent years of 1789-1794, made extensive use of ancient traditions, ideological heritage and external forms of Roman democracy. So, at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. In European literature and art, a new type of classicism emerged, new in its ideological and social content in relation to the classicism of the 17th century, to the aesthetic theory and practice of Boileau, Corneille, Racine, and Poussin.
The art of classicism of the era bourgeois revolution was strictly rationalistic, i.e. required complete logical correspondence of all elements of the artistic form to an extremely clearly expressed plan.
Classicism of the 18th-19th centuries. was not a homogeneous phenomenon. In France, the heroic period of the bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794. preceded and accompanied the development of revolutionary republican classicism, which was embodied in the dramas of M.Zh. Chenier, in early painting David, etc. In contrast, during the years of the Directory and especially the Consulate and the Napoleonic Empire, classicism lost its revolutionary spirit and turned into a conservative academic movement.
Sometimes under the direct influence French art and the events of the French Revolution, and in some cases, independently of them and even preceding them in time, a new classicism developed in Italy, Spain, the Scandinavian countries, and the USA. In Russia, classicism reached its greatest heights in the architecture of the first third of the 19th century.
One of the most significant ideological and artistic achievements of this time was the work of the great German poets and thinkers - Goethe and Schiller.
With all the variety of variants of classicist art, there was much in common. And the revolutionary classicism of the Jacobins, and the philosophical-humanistic classicism of Goethe, Schiller, Wieland, and the conservative classicism of the Napoleonic Empire, and the very diverse - sometimes progressive-patriotic, sometimes reactionary-great-power - classicism in Russia were contradictory products of the same historical era.
Genre system
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable).
ABOUT́
Yes- a poetic, as well as musical and poetic work, distinguished by solemnity and sublimity, dedicated to some event or hero. The tragedy is marked by stern seriousness, depicts reality in the most pointed way, as a clot of internal contradictions, reveals the deepest conflicts of reality in an extremely intense and rich form that takes on meaning artistic symbol; It is no coincidence that most tragedies are written in verse. Epić
I- generic designation for large epic and similar works: .An extensive narrative in verse or prose about outstanding national historical events. 2.A complex, long history of something, including a number of major events. Comá
diya- a genre of fiction characterized by a humorous or satirical approach. Satire- a manifestation of the comic in art, which is a poetic, humiliating denunciation of phenomena using various comic means: sarcasm, irony, hyperbole, grotesque, allegory, parody, etc. Bá
sleeping- a poetic or prose literary work of a moralizing, satirical nature. At the end of the fable there is a short moralizing conclusion - the so-called morality. The characters are usually animals, plants, things. The fable ridicules the vices of people. Representatives of classicism
In literature, Russian classicism is represented by the works of A.D. Kantemira, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokova. HELL. Kantemir was the founder of Russian classicism, the founder of the most vital real-satirical direction in it - such are his famous satires. V.K. Trediakovsky, with his theoretical works, contributed to the establishment of classicism, but in his poetic works there is a new ideological content did not find a corresponding artistic form. The traditions of Russian classicism manifested themselves differently in the works of A.P. Sumarokov, who defended the idea of the inseparability of the interests of the nobility and the monarchy. Sumarokov laid the foundation for the dramatic system of classicism. In his tragedies, under the influence of the reality of that time, he often turns to the theme of the uprising against tsarism. In his work, Sumarokov pursued social and educational goals, preaching high civic feelings and noble deeds. The next prominent representative of Russian classicism, whose name is known to everyone without exception, is M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765). Lomonosov, unlike Kantemir, rarely ridicules enemies of enlightenment. He managed to almost completely rework the grammar based on the French canons, and made changes to the versification. Actually, it was Mikhail Lomonosov who became the first who was able to introduce the canonical principles of classicism into Russian literature. Depending on the quantitative mixture of words of three kinds, one or another style is created. This is how the “three calms” of Russian poetry emerged: “high” - Church Slavonic words and Russian ones. The pinnacle of Russian classicism is the work of D.I. Fonvizin (Brigadier, Minor), the creator of a truly original national comedy, who laid the foundations of critical realism within this system. Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin was the last in a row of the largest representatives of Russian classicism. Derzhavin managed to combine not only the themes of these two genres, but also the vocabulary: “Felitsa” organically combines the words of “high calm” and vernacular. Thus, Gabriel Derzhavin, who fully developed the possibilities of classicism in his works, simultaneously became the first Russian poet to overcome the canons of classicism. Russian classicism, its originality
A significant role in the shift in the dominant genre in the artistic system of Russian classicism was played by the qualitatively different attitude of our authors to the traditions of the national culture of previous periods, in particular to national folklore. Theoretical code of French classicism - " Poetic art"Boileau demonstrates a sharply hostile attitude towards everything that in one way or another had a connection with the art of the masses. In his attacks on Tabarin's theater, Boileau denies the traditions of popular farce, finding traces of this tradition in Moliere. Sharp criticism of burlesque poetry also testifies to the well-known anti-democraticism of his aesthetic program There was no place in Boileau’s treatise to characterize such a literary genre as the fable, which is closely connected with the traditions of the democratic culture of the masses. Russian classicism did not shy away from national folklore. On the contrary, in the perception of the traditions of folk poetic culture in certain genres, he found incentives for his enrichment. Even at the origins of the new direction, when undertaking a reform of Russian versification, Trediakovsky directly refers to the songs of the common people as a model that he followed in establishing his rules. The absence of a break between the literature of Russian classicism and the traditions of national folklore explains its other features. Thus, in the system of poetic genres of Russian literature of the 18th century, in particular in the work of Sumarokov, the genre of lyrical love song, which Boileau does not mention at all, receives an unexpected flourishing. In “Epistole 1 on poetry” Sumarokov gives a detailed description of this genre along with the characteristics of recognized genres of classicism, such as ode, tragedy, idyll, etc. In his “Epistole” Sumarokov also includes a description of the fable genre, relying on the experience of La Fontaine . And in his poetic practice, both in songs and in fables, Sumarokov, as we will see, was often directly guided by folklore traditions. originality literary process late XVII - early XVIII centuries. explains another feature of Russian classicism: its connection with the Baroque artistic system in its Russian version. 1.Natural law philosophy XVII classicism V. #"justify">Books: 5.O.Yu. Schmidt "Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Volume 32." Ed. " Soviet encyclopedia"1936 6.A.M. Prokhorov. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Volume 12. "Published "Soviet Encyclopedia" 1973 .S.V. Turaev "Literature. Reference materials". Publishing house "Enlightenment" 1988.
Features of classicism: - appeal to ancient culture Revival as a model; - declaration of the idea of a perfect society; - the advantage of duty over feeling; - exaltation of the mind - rationality, rigor; - subordination of a person to the state system. Representatives: France - literature - Corneille, Moliere's comedies, painting - Poussin, Lorrain. Russia - literature - Lomonosov, architect Kazakov, Rossi, sculptor Martos.
Aesthetic program of classicism 1. Ideas about the reasonable regularity of the world, the beauty of nature, moral ideals 2. Objective reflection of the surrounding world 3. Striving for reasonable clarity of harmony, strict simplicity 4. Observance of correctness and order 5. Subordination of the particular to the main 6. Formation aesthetic taste 7. Restraint and calmness in the manifestation of feelings 8. Rationalism and logic in actions The aesthetics of classicism established a hierarchy of genres - “high” (tragedy, epic, ode; historical, mythological, religious picture, etc.) and “low” (comedy, satire, fable; genre painting, etc.). (character of style)
Classicism in literature It originated at the beginning of the 16th century in Italy, among university scientists who created their own works according to the laws of Aristotle’s “Poetics” that they had just read anew. Gradually, from Italy, classicism spread to other European countries and reached its highest flowering in the 17th century in France, where in 1674 Nicolas Boileau published the poetic treatise “The Art of Poetry,” which became an indisputable set of requirements for literature for a century and a half. Sample" high comedy"can serve as "Tartuffe" - a comedy by Molière. Classicism in the history of world theater was a bridge between the ancient theater and the theater of modern times. The bridge between the ancient theater and the theater of modern times. The structure of the theater: Theatrical performances in the era of classicism were performed without scenery, Honored spectators sat directly on stage on the side. The curtain appeared, but it was rarely used in Classicism. theater arts
In painting, the main importance has become: the logical development of the plot, a clear balanced composition, the rigor of the drawing, the delineation of plans, a clear transfer of volume using chiaroscuro, and the use of local colors. Nicolas Poussin “The Labors of Rinaldo” (1628)The Labors of Rinaldo Jacques Louis David Jacques Louis David “The Oath of the Horatii” (1784) Claude Lorrain. “The Departure of Saint Ursula” In painting, historical paintings, mythical, and religious paintings were recognized as “high” genres. The “low” ones included landscape, portrait, and still life. Representatives: Nicolas Poussin, C. Lorrain, Jacques Louis David.
Architectures of Classicism The architecture of classicism is characterized by an order system inspired by ancient examples, clarity and geometric regularity of lines, balance of volumes and layouts, porticos, columns, statues, and reliefs that stand out on the surface of the walls. Ionic order Doric order Corinthian order Included in fashion triumphal arches. The most famous of them is the arch glorifying the merits of the emperor, built by the architect François Chalgrin on the Place des Stars in Paris.
The sculpture of the era of classicism is distinguished by severity and restraint, smoothness of forms, calmness of poses (E. Falconet, J. Houdon). Falconet "Winter" Falconet, Etienne Maurice Falconet, Etienne Maurice Threatening Cupid J.A. Houdon. "Voltaire"
Changes came with the accession of Louis IV and the creation of the Royal Academy of Arts. The ideas of classicism received their main development in France in the 17th century. Hyacinth Rigaud Portrait of Louis XIV 1702 If at first the art of classicism was the embodiment of integrity, grandeur and order, then later it served the ideals against tyranny, expressing the ideals of the Napoleonic empire. Empire Classicism found its artistic continuation in the Empire style.
Rococo Rococo is the most characteristic style for the French; it concentrated the characteristics of national psychology, the lifestyle and thinking style of the upper class. Rococo Rococo born exclusively secular culture, especially the royal court and the French aristocracy. Rococo is a passion for refined and complex forms, intricate lines reminiscent of the silhouette of a shell
Characteristic features of the Rococo style Gracefulness and lightness, intricacy, decorative sophistication and improvisation, a craving for the exotic; Ornament in the form of shells and curls, flower garlands, cupid figurines; A combination of pastel light and delicate colors, with a lot of white details and gold; The cult of beautiful nudity, sensuality and eroticism; Intriguing duality of images, conveyed with the help of light gestures, half-turns, barely noticeable facial movements; The cult of small forms, diminutiveness, love of little things and trinkets.
Rococo is characterized by a departure from life into the world of fantasy, theatrical play, mythological plots, and erotic situations. The sculpture and painting are elegant, decorative, and gallant scenes predominate in them. Favorite heroines are nymphs, bacchantes, Dianas, Venus, performing their endless “triumphs” and “toilettes”. Rococo painting and sculpture Meissen figurines
The main themes of Rococo painting are the refined life of the court aristocracy, idyllic pictures of “shepherd” life against the backdrop of nature, the world of complex love affairs and ingenious allegories. Human life is instantaneous and fleeting, and therefore we must seize the “happy moment”, hurry to live and feel. “The spirit of charming and airy little things” becomes the leitmotif of the work of many artists of the “royal style.” Antoine Watteau. Gamma of love. Francois Boucher. Madame de Pompadour.
The world of miniature forms found its main expression in applied art in furniture, dishes, bronze, porcelain Decorative and applied art of Rococo Later style Rococo was “rehabilitated” by the romantics, the impressionists took it as a basis, and served as a standard for artists of subsequent movements.
The mind can make mistakes, the feeling never! Jean Jacques Rousseau “Sentimentalism” (from the English sentimental sensitive) Sentimentalists deliberately contrast “feeling” with “reason”. Feeling becomes the central aesthetic category of this movement (for classicists - reason).
Peaceful, idyllic human life in the lap of nature. The village (the center of natural life, moral purity) is sharply contrasted with the city (the symbol of evil, unnatural life, vanity). New heroes are “villagers” and “village women” (shepherds and shepherdesses). Special attention is given to the landscape. The landscape is idyllic, sentimental: a river, babbling brooks, a meadow - in tune with personal experience. The author sympathizes with the characters, his task is to force empathy, to evoke compassion, and tears of tenderness in the reader. main idea
The main theme is love. The main genres are a sentimental story, a journey, and in lyrics - an idyll or pastoral. Epistolary genre. The ideological basis is a protest against the depravity of aristocratic society. The main property is the desire to represent the human personality in the movements of the soul, thoughts, feelings, aspirations. The basis of aesthetics is “imitation of nature” (as in classicism); elegiac and pastoral moods; idealization of patriarchal life.
A departure from the straightforwardness of classicism in the depiction of characters and their assessment. An emphasized subjectivity of the approach to the world. The cult of feelings. The cult of nature. The cult of innate moral purity and innocence. The rich spiritual world of representatives of the lower classes is being established.
V.L. Borovikovsky (g) – the genius of sentimentalism V.L. Borovikovsky (g) – the genius of sentimentalism They do not weave glory for us with titles, Not the names of our ancestors, They crown only virtues And honor alone crowns us... M.M. Kherasko in
Ideas about the reasonable patterns of the world, the beauty of nature, moral ideals
Objective reflection of the surrounding world
Striving for reasonable clarity of harmony, strict simplicity
Formation of aesthetic taste
Restraint and calmness in expressing feelings
Rationalism and logic in actions
Rococo is...
a style in the art of the 18th century, characterized by a predilection for refined and complex forms, bizarre lines reminiscent of the silhouette of a shell.
43. Rokail is…… the main element of the Rococo style ornament, reminiscent of the shape of a curl of a shell and strange plants.
44. Mascaron is…. type of sculptural decoration of a building in the shape of a human or animal head full face
45. Sentimentalism is... is a movement in literature and art of the second half of the 18th century, characterized by an increased interest in human feelings and emotional attitude to the world around us, where love for man and nature comes first.
Which of the outstanding architectural structures classicism is called “Fairytale Dream”
The residence of the French kings on the outskirts of Paris is the Palace of Versailles.
47. Principles of urban planning in the era of classicism:
Creation ideal city with buildings made according to a single plan. The urban ensemble is designed in the form of a square or rectangle in plan. Inside them, a strictly regular rectangular or radial ring system of streets with a city square in the center is planned.
48. Why is the work of N. Poussin called the pinnacle of classicism in painting?
N. Poussin - founder of the classicism style. Turning to the themes of ancient mythology, ancient history, Bible, Poussin revealed the themes of his contemporary era. Through his works he raised a perfect personality, showing and singing examples of high morality and civic valor.
N. Poussin
49. What unites the greatest masters "gallant genre"- A. Watteau and F. Boucher
A world of complex love affairs and life against the backdrop of pristine nature.
Name the composers of Viennese classicism.
A – Joseph Haydn, B – Wolfgang Mozart, C – Ludwig van Beethoven
A 
B C 
51. Symphony is...(consonance) a work for a symphony orchestra, consisting of 4 parts, where the first and last parts have the same keys, and the middle ones are written in keys related to the main one, which is determined
New worldview of man in the 17th century. in different regions of Europe it found expression in unique forms of spiritual culture. In some countries, after the crisis of Renaissance culture, the Baroque era begins (Italy, Flanders); in others, new style- classicism. By the beginning of the 17th century, Baroque was already a unified style in all types of art, while classicism was late in its formation. The stylistic system of classicism cannot be assessed only within the 17th century, because its spread in modified forms across European countries occurred in the 18th and early 19th centuries. But the theory of classicism, unlike the baroque, was very developed and was even ahead of artistic practice. Classicism as an integral artistic system originated in France. It is often called the culture of absolutism, because in the 17th century. in France is developing classic sample absolutist state. But the art of classicism cannot be reduced to serving absolutism. Classicism took shape in the first half of the century, when the question of the future of France remained open. There was a process of state and national construction in which there was still a balance of the main social forces of the country - royal power, the nobility and the growing bourgeoisie. It was not royal power in itself, but precisely this balance that allowed the emergence of classical art, which glorified not absolute submission to the monarch, but ideological citizenship. This art demanded from everyone - rulers and subordinates - reasonable actions, concern for social balance, order and measure. Classicism is a reflective and constructive art. It tried to create ideal models of a just and harmonious world based on reasonable ideas about the public good. The theorists of classicism considered the education of society to be the main task of art. Of course, no art can be built solely on the principles of reason, otherwise it would cease to be art. Classicism came from the Renaissance heritage and the experience of modernity, so it was equally characterized by the spirit of analysis and admiration for the ideal. Classicism replaces the culture of the Renaissance, when this culture itself was in a state of crisis, when Renaissance realism degenerated into the aestheticized, meaningless art of mannerism. In the historical conditions of the 17th century. The humanistic faith in the victory of good over evil, in the harmonious principle of human nature, was lost. The loss of this faith led to a direct crisis in artistic creativity, because it lost its ideal - a person with a rich spiritual life and a noble goal. Therefore, the most important link connecting classicism with the art of the High Renaissance was the return to the modern stage of an active, strong hero - a purposeful, energetic person, thirsty for happiness and in love with life. But in contrast to the Renaissance ideal, a strong moral criterion existing in society acted on the path to happiness of the hero of the New Age. Public morality, as an immutable law of human dignity, was supposed to inspire a person and guide his actions. It is precisely such a hero who appears in the tragedies of Corneille, Racine, and the comedies of Moliere. It is no coincidence that the aesthetic theory of classicism is developed primarily in French drama and literature. Treatises of French writers and poets played an outstanding role in the development of the main stylistic forms of classicism. Parallel to the formation of the theory, the first fully classicistic works of art arose. One of the first theorists and poets of classicism was Nicolas Boileau-Dépreaux (1636-1711). In his poetic treatise “Poetic Art” the theoretical principles of classicism were brought together for the first time. The norms and canons of classicism are presented in this work in a lively and intelligible form. The poetic system must be subject to the discipline of reason. Rational development of the topic comes to the fore. Boileau's call to “Love thought in verse” became the great principle of classicist poetry. The main requirement for a poet is to subordinate his creativity to the discipline of reason. Reason must rule over feeling and imagination. But not only in the content of the work, in the meaning, but also in its form. To perfectly reflect the content, a correct verified method, high professional skill, and virtuosity are required. Unity of form and content is one of the basic principles of classicism. Classicism saw the aesthetic ideal of beauty in ancient culture. Ancient art was proclaimed the norm for both Renaissance art and Baroque. But the relationship between this norm and the artistic practice of classicism is fundamentally different. For the Renaissance, ancient art was a school of mastery and an incentive for independent creative search, and not a canonical model. The Baroque masters theoretically recognized the canons of antiquity, but in their work they were far from them. In the art of classicism, the norms of antiquity acquire the meaning of immutable truth. Following these canons in the conditions of modern culture dooms the art of classicism to the “secondary nature” of truth. The name itself - classicism, not classicism, emphasizes this secondary nature. Classicism saw in ancient culture not only an aesthetic, but also an ethical ideal. Art Ancient Greece and Rome was an example of art of great public sound, which preached high civil and moral ideals. The inner core of the use of ancient canons in the art of classicism was the rational principle. This element occupied an important place in the creative process even in the Renaissance. But then rationalism was put forward in opposition to the irrational feeling of the Middle Ages as the main means in comprehending the laws of nature and art. In classicism, reason appears not as a natural element of human activity, but as an object of cult. Rationalism became the basis and essence of the theory of classicism. Reason was proclaimed the main criterion of artistic truth and beauty. The art of classicism fundamentally separated itself from the sphere of subjective feelings in the perception of beauty. Classicism claimed to assert absolute moral truths and unshakable artistic forms established by reason and expressed in rules. Creativity must obey laws. The classicists derived these laws based on their observations of ancient art. One of the first theorists of classicism, the great French playwright Pierre Corneille (1606-1684), commenting on Aristotle’s Poetics and referring to historical experience centuries, tried to derive the formal laws of drama. One of the main ones was the law of three unities - time, place and action. Corneille's work was a real reform of drama. He is the author of several treatises on the theory of drama and critical analyzes of his own writings. Corneille's tragedy "The Garden" became the national pride of the French. Very quickly it was translated into many European languages. The fame of the play and its author was extraordinary. “Cid” is still in the permanent repertoire of not only French, but also many other theaters in Europe. Corneille made the plots of his plays (“Horace”, “Cinna”, etc.) dramatic moments from the historical past, the fate of people during periods of acute political and social conflicts. He especially often used material from Roman history, which provided him with abundant material for political reflection on modern themes. Basic dramatic conflict Corneille's tragedies are a clash of reason, feelings, duty and passion. Victory always remained with reason and duty. The viewer had to leave the theater without any contradictions or doubts. The source of the tragic is extreme passion, and the viewer was supposed to learn a lesson - it is necessary to keep passions in check. In the tragedies of another famous playwright Jean Racine (1639-1699), the audience saw not only a majestic hero, but a person with weaknesses and shortcomings (“Andromache”, “Berenika”, “Iphigenia in Aulis”). Racine's plays reflected the salon life of Versailles. The Greeks and Romans, inevitable according to the demands of classical poetry, seemed to be the real French of their time. They performed on stage in curled wigs, cocked hats and swords. The kings that Racine brought to the stage were idealized portraits of Louis XIV. The king's reign lasted more than 50 years, and in European history this time was even called the century of Louis XIV. Under favorable circumstances, France rose to such heights of economic and mental development and political power, which became the leading European power and the trendsetter of taste and fashion for all of Europe. The establishment of absolutism corresponded to the personal inclinations of the king. Power-hungry, narcissistic, spoiled by the flattery of his courtiers, Louis loved to repeat the phrase “I am the state.” In order to raise royal prestige, special attention was paid to court life. Strict etiquette distributed the royal time with punctual detail, and the most ordinary act of his life (for example, dressing) was arranged with extreme solemnity. Louis XIV was not satisfied with the admiration for himself that he saw and heard from the courtiers; he began to attract outstanding writers, French and foreign, to his side, giving them monetary rewards and pensions so that they would glorify himself and his reign. French literature gradually took on a courtly character. In 1635, the Academy of Letters was established in Paris. From that time on, classicism became the official dominant trend in literature. Jean de La Fontaine (1621-1695) stood relatively far from the courtyard. It occupies a unique place in the literature of classicism. Lafontaine is not afraid of interest in “lower” genres; he relies on folk wisdom and folklore, which deeply defines national character his creativity. His creative heritage is multifaceted, but the glory of one of greatest poets He owes his fables to France. (La Fontaine's traditions were used by IA Krylov.) In their edifying morality, we see a manifestation of one of the most important principles of classicism - art should educate and convince. The figurative system of the classical style turned out to be unproductive for the art of lyrical poetry, painting, and music. The unstable, changeable sphere of emotions was alien to classicism. The principles of the new style are "harmonious balance of forms and perfect proportions- were essentially the principles of architecture. It is in the area of this art that the main achievements of classicism lie, which determined its spread over two centuries of European culture. The basic principles of the style found their organic embodiment in the architecture of classicism. Classical architecture developed in France, England and Holland. Ideally, this style is the complete opposite of Baroque. It is characterized by clear geometry of forms, strict lines, clear volumes, and harmonious compositional design. Classicism turned to the forms of ancient architecture; it used not only its motifs and individual elements, but also the laws of construction. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order in forms closer to antiquity than baroque. Instead of spontaneous irrational baroque, the architectural image of classicism seeks to express ideas about logic, order and measure. But in the 17th century, architecture had not yet come to a consistent and clear embodiment of these ideas. In practice, the connection with the Baroque system was still visible. This borrowing of some Baroque techniques was especially visible in the architecture of France. It was impossible to solve the problems of glorifying the absolute monarchy, which were posed by the theorists of official art, using strictly classical figurative means. Therefore, the architects of classicism often resorted to baroque techniques of ceremonial representation. They decorated the facades of their buildings in the Baroque spirit, which sometimes makes it difficult for an inexperienced viewer to strictly define the style. Only in the 18th century, when the royal power took on the appearance of an enlightened monarchy and changed its social doctrine, did classicism develop a completely independent figurative structure. For France XVII century is characterized by the interweaving of late Renaissance, Gothic and Baroque features with features of classicism. But the main direction was classicism, all the others accompanied it. In the general mainstream of modern culture, there was a process of gradual transformation of a fortified castle into an unfortified palace. In the city he was included in general structure streets and squares, outside the city connected with an extensive park. Drawbridges were replaced by stone ones, ditches became elements of the park, towers at the entrance were replaced by pavilions. Garden and park ensembles of the Tuileries, Fontainebleau and others were created. They laid the foundations of the art of the regular French garden with its enfilades of straightened alleys, trimmed with grass and shrubs, which were given the geometric shape of cones and balls. The gardener became an architect and sculptor, began to think in spatial categories, and subordinate living material to rational design. The growing need for housing changed the development of the city. At the beginning of the century, a type of hotel developed in Paris that dominated for two centuries. These are houses of the nobility with a courtyard and garden. They combine simple and convenient plans with facades lavishly decorated with sculpture, relief and order. In the new look of city houses, roofs were of great importance, the design and shape of which changed. In the 30s of the 17th century. the architect Mansar proposed a broken roof shape using the attic for housing. This system, called the attic after the author, became widespread throughout Europe. From the beginning of the 17th century. The architecture of English classicism is emerging. This period coincides with the time of vigorous industrial development of the country and the formation of capitalism. The initiator and creator of the first large-scale compositions of classicism was the architect Inigo Jones. He owns the projects of the famous Banqueting House (buildings for official receptions) and Lindsay House in London. He was the architect of Quans House (the Queen's residence) in Greenwich. This is a brilliant example of classicism in the history of housing construction. In the most strict forms of classicism, the ensemble of buildings of the Royal Palace of Whitehall and the ensemble of Greenwich Hospital in London were created (architects Jones, Christopher Wren, etc.). Classicism developed new forms in various areas - the creation of city squares of various types (Covent Garden Square in London, Place Vendôme in Paris), construction of palace complexes (Versailles, Whitehall), temples (St. Paul's Cathedral in London - architect K. Wren, Invalides Cathedral - architect Hardouin-Mansart), public buildings - town halls, hospitals, private residential buildings, mansions of the nobility, buildings of trading companies (the ensemble of the Invalides - architect Bruan, Trinity College Library in Cambridge, the customs building in London - architect K. Wren; the town hall building in Augsburg - architect Elias Holl, the town hall in Amsterdam - architect J. van Kampen, building of scales in the city of Gouda, etc.). Classicism developed forms of architectural language that corresponded to the tastes of the absolute monarchy and the bourgeois social structure. French architecture occupies Versailles - the new residence of Louis XIV. Versailles became the aesthetic tuning fork of the style of the era. This is unprecedented in grandeur and integrity. architectural ensemble palace, park and city. Three avenues extend from the huge square in front of the palace, the central* axis stretches for 16 kilometers through the city, square, palace and park. Many architects took part in the creation of the Versailles ensemble over several construction periods - Levo, Orbe, Mansart, Le Brun, Le Nôtre, Gabriel. This ensemble consistently embodied the principles of classicism - regularity, strict symmetry, clarity of composition, clear subordination of parts, calm rhythm of alternating windows, pilasters, columns. At the same time, the lush decorative finish, especially in the interior, is reminiscent of Baroque. The halls of the palace are arranged in enfilades, richly decorated with sculptural decor, colored marble, gilded bronze reliefs, frescoes, and mirrors. The park became an important part of the ensemble, inseparable from its architectural expressiveness. It can be considered a programmatic work of a new type of art - landscape gardening. Andre Linotre (1613-1700) perfected his creativity, which combined elements of architecture, sculpture, horticulture, and hydraulic engineering on the basis of an ensemble. For the first time in history, landscapes organized by artists turned into works of art. The park was decorated with sculptures by the famous masters François Girandon (1628-1715) and Antoine Coyzevox (1640-1720). This sculpture had a programmatic character - glorifying the reign of the great monarch. The sculptors used baroque motifs in a classical way: they strived for the isolation of each figure and their symmetrical placement. A typical example of classicist architecture was the eastern façade of the Louvre (sometimes called the “Colonnade of the Louvre”) by the architect Claude Perrault (1613-1688). With its rational simplicity, harmonious balance of parts, clarity of lines, calm and majestic staticism, Perrault's colonnade corresponded to the established ideal of the era. In 1677, the Academy of Architecture was created, the main task of which was to summarize the accumulated experience of architecture in order to develop “ideal eternal laws of beauty.” Further construction had to follow these laws. Classicism was officially recognized as the leading style of architecture. Art had to visually express and glorify the greatness of the monarchy, the power of the nation and the state in magnificent palaces and parks, city ensembles, and public buildings. The Academy gave critical assessment Baroque principles, recognizing them as unacceptable for France. Proportions were recognized as the basis of beauty. It was considered mandatory to have a clear floor division by order and to highlight the central axis of the building, which must necessarily correspond to a building ledge, balcony or pediment. The wings of the facade were to be closed by pavilions. The dictates of official classicism were also felt in the fine arts. The creator of the classicist movement in painting was Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665). This French artist studied and worked in Rome (two years spent at the invitation of Louis XIII in Paris at the royal court were not fruitful for his work). Poussin combined an outstanding theorist and practitioner. In his Roman workshop, where painters and theorists gathered, the artist’s thoughts found fertile ground for dissemination. Poussin did not write special scientific treatises; the artist’s thoughts about the goals and possibilities of painting came to us in his correspondence and transmission by other authors. He believed that the art of “majestic style” consists of 4 elements - content, its interpretation, construction and style. The main thing is that the content and plot be majestic and beautiful. To do this, the artist needs to discard everything small so as not to contradict the sublime meaning of the story. The subject of the image must be “prepared” for the idea of beauty, the main thing in this preparation is order, measure and form. Order and form - Poussin constantly talks about this, and Descartes, the founder of the philosophy of rationalism, also talks about this: “things that we perceive very clearly and distinctly are true.” Only intelligent “preparation” can spiritualize matter so that it becomes truly beautiful. Nature in art should appear in a form ennobled by reason, deprived of that which does not correspond to the opinion of the reasonable course of things, the rules of “decency” and good form. The landscape should represent the epic power and harmony of nature, it is a composed landscape. As an expression of this beauty, the world of Poussin's Arcadia appears, inhabited by celestial beings, heroes, satyrs, nymphs and wonderful people(“Kingdom of Flora”, “Arcadian Shepherds”, “Landscape with Polyphenes”). He drew themes from mythology, the books of Holy Scripture, and historical legends. Poussin was attracted by strong characters, majestic actions, and the triumph of reason and justice. He chose subjects that gave food for thought and promoted virtue. In this he saw the social purpose of art. Poussin brings to the fore the themes of public duty and moral necessity, presented in the form of a dramatic plot: the soldiers swear allegiance to Germanicus, who was poisoned on the orders of Tiberius, Erminia cuts off her luxurious hair to bandage the wounded hero and save him, King Solomon acts as a bearer of moral justice in a dispute between two mothers over a child (“The Death of Germanicus”, “Tancred and Erminia”, “The Capture of Jerusalem”, “The Rape of the Sabine Women”). The basis of classicism painting is the exact immutable laws of the artistic organization of the work. Poussin's compositions are ordered, a clear constructive scheme is visible in them, the main action always takes place in the foreground. Main meaning in artistic language given shape, pattern, line. The fetishization of the mind was a threat to true art. Achieving a balance between calculation and inspiration, between the rational and the emotional, the intuitive is a very difficult creative task. Poussin was the only painter of the 17th century in whose work the concept of classicism was truly productively embodied. For other masters, the task turned out to be impossible. The abstract rational principle took over, and the classicist system turned into an academic one. It was dominated by a dogmatic approach, relying on established canons. The French Academy of Arts was created in 1648 and was under the leadership of the king's first minister. In painting, as in all other forms of art, there was a process of strict regulation and subordination of artistic creativity to the tasks of absolutism. The Academy was called upon to develop formal rules for virtuoso art. Some artists of that time argued that only scientists could be connoisseurs of art. The idea of improving painting through reason was very strong. There were even mathematical tables of the achievements of each painter. The Academy met at regular meetings, where prominent artists, in the presence of their students, examined paintings from the royal collection of the Louvre. Analyzes of the paintings were based on classification. Everything was distributed according to the categories of design, proportion, color, composition. The most high genre painting was considered historical, which included scenes from the Bible, ancient mythology, and famous literary works. Only the perfect is worthy of depiction; everything low, as in the poetry of the classicists, was rejected as an accidental, unnecessary detail that distracts attention from the main thing. Portraits, landscapes, still lifes, and everyday scenes were considered “minor genres.” Academics have developed a whole system of rules based on the correspondence of movements and gestures to certain mental states - fear, anger, joy, surprise, etc. Classic treatises gave precise instructions on how to convey certain emotional states and included drawings and diagrams. The proportions of the human body were built according to ancient canons. With the primacy of drawing over painting, the figures on the canvases of the classicists resembled ancient sculptures. But antiquity became not a natural form of expression of the ideal, but a mandatory prop for works of “high style.” Rational and dry normativity led to the degeneration of classicism into academicism. He expelled imagination, fantasy, and individual vision from art. The set of rules governing the creative process contributed to the regulation of art, its subordination to the control of absolutism. The historically necessary role of classicism was to develop the conscious principle inherent in all creativity. But due to historical conditions this trend has taken on a too dry and rational connotation. The consciousness of artistic creativity has turned into mechanical expediency. The idea of the primacy of thought has turned into its opposite - lifeless formalism. Cast style formulas played both positive and negative role. We must be able to see classical art in all the richness and diversity of its content. Artistic practice is always richer than theory and, as a rule, outlives its era. The dramas of Corneille and Racine, the comedies of Molière and the fables of La Fontaine, the landscapes of Poussin and Lorrain are still alive today, confirming their immortality in the history of world culture. Questions 1. What are the general features of the classicism style? 2. How are the cultural ideals of antiquity, Renaissance and classicism related? 3. What role did rationality play in the art of classicism? 4. What principles of classicism were formed in French drama? 5. How did the theorists of classicism understand the main task of art? 6. Name the main features of the classicism style in architecture and painting.
In the art and aesthetics of classicism (17th century), based on the ideas of French absolutism, the center appeared as an active active personality - the hero. His character is not characterized by the titanic scale that distinguished the heroes. Renaissance, as well as integrity of character and active direction of will to achieve the goal that defined the heroes of Greek antiquity.
In line with the ideas of mechanistic materialism of the era, he divided the world into two independent substances - spiritual and material, thinking and sensual, the hero of the art of classicism appears as an individualized personification of these opposites and is called upon to decide on priorities. He becomes a heroic figure due to the provision of advantages to values that personify the “universal”, and by “universal” classicism understood such rather conventional values as noble honor, the feudal lord’s knightly devotion to his moral duty to the ruler and so on. The dominance of philosophical rationalism is not a positive direction in the sense of affirming the ideas of the integrity of the state under the rule of a strong personality. In art, it determined the speculative nature of the characters and conflicts of the heroes of the tragedy. Researchers rightly note that classicism "extracted a harmonious principle not from the depths of human nature itself (this humanistic "illusion" was overcome), but from the social sphere in which the hero acted."
The rationalistic method became the methodological basis of the aesthetics of classicism. Descartes, based on mathematical knowledge. It corresponded to the content of the ideology of absolutism, which sought to regulate all areas of culture and life. The theory of passions, motivated by the philosopher, relieved souls of bodily excitement caused by external stimuli. The rationalistic method was used by the theory of tragedy in the spirit of Cartesianism and applied the principles of poetics. Aristotle. This trend can be clearly seen in the tragedies of the most outstanding playwrights of classicism -. P. Corneille and. J. Racine Racine.
outstanding theorist of the aesthetics of classicism. O. Boileau (1636-1711) teaches in the work "Poetic Art" (1674) aesthetic principles art of classicism. The author considers the basis of the aesthetic to be the subordination of duties to the laws of rational thought. However, this does not mean denying the poetry of art. The measure of the artistry of a work depends on the degree of truth of the work and the verisimilitude of its paintings. Identifying the perception of beauty with the knowledge of truth with the help of reason, he also strengthens the creative imagination and intuition of the artist with reason.
O. Boileau encourages artists to understand nature, but advises subjecting it to a certain purification and correction. Much attention the researcher paid attention to aesthetic means of expressing content. To achieve the ideal in art, he considered it necessary to be guided by strict rules arising from certain universal principles That is, he adhered to the idea of the existence of a certain absolute beauty, and therefore of the possible means of its creation. The main purpose of art, according to. O. Boileau, - a presentation of rational ideas, shrouded in a veil of poetically beautiful. The goal of his perception is the combination of reasonableness of thought and sensual pleasure of docile and fortu forms.
The rationalization of forms of experience, including art, is also reflected in the differentiation of genres of art; the aesthetics of classicism divides into “high” and “low.” The author believes that they cannot be mixed, since they never turn into each other. By. O. Boileau, heroic actions and noble passions - sphere high genres. The life of ordinary ordinary people is the sphere of “low” genres. That is why I give or credit to the works. Jean-Baptiste. Moliere, he considered their disadvantage to be close to the folk theater. So, aesthetics. O. Boileau is focused on the creation of regulations that the artist must adhere to so that his work would embody the idea of beauty as the orderliness of content and form, taking into account the reasonable expediency of the content and the proper poetry of its form and proper poeticity of its form.
Certain aesthetic ideas are contained in treatises. P. Corneille, dedicated to the theory of drama. The playwright sees the main meaning of the latter in the “cleansing” action of the theater, like Aristotle’s “catharsis.” The theater must explain the events of the work to the audience so that they can leave the theater, dispelling all doubts and contradictions. Valuable for the theory of aesthetics is the idea of taste, justified. F La Rochefoucauld (1613 - 1680) in his work "Maxims" The author examines the opposite tendencies in knowledge, caused by differences between tastes and the mind. In the middle of the said aesthetic sphere, the opposites recur in the form of taste: passionate, related to our interests, and general, which directs us to the truth, although the difference between them is relative. The shades of taste are varied, the value of his judgments undergoes changes. The philosopher recognizes the existence of good taste, which opens the path to truth. Despite the declarative nature of the aesthetic ideas of classicism, the spiritual and social soil on which they grew, namely the formation of national states with strong individual power (king, emperor) - turned out to be extremely fruitful for the practice of art. Based on the ideas of classicism, drama, theater, architecture, poetry, music, and painting flourished. In all these types of art, national art schools were formed and national art schools were formed.