Hofstede's organizational culture. Models of organizational culture G. Hofstede. Reception of his work

(1928-10-03 ) (90 years old)

Geert (Gerard Hendrick) Hofstede(Dutch Geert (Gerard Hendrik) Hofstede; genus. October 3 (1928-10-03 ) , Haarlem, the Netherlands) - Dutch sociologist who proposed a set of indicators that determine cultural characteristics various peoples based on research conducted in the 1960s and 70s.

Works of Geert Hofstede

Indicators are usually scored from 0 to 100 points (sometimes there are indicators that go beyond this range).

The research was published in two works by Hofstede, The Consequences of Culture (1980) and Dimensions of National Cultures in Fifty Countries and Three Regions (1983). The study used a questionnaire survey of IBM employees in various countries. A total of 116 thousand people took part in the survey. Answers were rated on a five-point scale, and then the average score was calculated. Based on the average value for each indicator, its own index was calculated: the number 3 was subtracted from the average value, the resulting result was multiplied by 25 and the number 50 was added to it, that is, the answers were converted from a five-point scale to a hundred-point scale. Data for the USSR were calculated not using the standard method, but based on indirect measurements. Later the list of countries was expanded to 70.

The assessment was carried out according to five parameters:

1. Distance from power is the perception of power, the degree to which members of a society, institution or organization endowed with relatively less power expect and accept the uneven distribution of power; cultures with a large distance from power (Arab countries, Latin America, Southeast Asia, Russia) are characterized by the perception of power as the most important part of life, admiration for superiors; cultures with low power distance (Austria, Denmark, USA, Germany) are characterized by building relationships on the basis of equality and respect for the individual.
2. Isolation (individualism) - as the opposite of cohesion (collectivism) - attraction to personal goals, awareness of oneself as “I”, protection of private interests, connections between individuals not burdened with strong obligations to act together (USA); collectivist culture (Latin America) is characterized by group goals, self-awareness as “we,” maintaining relationships and norms.
3. Assertiveness - focus on achieving results at any cost; countries with a high value of this indicator are classified as “male type” (Japan, Italy, Austria, Mexico, Philippines), they are characterized by such qualities as competition, self-confidence, determination, commitment to material values; countries with a low value (Denmark, Norway, Sweden) - to the “female type”, they are characterized by reverence for relationships, cultural values, and concern for the quality of life.
4. Uncertainty avoidance (uncertainty aversion) - the degree of perception and response to unfamiliar situations; For countries with a high value of the uncertainty avoidance indicator, it is typical to avoid uncertain, unclear situations, the desire to establish clear rules of behavior, trust in traditions and foundations, a tendency towards intra-group agreement, intolerance towards people with a different position in life, way of thinking; Countries with a low uncertainty avoidance score are characterized by the manifestation of personal initiative, risk tolerance, and calm acceptance of disagreements and other points of view.
5. Strategic thinking (short-term or long-term orientation to the future) - focus on solving strategic, long-term goals, the desire to look into the future; a survey on this indicator was conducted in the 1980s in collaboration with Michael Bond among students from 23 countries; Cultures with high values ​​of this parameter (South-East Asia) are characterized by prudence, perseverance in achieving goals, and resilience; cultures with low values ​​(Europe) are characterized by adherence to traditions and fulfillment of social obligations.
6. Admission (or indulgence) is essentially a measure of happiness; the degree to which one is satisfied with the simple pleasures of life; Societies with high rates of acceptance are defined as “allowing relatively free satisfaction of basic and natural human desires associated with enjoying life and obtaining pleasure. Low scores on this parameter characterize “societies that control the satisfaction of needs and regulate it through strict social norms”; “permissive” societies are aware of their own control over their lives and emotions; “restrained” societies believe that their lives and emotions are influenced by other factors.

To create conditions for cooperation, international managers must study not only customs and rules of conduct, but also understand their national character, management traditions and way of thinking.

The most extensive analysis of cultural differences was made by the Dutch scientist Geert Hofstede. in 1967 - 1969 and 1971-1973

This study has become a classic. In the 1970s G. Hofstede ( Geert Hofstede), then the founder and head of HR research at IBM Europe, carried out an ambitious cross-cultural project. Using a questionnaire he compiled, more than one hundred thousand workers from various IBM divisions located in 72 countries were tested. Its description is included in textbooks not only on comparative and international management, but also in textbooks on general management. The significance of this study stems from its impressive empirical base. Hofstede, in an effort to identify the influence of national cultures on the corporate culture of a multinational company, collected over 116 thousand questionnaires distributed by IBM employees in 40 countries, each questionnaire containing 150 questions), Factor analysis, in which each country represented a unit of analysis, and the variables were The average values ​​of the indicator for the country showed the presence of 4 cultural dimensions (indices).

G. Hofstede identified indices with which one can describe business culture and management models.

Business culture parameters are dilemmas or preferences where each national culture occupies its place on a scale between the extremes of 0 and 100%. For example, if we designate absolute commitment to individualism as 100%, and its absolute absence (absolute collectivism) as 0, then each national culture, according to the results of sociological research, can take its own position on the scale of values. The parameters of business culture are always relative, not absolute.

The classification of management in various European countries is presented in table. 6

Table 6. Culture parameters according to Hofstede, %.

	Power distance	Degree of Uncertainty Avoidance	Masculinity and femininity	Individualism and collectivism
Australia
Arab countries
Brazil
United Kingdom
Germany
Ireland
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Russia
Finland
Switzerland
Japan

First index– « power distance"reflects the degree of inequality in the distribution of power in the organization, which is perceived by members of the organization as normal and taken for granted.

The measure of this unevenness is the centralization of power and authoritarian leadership. Power distance is the degree to which society is willing to accept inequality in the distribution of power in relationships and organizations.

Historically, differences in power distance across cultures have been shaped in different ways. Thus, this indicator of culture was influenced by various factors, such as natural conditions, the level of economic and technological development of the country, the demographic situation, religion, as well as the level of education. For example. In the northern countries of Europe, survival was closely related to the ability to be self-sufficient and minimally dependent on the stronger. The thickness of the middle class layer has always determined the distance of power from the economic and demographic side. The level of education and technological development brought competencies closer together, reducing the subordinate’s dependence on the leader. In Catholicism, Protestantism, and Orthodoxy, there is an ambiguous interpretation of power relations. Confession of the ideas of Confucius, Machiavelli or Marx can also affect not only the understanding of power distance, but also the practical implementation of what is understood. The power distance parameter includes the following factors:

frequency of subordinates expressing their disagreement with the manager’s opinion:

number of employees who prefer a democratic (consultative) management style to a directive (autocratic) one

the number of employees who believe that the style of their immediate manager is still autocratic.

The definition of “power distance” is based on respondents’ answers to the following questions:

How often do you express your disagreement with your manager’s opinion? (“often”, “rarely”)

What type of leader do you prefer to work with? 9 "autocratic", "consultative")

The "power distance" index is calculated using the formula:

IDV = 135 – 25a+ b – c,

Where a– weighted average of answers to the question about the frequency of disagreement with the manager;

b- the weighted average of the answers of those who chose autocratic as the real type of leader;

With- the weighted average of the responses of those who indicated a consultative style as their desired one.

Theoretically, the scale of the range of values ​​of the “power distance” index ranges from – 90 to + 210

90 means that no one is afraid to object to the leader, everyone wants to work democratically, there are no leaders who are autocrats.

210 means that everyone is afraid to object to the leader. Nobody wants to work with a consultative type manager.

A high index means recognition that:

inequality is normal in this world, where everyone has the right to the place of those at the top, and those at the bottom defend this order;

hierarchical structure is a natural inequality;

only some people are absolutely free, most depend on other people;

subordinates view their leaders as “other” people;

senior management is unavailable;

orders are not discussed: might precedes right;

a significant proportion of the personnel are management personnel;

It is normal for there to be a large wage differential.

A low index indicates that:

the inequality of roles is quite clearly defined in the organization;

subordinates view their senior management as people just like them;

senior managers are accessible;

in an organization, right takes precedence over force;

all people have equal rights;

the best way to change the existing system is to redistribute power;

there is a hidden harmony between people with and without power;

the participation of people without power is based on solidarity.

Representatives of cultures with a high power distance or a wide distribution of power believe that people are born unequal, everyone has their own place in life, determined by the complex hierarchical structure of society, and the distance between different social strata is significant. There is a strong belief that those with power are fundamentally different from ordinary employees, so any manifestation of power is considered the norm. This index ranges from 11 (Austria) to 95 (Russia). The peculiarity of this index is that it shows not only how much managers are imbued with the idea of ​​centralization of power, but also how deeply it has penetrated into the business culture of the organization, as perceived by ordinary employees. According to the hypothesis, in societies where power distance is high, subordinates tend to be dependent and interdependent. Power distance is greatest in Eastern cultures. The scientist included the Philippines, Venezuela and India as such countries.

A feature of management in French organizations is high power distance. France has a long tradition of hierarchical relationships, reverence for authority and centralization. The key concept in the French organization is power, which generally distinguishes France from organizations in other countries, for which such a concept may be order (Germany) or equality (Scandinavian countries). The high rate of individualism in France can be explained by the fact that the French, being “dependent individualists, have a need for clear authority from leaders, but at the same time emphasize their personal independence from any form of collectivism.” This characteristic of French business culture is high power distance and high degree individualism - although they contradict each other, they can coexist within the bureaucratic system, because impersonal rules and centralization make it possible to balance the absolutist concept of power and the absence of direct relations of dependence.

High power distance is observed in Russia.

At the same time, in countries where the value of this index is low, society is of the opinion that inequality should be reduced to a minimum. Hierarchy is a conditional consolidation of inequality. Subordinates consider themselves to be the same people as their leaders, and the latter share this opinion. and prefer a liberal (consultative) leadership style. Managers often communicate with ordinary employees and try to appear more democratic. Examples of a narrow distribution of power include countries such as the USA, Austria, Australia, Denmark and a number of others.

Low power distance in Australian management is reflected in respect for the individual and equality between people. Knowledge, love and happiness are considered as conditions for the “path to prosperity”.

Scandinavian countries are characterized by low power distance.

The management style in those countries where the power distance index is low is characterized by the following features:

egalitarian values ​​are manifested.

respect for the individual

the principle of hierarchy is not always observed,

characterized by informal relationships

there is little difference in status between management levels,

high degree of decentralization and democracy.

There are significantly fewer management levels in the organization.

In Denmark and Norway, teamwork skills are highly valued and are instilled in school.

In relation to the management of an organization, power distance can be described in terms (see Table 7)

Table 7.

Culture parameters	Low power distance culture.	High power distance culture
Organizational policy.	Minimal inequality among workers. Equality and accessibility of leadership. Respect for management.	Inequality is accepted as the norm. Reverence for rank and low availability of leadership. Management privilege is considered the norm.
Frequency of subordinates expressing their disagreement
Management style preference	Democratic	Directive
Perceptions of inequality	Role inequality	Inequality of people
Attitude to law	In an organization, right takes precedence over force.	Orders are not discussed: might precedes right.
	Inequality of roles. Emphasis on the role of the employee. Priority group work. A wide scale of controllability is an advantage of horizontal connections.	Inequality in status. Emphasis on the role of the manager. Priority of individual tasks. Narrow scale of controllability, advantage of vertical connections.
Organization structure	Flat, tendency towards decentralization.	Multi-level, tendency towards centralization
Management Size	The management team is small.	A large number of managers.
	The basis of power is built on legitimacy and competence; He is right who has the law on his side. The official basis of power predominates. Delegation of authority through participation.	The basis of power is built on strength and charisma.; the one with the power is right.. The personal basis of power prevails. Delegation of authority through decentralization
Leadership	Pluralistic leadership based on the choice of the majority. The leader appears to have less power than he actually has.	Oligarchic leadership, The leader demonstrates the maximum power that he actually has.
Stimulation	The pay gap is negligible. Differentiation of payment due to “social” payments	Significant pay gap Differentiation of pay through direct payments and benefits.
Qualifications of lower level workers

Continuation of table 7.

Second index- "And avoidance (fear) of uncertainty", measures the extent to which a society views itself as threatened by an uncertain or ambiguous situation. In this regard. G. Hofstede defines uncertainty avoidance as the degree to which representatives of a given culture perceive and respond to the threat of uncertain and unfamiliar situations. Uncertainty avoidance is the degree of social instability and ambiguity that a given culture perceives as normal and with which members of the society feel comfortable. Because extreme uncertainty creates unacceptable anxiety, people have developed ways to reduce this anxiety. This is achieved, according to G. Hofstede, through three components: technology, laws and religion. At the same time, technology deals with that part of the uncertainty that comes from nature; laws – with uncertainty from people’s behavior; religion - with uncertainty from the forces of the Almighty

Uncertainty avoidance should not be confused with risk avoidance. Risk is associated with fear, and uncertainty is associated with anxiety. A high degree of uncertainty avoidance in a society usually implies that many people are emotionally willing to engage in risky behavior.

People in some cultures are known to experience more anxiety than others. More “anxious” cultures tend to be more “expressive,” which can manifest itself in the degree of emotionality of the conversation, a high context of communication. Representatives of cultures with a high degree of fear of uncertainty try to avoid unclear situations, protecting themselves with many formal rules and norms, aversion to deviations from the norm in thoughts or behavior. They are characterized by more high level anxiety and stress, they are always preoccupied with safety and security issues, and have a strong need for written instructions. rules and laws that give certainty to life. People belonging to such cultures prefer strict schedules and schedules.

At the same time, in such societies there is a high level of anxiety and aggressiveness, which creates a strong internal desire to work hard. In countries with a high uncertainty index, anxiety is relieved through the expression of emotions and aggressiveness.

The following social associations are associated with high values ​​of the uncertainty avoidance index:

uncertainty in life is perceived as a threat that must be fought;

there is an inner drive to work hard;

own aggressive behavior and those of others;

open expression of emotions is preferred;

nationalism is widespread;

much attention is paid to security issues

The higher this index, the greater the desire to avoid such a situation due to:

greater stability in your professional career;

creating formal rules.

The change in the situation is not related to the number of norms and rules, but to their quality or strength:

intolerance of dissent;

belief in absolute truths

Countries with a high degree of uncertainty avoidance include Germany, Austria, Southern and Western European countries.

In cultures with a low value of this index, the expression of emotions is not encouraged. With a low level of fear of uncertainty, people are dissatisfied with excessive regulation and organization, an excess of rules and instructions, and they like creative problem solving. Representatives of these cultures perceive the unpredictability of life more easily; they are not afraid of organizational changes or novelty of ideas. These people are less tense and more relaxed; they highly value initiative and flexibility in decision-making. When uncertainty avoidance is weak, less urgency is expressed; not only familiar, but also unfamiliar risks are allowed (people change jobs more easily and more often or are easily involved in activities where rules have not been developed) People are given greater independence and the opportunity to make mistakes. This index shows a significant range: from 23 (Denmark) to 99 (Greece).

Countries with a low degree of uncertainty avoidance include England, Scandinavian countries (except Finland), Denmark, and the USA.

In Russia this figure is very high - 80.

French business culture is characterized by a high level of uncertainty avoidance, which is reflected in the existence of numerous rules and regulations governing the rights and responsibilities of employees. France is an example of the widespread use of formal procedures, written rules, schemes and structures. French culture is much less likely to take risks than English or Swedish. Therefore, French management methods of planning and forecasting are adapted to control risk. In France, high levels of uncertainty avoidance may explain managers' career commitment to one organization.

The problems that arise during intercultural communication between representatives of cultures located at different poles of the scale are easy to predict: during negotiations: some will slowly and carefully discuss the situation and make decisions, they will need careful planning, which can cause negative reaction representatives of another culture.

In relation to the management of an organization, uncertainty avoidance can be described in terms of (see Table 8).

Table 8.

Culture parameters	Low Uncertainty Avoidance Culture	High Uncertainty Avoidance Culture
Attitude to time	Staff willingness to live in the present day	Workers are very worried about the future.
Preferred organization size	Workers prefer small organizations	Workers prefer large organizations
Identification of oneself in the organization	As part of the whole. Identification of subordinates is a management problem	How special. Subordinates are required to identify themselves to management through formal symbols (credentials)
Relationships with colleagues	Confidence Colleagues remain friends despite differences of opinion.	Suspicion; differences of opinion greatly increase mistrust.
Age of middle managers	Youth	Middle and old
Learning	Leniency and trust; Lessons are learned from mistakes.	Rigidity and mistrust; mistakes are punished.
Motivation to achieve the goal	Sustainable
Attitude to work and motivation.	Exertion is not a virtue. Hard work out of necessity without internal motivation for constant activity. Primary motivation for achievement, self-esteem and participation.	Internal need for tension. The desire to work hard and always be busy with something. Primary motivation for safety. self-respect and complicity.
	Mostly short-term goals that can be set by subordinates. More expressed in terms of quality.	Mainly long-term goals; set by management. Expressed more in quantitative terms.
Attitude to success	Hope for success	Fear of failure

Continuation of table 8.

Strategic planning	There is a high need for strategic planning due to the weakness of operational planning.	There is no high need for strategic planning due to the development of operational planning. planning.
Willingness to take risks
Job design	Role orientation. Wide specialization. Low need for clear instructions and directions. High independence. Emphasis on the complexity of the work.. Business for the person.	Task orientation. Narrow specialization. Wide specialization. High need for clear instructions and directions. A person for business.
Structure design	Minimal formal rules and regulations. Priority of horizontal connections. Wide scale of controllability with a small number of levels. The principle of unity of command may be violated.	Maximum formal rules and regulations. Priority of vertical connections. Wide scale of controllability with many levels. The principle of unity of command must be observed.
	Uncertainty is an everyday thing. The unstructured problem is recognized. Tolerance for those who disagree appears. The belief that there is no one right answer and a predisposition to discuss the problem.	There is some kind of danger in everything that must be excluded. Belief in expert and specialized knowledge. Only a structured problem is recognized; the belief that there is one correct option.. decisions are made at the level of consensus; those who disagree are dangerous and intolerant.
R&D management,	High ability to create new things, but low ability to master them	Low ability to create something new, but high ability to borrow it
Communications	Low importance of context. Listening skills. Respect for written communication. Moderate secrecy.	High importance of context. A style of high openness and emotionality. Strong non-verbal aspect. High level of secrecy.
Preparedness for uncertainty at work
Manager's qualifications	The manager is not a management specialist	The manager must be a management specialist

Continuation of table 8.

Power relations	A leader for a subordinate. Subordinates are ready to challenge the manager’s wrong decision.	Subordinate to the leader. When disagreeing with the manager’s decision, subordinates take a passive position
Competition between workers	Normal and productive occurrence	Competition is not welcome
Willingness to compromise with opponents
Conflict	Accepted on an equal basis and used constructively.	Causes aggression and must be avoided or resolved with force. Conflicts are undesirable.
Preferred career type	Preferring a managerial career over a specialist career	Preference for a specialist career over a managerial career

Third index – « individualism/collectivism" . It is represented by G. Hofstede as a scale, one of the extreme points of which is individualism, and the other is collectivism. This scale reflects the attitude of the individual and society as a whole. The essence of the difference between cultures, according to Hofstede, is a fundamental question for humanity: the role of the individual versus the role of the group or collective.

Under collectivism is understood as a system of values ​​in which a person perceives himself first of all as part of a group, and only then as an individual.

In an individualistic value system, the individual comes first.

The main prerequisite for individualism is the level of well-being. Hofstede revealed a significant correlation between the share of gross national product per capita and the severity of individualism. Financial well-being is believed to lead to social and psychological independence. Migration, social mobility and urbanization also contribute to the rise of individualism. At the same time, the manifestation of individualistic or collectivist tendencies depends not only on culture, but also on the social context: a person may demonstrate collectivist tendencies in the family and among friends and individualistic behavior at work or with strangers.

A significant part of humanity lives in societies where interest in the group prevails over interest in the individual. Movement towards individualism means the tendency of an individual to take care primarily of himself and his family. The historical roots of individualism were individual farming, as well as the small size of the constantly divided family.

Individualistic cultures are characterized by:

connections between people are less important.

completing the task at hand takes precedence over any personal relationships. Personal goals are more important than group goals.

The individual’s devotion to the group is low, each person belongs to several groups, moving from one to another as needed and just as easily changing jobs.

in these cultures, self-awareness prevails and preference is given to competition and competition rather than cooperation and cooperation.

people do not show emotional dependence on the organization.

Everyone’s right to personal property, private opinion, and their own point of view is valued.

The importance of individual initiatives and individual success is emphasized, and the ability to make independent decisions is encouraged.

people strive to change the situation in their favor.

Countries with a high degree of individualism in business culture are characterized by a high level of development of democracy.

Collectivism presupposes belonging to a group as a core value and, accordingly, mutual concern among members of the group (collective) in exchange for loyalty. Collectivism was more cultivated in large open spaces and in large (several generations) families.

Collectivist cultures are characterized by:

people perceive the world and form their attitude towards it through the prism of the group

the focus is on loyalty to the organization, family, and friends. Collectivism is characterized by a rigid social structure that divides people into “insiders” and “outsiders” in groups

social norms and responsibilities are determined by the group

personal relationships are always more important than the task at hand

there is a high willingness to cooperate within the group

From birth, a person is part of a large family or clan that protects and supports him in exchange for loyalty and devotion

self-awareness prevails at the “WE” level

a person’s importance is determined not by personal qualities, but by place in the social hierarchy

the individual is emotionally dependent on the organization

the organization interferes with personal life

decisions are made by the team

This dimension has a clearly expressed moral and ethical connotation in many countries. In the United States, individualism is seen as a positive national character trait. And in Japan or China, a pronounced individualist may be condemned. Team spirit is also characteristic of countries with a high level of this index. In 1990, it was noted that about 70% of the world's population lives in collectivist cultures. This is proof that the values ​​and communication behaviors of collectivist cultures are applicable.

The ratio of individualism and collectivism ranges from 27 (Portugal) to 89 (Great Britain). In Europe, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and Austria are considered collectivist cultures. Towards an individualistic culture – northern countries. Australia belongs to the individualistic type of culture. People in relationships with each other rely on the norms of justice. France has a reputation for having an individualistic culture. The French are not highly sensitive to the needs of other people, and they are not inclined to follow the crowd. In motivating the French to cooperate and co-operate, their sense of self-worth and self-respect should certainly be taken into account. Russia - previously belonged to the collectivist type of culture, but the results of recent studies indicate a change in the culture of Russia, namely the transition of Russian culture from collectivism to individualism.

Table 9.

Individualism	Collectivism
Every member of society must take care of himself and his family	The state takes care of the members of society.
Identity is based on a person's personal qualities	Identity is based on membership in a social group
Involvement in the organization is based on rational motives	Involvement in an organization is based on morality
Emphasis is placed on individual initiative and achievement, leadership is the ideal	The emphasis is on belonging to an organization and membership is the ideal.
Everyone has the right to privacy and their own opinion.	Personal life is controlled by organizations or groups to which the individual belongs.
Characterized by an individual decision-making process.	Characterized by a collective decision-making process

The interpretation of the relationship between individualism and collectivism in terms of organizational management can be made, as shown in the table below. 10.

Table 10.

Culture parameters	Individualistic organizational culture	Collectivist organizational culture
Identifying yourself when joining an organization	Awareness of oneself as “I”, identification of oneself only with oneself as a person	Awareness of oneself as “We”, identification of oneself with a social network by belonging
Protection of interests	Employees believe that they should rely only on themselves and defend their interests.	Employees expect the company to protect their interests.
Communication with the organization.	Emotional independence of the individual from the organization; emphasis on initiative, achievement, and ideally leadership.	Emotional dependence of the individual on the organization; emphasis on belonging, achievement, and ideally membership
Friendship relationships and moral standards	There is a need for specific friendship relationships, determined by the special characteristics of the individual.	Friendship is predetermined by stability social relations with a need for prestige within relationships
Relationships with colleagues	Have a contractual basis and are built on interdependence and interaction; every man for himself.	Perceived in moral terms, like family ones; one for all and all for one.
Learning	Knowledge and skills for greater well-being and self-respect.	Knowledge and skills for greater status in the group
Design of work and structure	Role orientation. Tendency towards broad specialization. Low work context. Predominantly horizontal connections Coordination based on differentiation. Wide scale of controllability, with a small number of levels. Work for people.	Task orientation. Tendency towards narrow specialization, emphasis on scale of work. Mainly vertical connections Coordination based on integration narrow scale of controllability, with a large number of levels. A man for work.
Problem solving and decision making.	Focus on “external” problems. Belief in the power of individual decisions.	Focus on “internal” problems. Belief in the power of group decisions
Communications	Low importance of context feedback through self-realization.	High importance of context feedback through opening oneself to others
Motivation	Management uses new ideas and methods, stimulates the activity of individuals and groups	Management uses traditional methods

Continuation of table 10.

Conflict	It is more seen as a constructive beginning: the basis of healthy competition. Cooperation as a way to resolve conflict.	More seen as a destructive beginning. Fear of the group breaking up. Compromise as a way to resolve conflict
Leadership	Results are more important than relationships; management of an individual in a group.	Relationships are more important than results; management of a group of individuals.
	Greater consideration of individual abilities and skills. The procedures are formalized.	Greater consideration of the group's opinion. Procedures are not formal and may change.
Promotion	Within or outside the organization based on competency	Exclusively within the organization in accordance with experience.
Interference with privacy	Employees do not want interference in their personal lives	Employees expect the organization to participate in their personal affairs.

For example, one of the main features of Japanese management is the emphasis on commitment to the group

Collectivism is highly valued in the Japanese business world. It is believed that when you do something together, you need to think alike.

Collectivism is inseparable from hierarchy. Everyone is in their place. A Japanese company may be united, but it is certainly not democratic. The Japanese, in essence, do not care so much whether they win or lose: the main thing is that everyone acts together. Working towards a common goal is of paramount importance. You may not achieve your goal, but it is much more honorable to fall on the battlefield all together than to escape by relying on your own strength. Japanese businessmen wallowing in collective self-pity are just as worthy of respect as those celebrating a joint victory.

A number of studies have found that, compared to the Japanese, Koreans are more individualistic, because their “I” coexists with “We”. Due to the individualistic and hierarchical characteristics of the culture in Korean management, the degree of collectivism that is characteristic of the Japanese model cannot be achieved. This conclusion, however, differs from the estimates of the relationship between individualism and collectivism obtained in Hofstede's studies: 18 (Korea) and 46 (Japan). In accordance with Hofstede's data, it turns out that collectivism, associated with nepotism, is more characteristic of Korean culture.

Collectivism is a social regulator of the behavior of Russians, which is due to the difficulty of surviving alone in the conditions of North-Eastern Europe. The collective regulated its relations not by rigid norms, but by patterns of collective action that were changeable, like the environment. But the collectivism of Russians is very specific.

Russians are outwardly collectivists, but internally they are pronounced individualists. Russian people are accustomed to finding different ways to protect their personality from encroachments by power in its various forms. Grouping is one of the fencing methods that can be used to mitigate the negative impacts of the external environment. At the same time, in relation to the group, the Russian manifests himself as an egocentrist and establishes a distance from others, trying to prevent the negative influence of the group itself on his “I”.

Table 11. Differences between national characters.

American model	Japanese model
Superiority of the individual over the group, independence is encouraged	The superiority of the group over the individual, interdependence is encouraged.
Sharing of Responsibility	Collective responsibility
Information is provided in doses, upon request.	Responsibility to inform everyone in the group
Closedness of business space	Open plan offices
Organizational hierarchy.	Social hierarchy and complex network of personal relationships and obligations.
Competition is seen as a creative and constructive process, since winning is important.	Little importance is attached to winning, and any confrontation is discouraged.
Commitment and tenacity, unwillingness to retreat, stubbornness are highly valued. These are signs of strength of character.	The ultimate threat, inflexibility, the desire to open one's feelings, to surpass others - this is a manifestation of weakness of character.
A tough, dominant leadership style is valued.	The ability to hide your ambition and not show strength and influence as a leader is encouraged.
Denial of official etiquette and formal clothing.	Formal etiquette and formal dress are widely used. Titles are used to address employees.
Openness of emotions is encouraged.	Openness of emotions is not encouraged
Politeness is based on norms and rules of behavior developed in corporate culture	Politeness is based on apology and self-condemnation. Sense of duty to the team
Closedness in relationships	Openness in relationships. A very high degree of tolerance for professional or human weakness.
Punctuality requirements mainly depend on the situation	High requirements for punctuality
The working day is standardized	The working day is not standardized, vacations are rarely taken.
Active use of moral and psychological methods of influencing the individual	Active use of organizational, administrative and economic methods of influencing the individual
Slight division of society by wealth	Minimum division of society by wealth

Continuation of table 11.

The fourth index is the ratio “ masculinity/femininity", or masculinism - feminism which is being considered as the dominance in society of traditional male values, such as success, perseverance, rigidity in achieving goals, money, material values. material well-being These measurements reflect the transition from the dominance of traditional female values ​​(caring for others, quality of life) to the dominance of male ideas. Masculine cultures excel in production, especially where work needs to be done productively, well, and quickly.

Masculinity as a model of the behavior of the “average citizen” is more typical of societies with clearly distinguished social roles for men and women. It is believed that a man is usually ruder, tougher and focuses on the material side of life, while a woman is more gentle, more moderate and interested in the quality of life. Values ​​that are traditionally considered masculine are important to society. These include assertiveness (self-confidence), ability to commit (task focus), ambition, ambitiousness, achievement orientation, and possession of material possessions. Gender roles are clearly demarcated and men dominate. In some societies, traditional masculine values ​​are seen as necessary for survival; which means the man should be aggressive and the woman should be protected.

Femininity – commitment to such values ​​as building equal relationships, a tendency to compromise, modesty, caring for one’s neighbor, and quality of life. Femininity as a dimension of culture more accurately describes “average” behavior in societies where the social roles of both sexes largely coincide, that is, both men and women can be soft, moderate and think not only about material well-being. Men should not be assertive and should accept participation in raising children. A person and the world around him are values. Society preaches social equality of the sexes and sympathy for the losers. In such cultures, activities in service sectors are most successful.

The history of the country and its traditions have a great influence on the formation and development of these cultures. Thus, “feminine” cultures, for a number of reasons, are more common in societies with cold climates, where partnerships between a man and a woman increased the chance of survival and development. In the northern countries and where men were predominantly engaged in navigation and trade, women had to manage the household in conditions of long-term absence of men. For the latter, success in their activities was predetermined by the ability to maintain good interpersonal relationships both within the team and with clients. Traditionally, a high degree of femininity in organizational culture is characteristic of the Nordic countries: Sweden (5), Norway (8), Denmark (16). This explains the strong social orientation of the economies of these countries.

France can be considered a moderately feminine culture, since attentive, sensitive behavior is more valued than aggressive behavior in both men and women. Compromise and negotiation, better than any “good fight,” characterize the preferred methods of conflict resolution.

Austria has the highest masculinity index (79). Countries with a masculine culture include the USA, Germany, Switzerland, and England. Germans value “manly values” because they are competitive and ambitious. They are critical of themselves and others, without revealing their failures or sympathizing with others. For them, being unemployed is a shame, and bankruptcy is considered a professional disgrace.

According to cultural experts, Russia is considered a feminine culture, and Australia is considered a masculine one. The main values ​​of Russian culture have always been based on the exchange of spiritual resources (information, education, love, friendship) But, according to new data, the masculinity index is currently in Russia rises

This quality (feminine - masculine) most strongly influences communication: in masculine cultures, a tendency towards a more aggressive communication style prevails, competition is more important than cooperation, people are more impulsive than prone to reflection. The communication style of female cultures is completely different.

For example, France can be considered a country with a rather moderately feminine culture, since attentive, sensitive behavior is more valued than aggressive behavior in both men and women. Compromise and negotiation, better than any “good fight,” characterize the preferred methods of conflict resolution.

The relationship between masculinity and femininity in relation to organizational management could be illustrated in the following table.

Table 12.

Culture parameters	"Male" culture of the organization	"Female" culture of the organization
Concept of role behavior	A man should be tough, and a woman should be soft and caring; male and female roles should be clearly differentiated; the man must be in a dominant position	A man should be tough but caring; there should be equality in the roles of men and women; neither man nor woman should use force.
Domination	A man must dominate in any situation	The difference between the sexes does not affect the occupation of positions of power

Continuation of table 12.

Life values ​​and relationships with colleagues.	Success is valued; the level of performance of the work is important; money and things of the material world are important; the ideal is a state of independence for oneself and dependence for another; emphasis on property and competition.	Caring is valued; quality of life is important; work for living; people and their surroundings are important, interdependence in relationships with others is ideal; emphasis on equality and solidarity.
Motivation	Ensured through ambition, material incentives and achievements; idols are strong and successful.	Provided through care; moral incentives and working conditions; pity for the unfortunate and weak.
Aesthetic orientations	Shows of strength and assertiveness are respected	Intelligence and nobility are respected.
Learning	Striving to be the best; failure is a disaster; Expert knowledge is valued in a leader;	The desire to be ordinary; failure is an ordinary problem; The relationship with the manager is considered important.
	Short-term, set by the individual himself.	Long-term, installed by others.
Design of work and structure	Task orientation; tendency towards narrow specialization, emphasis on scale of work.	Role orientation; tendency towards broad specialization.
Problem solving and decision making.	Interest in problems whose solution is aimed at obtaining something new; attention to facts; belief in the power of individual decisions; Determination and logic are important.	Interest in problems whose solution is aimed at using innovations; attention to the opinions of others; intuition and consensus building are important.
Communications	The verbal aspect is important; directness and openness; inability to listen.	The non-verbal aspect is important; balance and prudence; ability to listen.
Conflict	Permitted by force.	Resolved through compromise and negotiation.
	Predominantly status sources of power	Predominantly personal sources of power
Leadership	Results are more important than relationships;	Relationships are more important than results;

Continuation of table 12.

Fifth index measured by long-term or short-term orientation in the behavior of members of society. M Bond explored national and cultural differences in the perception of time. Bond surveyed students from 23 countries and confirmed three factors outlined in Hofstede's work, and also derived a fifth factor that was not mentioned in Hofstede's work. M Bond called this factor "Confucian dynamism", which separates short-term and long-term orientations in society, as well as separating future-oriented and past-oriented cultures.

Long-term orientation is characterized by a look to the future and is manifested in the desire to save and accumulate, in perseverance and perseverance in achieving goals.

Short-term orientation is characterized by a look at the past and present and is manifested through respect for traditions and heritage, through the fulfillment of social obligations

For example. in Brazil, society is focused on short-term values. The ability to spend money rather than hoard it, protecting one’s interests and expecting quick results are valued. The ability to persistently and painstakingly pursue one’s goal is inherent in only a few.

Table 13. Results of measuring variables in the cultures of 9 countries.

Countries	Power distance	Individualism and collectivism	Masculinity and femininity	Uncertainty avoidance	Long-term orientation
Brazil
Germany
Holland
Indonesia
West Africa
Russia

Let us show an example of a comparison of Russian and American business cultures. Figure 1 shows that the overlap area of ​​the polynomials depicting the cultures of Russia and the USA is quite large. This indicates a certain closeness of the compared cultures. Consequently, the natural behavior of a person belonging to one of them will most likely be correctly understood by representatives of another culture.

By ranking 23 nationalities on the Confucian scale, Bond found the following: - Western Europeans and North Americans are short-term-oriented and preoccupied with the past.

Most South Asians have a long-term focus and are more concerned with the past.

Different attitudes towards the time factor in different societies are also shown in Trompenaars’s research, for example, in some countries, a person’s achievements in the past are not the main thing. It is much more important what plans he has for the future. In other cultures, past achievements may be more impressive than present ones.

To determine cultural differences in the perception of time, Trompenaars asked his respondents to draw three circles representing the past, present and future.

For Russia, the typical response was three separate circles, indicating that there is no connection between generations, although the future is considered more important than the past and present (as indicated by the size of the circles). For the French, all three circles significantly “overlap” one another.

Based on various combinations of parameters, Hofstede conducted cultural mapping of organizations in many countries around the world.

According to the parameters “power distance” and “individualism – collectivism”, it was revealed that Canada, USA, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Australia have the following combination of parameters: – low power distance – individualism; and Spain, France, Italy , Belgium – high power distance – individualism.

In countries such as Pakistan, Turkey, Taiwan, Colombia, Venezuela, Portugal, Mexico, Greece, India, Japan, the prevailing parameters are high power distance and collectivism.

Table 14. Results of measurement of variables in cultures.

Country	Individualism/collectivism	Power distance	Uncertainty avoidance	Masculinity
Russia	collectivism	big	high	high
Australia	individualism
	individualism
	individualism
	individualism
	collectivism
	individualism

Continuation of table 14.

	collectivism
	collectivism
Singapore	collectivism
	individualism
	individualism	small	low	high
Venezuela	collectivism

To summarize what has been said, I would like to note that the onset of the information society as a whole enhances the “femininity” of culture. This is because the remaining non-automated jobs still require both male and female approaches, and the rise of “white, managerial collar” jobs, where the role of female behavior is simply naturally higher, significantly expands “feminine” modes of behavior (for example, resolving conflict through compromise or negotiations). Measurements of Russian national cultures allow us to notice that according to a number of pairwise comparisons of parameters (for example, “individualism - power distance”), Russian populations are equidistant from the cluster “Western European ethnic groups, including the USA” and the groupings of countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Moreover, unexpectedly Japan and China are close to the average characteristics of Russia. Researchers have shown that for Russian leaders, relationships between people more important than business(for North Americans it’s the other way around), people work to live, and Americans live to work, domestic managers encourage a calm atmosphere within the organization and the desire for collective results, while Americans encourage competition and the desire to achieve individual results. Russian management believes that it is correct to manage through a team, using group psychology, and the American model of management is based on the psychology of the individual, and management is carried out through influence on the individual.

Knowledge of the leading type of culture and organization allows us to assess the compatibility of cultures of different countries of the world, predict the development of their interaction, and regulate controversial issues.

G. Hofstede was born on October 3, 1928 in Haarlem, the Netherlands. Geert Hofstede holds a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering Technology and a PhD in Social Psychology. His professional biography is related to both industry and academia.

The Wall Street Journal in May 2008 named Geert Hofstede one of the twenty most influential intellectuals in business. Hofstede gave lectures in Hong Kong, Hawaii, Australia and New Zealand. He is an honorary doctor of seven European universities, a member of the Academy of Management and the Academy of International Business in the USA, and an honorary member of the International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology.

He is called the "father" of ethnometry - a direction of ethnosocial research in which the mental characteristics of various ethnic groups are analyzed using formalized (mathematical) methods. He pioneered the collection of quantitative databases; The method he developed is still the most popular today.

In 1965, Hofstede founded IBM's research and development department (which he headed until 1971). Between 1967 and 1973, he conducted extensive research into national values ​​and differences between countries around the world. He compared responses to the same survey of 117 thousand IBM employees from different countries. He initially focused his research on the 40 largest countries, and then expanded the list to 50 countries and 3 regions (at the time, this was probably the largest international database). Answers were rated on a five-point scale, and then the average score was calculated. Based on the average value for each indicator, its own index was calculated: the number 3 was subtracted from the average value, the resulting result was multiplied by 25 and the number 50 was added to it, that is, the answers were converted from a five-point scale to a hundred-point scale. Data for the USSR were calculated not using a standard method, but on the basis of indirect statistical data. The list of countries was later expanded to 70. The theory was one of the first quantitative theories that could be used to explain observed differences between cultures.

This initial analysis revealed systematic differences across cultures across nationalities that were categorized into four main dimensions: power distance (PDI), individualism (IDV), uncertainty avoidance (UAI), and orientation (MAS), which are described below. As Hofstede explains on his academic website, these dimensions examine “four anthropological problem areas that different societies deal with in different ways: ways to deal with inequality, ways to cope with uncertainty, the individual's relationship with her or his core group, and the emotional consequences in birth a girl or a boy."

The research was published in two works by Hofstede, The Consequences of Culture (1980) and Dimensions of National Cultures in Fifty Countries and Three Regions (1983). In 1984, he published The Meaning of Culture, which combines statistical analysis from survey research with his personal experiences.

To confirm the preliminary results of the IBM study and generalize them to different populations, six follow-up cross-national studies were successfully conducted between 1990 and 2002. They covered between 14 and 28 countries and included commercial airline pilots, students, government executives, market consumers, and elites. The pooled studies established estimates for the four dimensions in a total of 76 countries and regions.

In 1991, Michael Harris Bond and his colleagues conducted a study of students in 23 countries using an instrument developed with Chinese workers and managers. The results of this study showed Hofstede that a new fifth dimension needed to be added to the model: long-term orientation (LTO), originally called "Confucian dynamism". Taking into account new research, Hofstede developed new option its methodology - "Value Survey Module 1994" (VSM 94), a short questionnaire of 20 basic questions (four for each of the five cultural indicators). It was this method that was mainly used by Hofstede's followers. More recently, a new version of the methodology has appeared - “Values ​​Study Module 2008” (VSM 08).

In 2010, 93 countries were included in the survey, thanks to Michael Minkov's use of Hofstede's methodology as part of the World Values ​​Survey. The studies refined some of the original values ​​and distinguished between country data and individual data. This study also helped Hofstede identify the sixth final dimension - assumption.

In Hofstede's methodology, indices of five mental values ​​were calculated:

· individualism;

· power distance;

· avoidance of uncertainty;

· masculinity;

· long-term orientation (initially this indicator was called “Confucian dynamism”).

Each country studied using Hofstede's methodology receives numerical scores on these five dimensions, which usually range from 0 to 100. The table shows Hofstede's indices for some countries; the total number of countries studied using his methodology is now about 60.

Individualism(IDV) is an indicator of what people prefer - to take care only of themselves and their own families, or to unite in certain groups that are responsible for a person in exchange for his loyalty to the group.

In order to identify this indicator, Hofstede conducted a survey using the following questions:

An individualistic culture can be called a culture in which the individual goals of its members are no less important than the group goals, and the connections between individuals are not burdened with strict obligations to act together. (Hofstede G. Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. L.: Beverly Hills, 1980)

The unit of individualistic cultures is the nuclear family, in which children are taught to be independent and self-reliant. Collectivist culture, on the contrary, is characterized by the fact that in it group goals prevail over individual ones. Here people show an initial interest in close-knit groups. Loyalty to the group is one of the most important values; direct confrontation is not encouraged, as it violates overall harmony.

Power distance(PDI - Power Distance), or distance in relation to power, is a parameter that describes the willingness of people to accept the uneven distribution of power in institutions and organizations.

SMALL POWER DISTANCE	GREAT POWER DISTANCE
Inequality in society must be minimized	Inequality in society is encouraged
There is no dependence of people who do not have power on people who have power	People with less power must be highly dependent on people with power
Parents view children as partners	Teachers teaching children obedience
Children do not play a role in ensuring the security of their parents' old age	Children are the source of security for parents in old age.
Teachers expect students to take initiative in class.	Teachers take the initiative
The quality of learning depends on teacher-student communication and the excellence of students	The quality of teaching depends on the excellence of the teacher
Education policy focuses on secondary schools	Training policy focuses on universities

As the aphorism goes, “Power

tends to corruption, and absolute

power corrupts absolutely.”

In cultures with high power distance, power is seen as the most important part of life. The emphasis is on coercive power, and subordinates and leaders are at two different poles of it, which is perceived as the natural order of things. Accordingly, it is customary in society to demonstrate respect and show obedience in relations with superiors on the hierarchical ladder. Criticism, confrontation and insubordination are not encouraged. In cultures with low power distance, the prevailing view is that the main determinant of power is its competence. Consequently, relationships between members of the community are built on respect for the individual and equality, and inequality in the “superior-subordinate” relationship will not be approved. Here everyone can freely express their opinion, regardless of whether it is critical or not and whether it coincides with the opinion of those in power. The result of such fairly close relationships is less formalization of relationships.

Uncertainty avoidance(UAI - Uncertainty Avoidance) - an indicator of how tolerant people are of uncertain situations, try to avoid them by developing clear rules, believing in absolute truth and refusing to tolerate deviant behavior.

Representatives of cultures with a high level of uncertainty avoidance are guided by clear rules. They are distinguished by a need for formalized instructions and norms of behavior, high levels of anxiety, hectic work or “emergency”, a tendency towards intra-group agreement, as well as low tolerance for people or groups with different ideas or behavior. These cultures are more resistant to any change and have little risk tolerance. In cultures with low levels of uncertainty avoidance, on the contrary, a tolerant attitude towards situations of uncertainty is adopted. People in difficult situations improvise and take initiative, and are characterized by a greater propensity to take risks. In countries with such a culture, there is a negative attitude towards the introduction of strictly formalized rules, so they are established only in cases of great need. In general, people here believe that they can solve problems without detailed formal rules. The future potentially holds many uncertainties. In order to get rid of fear, people create conditions that provide them with greater security and stability (for example, technology helps control nature, rules and laws determine human behavior in society, and religion is a way of controlling the future, which is determined by higher, supernatural forces ).

The feeling of uncertainty is not exclusively a personal characteristic of a person; it is partly shared by other members of society. The extent to which people try to cope with unknown aspects of the future is determined by culture. Some societies encourage their members to accept uncertainty, others to try to control them. As a result, a person’s behavior style in one society may be unacceptable in another.

Studies conducted by various scientists have shown that there are indirect indicators of the degree of uncertainty avoidance in a country. For example, suicide statistics (the higher the degree of uncertainty avoidance, the higher the mortality rate); average calorie intake per day (feelings of anxiety cause stress and a person begins to eat more); the number of mental illnesses (due to a low level of anxiety, a person becomes depressed and bored); caffeine consumption (coffee and tea have a stimulating effect, so they are consumed more in countries with low levels of uncertainty avoidance); or driving speed (in countries with low uncertainty avoidance, people do not feel urgency or urgency to do something, so they drive quite slowly).

In cultures with a high level of uncertainty, people are characterized by emotionality, aggressiveness and an active lifestyle (an example is the frantic pace of life of Americans, who are constantly in a hurry somewhere, always doing something). Representatives of a culture with a low level of uncertainty are characterized by calmness, tolerance, carelessness, as well as slowness and relative laziness (for example, Jamaica, where time flows slowly and where there is no rush).

Countries with a low degree of uncertainty avoidance include the UK, Denmark, and Scandinavian countries (except Finland). Countries with a high degree are Germany, Belgium, Japan, Latin American countries.

Let's consider how culture influences the formation of a person's value system in countries with strong and weak degrees of uncertainty avoidance through such social institutions as family, school and work.

The first thing a child is taught in a family is to be able to distinguish between what is good and what is bad. Understandings of right and wrong vary across cultures. In countries with a strong level of uncertainty avoidance, it is clearly known what is good and what is bad, what is dangerous and what is not dangerous, what is possible and what is not. Establishing rules and procedures helps reduce ambiguity and unpredictability. Anything that differs from established norms is dangerous because it creates uncertainty. The rigid distinction between good and bad also applies to people. It is in families that the feeling of racism begins. Children are taught that there are certain categories of people who are dangerous and should be avoided. A person feels protected if he knows that he is surrounded only by “good” people who will not harm him. From a very early age, the child feels the need for formalized instructions and norms of behavior.

A completely different behavior is observed in countries with a low degree of uncertainty avoidance. The classes are not structured, i.e. the teacher comes to class without a written work plan (of course, he prepares for the lessons, thinks through the course of the lesson, but does not calculate how much time it will take to get acquainted with the new topic, how much time will be spent discussing it and giving homework ). During the lessons there is a dialogue between the teacher and students, some issues are discussed in more detail depending on the interest of the students. Students enjoy doing a variety of homework. They are trying to involve parents in the learning process of their children: teachers are interested in what suggestions and ideas they have, and discuss how best to raise their child.

It is considered normal for a teacher to say: “I don’t know the answer to a question,” because his task is not to know everything, but to help the student in the learning process, to guide him. You can disagree with the teacher’s opinion and argue with him. There may be several correct answers to a question; originality is encouraged.

The need for formal direction and the desire to eliminate as much ambiguity as possible in cultures with high uncertainty avoidance continues into the workplace. The need for rules and laws is psychological - from childhood, people are accustomed to living in a structured society. Both employees and managers act according to instructions and rules. Instructions are written for almost everything; this helps control the work process, monitor the structure of the organization, which allows you to predict future events, and avoid uncertain situations as much as possible. The Germans, for example, hate misunderstandings, but love content, detail and clarity. “Having familiarized yourself in detail with the rules and procedures adopted in German organizations, you yourself must give firm and unambiguous orders. If you want something written in black rather than blue ink, you should say so directly."

“The desire to put everything in order permeates all aspects of German life and is the source of most of their national advantages and disadvantages. Foreign journalists share “horrible” stories from the everyday life of Germans: one was constantly reprimanded by the housewife for not wanting to hang the washed laundry in order and size, doing it completely chaotically; another was terrorized by his neighbors for not mowing his lawn, and attempts to mow it led to new complaints, since doing so on weekends turned out to be prohibited. In Germany, a special road traffic guide is published, describing in detail where and at what time you should expect them. But traffic jams are far from always amenable to regulation, sometimes arising spontaneously, and this terribly irritates the Germans. These “unauthorized” traffic jams even received a special name – “traffic jams from nowhere”, and large amounts of money have been allocated for the study of this phenomenon. government subsidies» .

The need to comply with laws and regulations sometimes creates meaningless and contradictory situations. For example, “In Yemen, a court sentenced the late editor-in-chief of an opposition newspaper to 80 lashes. According to RIA Novosti, the case was initiated in 1997 at the suit of a major religious figure who accused the newspaper Al-Shura, an organ of the opposition Union of Popular Forces, of defamation - the dissemination of defamatory information.

Then, four years ago, editor-in-chief Abdalla Said was sentenced to a fine and 80 lashes, and the publication of the newspaper was suspended for six months. Considering the possible public outcry, Said himself volunteered to appear for the flogging, but the execution of the sentence was postponed. A year later, Said resigned as editor-in-chief and died the following year. However, this did not prevent the court from instructing the Prosecutor General’s Office to implement the decision made four years ago right now.”

For a German, the law is also above common sense. “An English journalist once witnessed an accident at 2 am: a pedestrian crossing a completely empty road was hit by a car that suddenly appeared. After the victim was taken to the hospital, the journalist, slightly shocked by the incident, asked what would happen now. The German policeman replied: “Nothing special, if he survives, he will pay a fine of 50 marks, he was crossing the road in the wrong place.”

In countries with low uncertainty avoidance, formal instructions are kept to a minimum. Many, for example, are shocked by how disciplined and neatly the British people queue for buses or shops. In fact, in the UK there are no instructions indicating how to behave in queues; British behavior is based on social habit. In countries with low uncertainty avoidance, rules are established only when they cannot be avoided. It is interesting that, although in a society with a low uncertainty avoidance index, laws are written only in extreme cases, they are treated with more respect than in a society with a high uncertainty avoidance index.

The calm behavior of representatives of a culture with a weak degree of uncertainty avoidance is reflected in the work process. People work calmly and systematically. They are driven not by internal motivation for action, but by necessity, so pressure is sometimes necessary in management. This does not mean that workers are lazy and should be forced to work. The staff takes a responsible approach to completing assigned tasks and achieving the company's goals. But a feeling of confidence in the future and a calm attitude towards uncertainties create an atmosphere of relaxation. Representatives of a culture with a low level of uncertainty avoidance do not keep track of time and like to relax and unwind. A person lives for today and is not worried about what will happen tomorrow. Accuracy and punctuality can be learned, but such behavior is not natural for representatives of this type culture.

In a society with a high uncertainty avoidance index, people work hard because they care about the future. The hard work of the staff contributes to the high productivity of the company. The Japanese, for example, are completely dedicated to their work and strive to achieve the company's goals. The more free time, the more uncertainty, so people are constantly busy with something. Every second counts, because time is money. The need for rules contributes to the neat and punctual behavior of workers, scrupulousness in performing assigned tasks, and a high level of discipline. And, therefore, the forms of control over the work process are simplified. People try to build good relationships with their colleagues as this creates a feeling of security and safety.

Hofstede conducted a study and analyzed what top managers in different countries focus on when managing a company. It turned out that in countries with a weak degree of uncertainty avoidance (for example, the UK), managers are mainly engaged in strategic management and do not pay enough attention to everyday tasks. The most important thing for them is to identify the main tasks. And in countries with a strong degree of uncertainty avoidance (for example, France and Germany), managers, on the contrary, are aimed at day-to-day operational management, managers concentrate on private issues and details, they must know all the little things. This is due to the fact that strategic management is associated with uncertainty, with risk and requires greater responsibility than operational management.

Hofstede shares innovative cultures(which create new ideas) and implementing cultures (which ensure that those ideas are carried out). The first type includes countries with a weak degree of uncertainty avoidance, the second - countries with a strong degree of uncertainty avoidance. This division is due to the fact that, although innovation and innovative ideas are encouraged in countries with a low uncertainty avoidance index, it is more difficult to fully implement these ideas. This requires character traits such as detail, accuracy, and measuredness, which are more likely to be characteristic of countries with a high uncertainty avoidance index. "The UK (weak on the Uncertainty Avoidance Index) has more Nobel laureates, but Japan (strong on the Uncertainty Avoidance Index) produces more products on the world market". This is due to the fact that the Japanese are receptive to new ideas and are focused on their rapid implementation. They borrow and quickly assimilate new technological methods and processes, and buy patents and licenses en masse. Innovation is the basis of economic growth, and the Japanese are truly committed to it.

In table Figure 39 presents the main differences between countries with strong and weak uncertainty avoidance in relation to family, school and work.

Depending on what type of culture a country belongs to, the population has different attitudes towards the work of government authorities. The lower the degree of uncertainty avoidance, the more people trust authorities. In countries with low uncertainty avoidance scores, citizens respect the government and believe they can influence political decisions through rallies or protests.

In countries with strong uncertainty avoidance, people are more likely to have negative feelings towards politicians and distrust the work of authorities. The country's population does not believe that ordinary people can influence political decisions. Moreover, it is accepted that the actions of the authorities are correct by definition. Citizens are completely dependent on the state. Therefore, boycotts, hunger strikes or demonstrations are not encouraged. Citizens must carry identification with them, which they are required to present to government officials for identification. There is a strong need for order in society. Laws in such countries are worked out very carefully. There must be rules for everything (both formal and informal). Young politicians are usually not trusted. In countries with a high uncertainty avoidance index, underground extremist political parties often appear (since their official activities are prohibited by the state), which resort to terrorism.

Political ideology serves as one of the ways to limit uncertainty. In countries with a high uncertainty avoidance index, the established political ideology does not accept other political views; in countries with a low uncertainty avoidance index, they are acceptable.

Masculinity(MAS - Masculinity) is an assessment of people's tendency to be assertive and tough, focusing on material success to the detriment of interest in other people.

A culture is considered masculine if in society the gender roles of men and women are clearly separated, i.e. men are tough, aggressive, focused on material success and victory, and women are modest, gentle and focused on ensuring quality of life and moral comfort in the family.

Femininity is a characteristic feature of a society in which the difference in gender roles is not significant, that is, both men and women can be equally focused on material success and on ensuring quality of life

The question is whether the most important are “masculine” (such as “perseverance,” “self-confidence,” “success and competition”) or “feminine” (“life comforts,” “maintaining warm personal relationships,” “caring for the weak” , "solidarity", "modesty") values. In societies with increased masculinity social roles men and women differ sharply. There, it is generally accepted that men are focused on material success and rigidity in their positions, as opposed to women’s values, among which modesty and sensitivity occupy the main place. In cultures of this type, competition, competitiveness and the desire to win are encouraged. In work, priority is given to the result, and rewards are based on the principle of real contribution to the business. In feminine cultures, role differences between the male and female parts of the population are not given much importance. Moreover, both of them demonstrate great similarities in their positions and views. Particular attention on the part of all members of society is paid to spiritual rather than material values ​​- such as: maintaining relationships between people, caring for others, attention to people. The preferred way to resolve conflicts is to find a compromise, and rewards for work are based on the principle of equality.

Let's consider a specific situation. “One young Dutch engineer decided to take a job with an American company. He graduated with honors from a good university, had three years of work experience in a very famous Dutch company, and was actively involved in public life. The engineer sent a short resume to the American company and was invited for an interview. During the interview, he behaved politely and modestly, as he believed any applicant should behave, and expected to be asked questions that would determine his level of qualifications. To his surprise, the American manager asked him very few questions about his qualifications. Instead, he asked specific production questions using English special terms, which the Dutch engineer did not know and, accordingly, could not understand the meaning of the questions. These were questions he could master within a couple of weeks if he were hired.

Half an hour later, after a very unpleasant conversation, the American manager said: “Sorry, but you are not suitable for us.”

Why did the American manager refuse the Dutch engineer? The fact is that Americans and the Dutch have approximately the same scores on the power distance index and the individualism index, but they differ on the masculinity index. In the value system of American business culture (where masculinity prevails), it is considered important to show oneself in all its glory. Therefore, in their resumes they always emphasize their outstanding abilities, indicating all possible awards, awards and memberships in various associations. Americans act self-confident in interviews. American managers know to critically evaluate the meaning of information written on resumes and heard during interviews.

In the Netherlands, where feminine culture predominates, it is believed that one should behave modestly, without pathos. The Dutch tend to write modest and short CVs so as not to appear boastful. They expect to be able to demonstrate their level of knowledge during an interview by answering questions. Due to the difference in the value systems of the Dutch and Americans, cross-cultural misunderstandings occurred. The Dutch engineer could not prove his worth to the American, so he was not hired. In order to avoid misunderstandings and conflicts, and improve management efficiency, it is necessary to take into account the cultural characteristics of people’s behavior in different countries.

Let's consider how a system of values ​​is formed in masculine and feminine cultures at three main stages of “collective programming” of consciousness: in the family, at school, at work. It is in the family that a person’s worldview begins to form. Every culture has its own traditions of raising children. The child is instilled with cultural stereotypes of masculinity and femininity accepted in society. The child is greatly influenced by how the roles of husband and wife are distributed in the family. The behavior of parents influences the formation of a certain value system of the child and the establishment of differences between the roles of boys and girls in society.

In courageous countries, it is customary to differentiate the roles of parents. The husband is the breadwinner of the family, he is strict and rarely shows his feelings. The wife should behave submissively, maintain comfort and harmonious relationships at home. She pays attention to feelings, shows tenderness and regret. In this model of relationships, boys grow up to be independent and assertive; they should not cry, but they can fight to show strength and defend their position. Girls are kind and caring, they are very sensitive and need protection. The son helps the father, and the daughter helps the mother.

In feminine countries, there is no clear division of parental roles. They both care about the quality of life and family relationships. Therefore, a son can ask his mother for advice on how to hammer a nail correctly, and a daughter can approach her father and tell him about her difficulties, counting on support and understanding.

It should be taken into account that the relationship between parents and children is also influenced by power distance and the level of individualism. Therefore, it is possible that in a feminine culture there will be inequality between the sexes, and in a masculine culture the father will be more sensual and the mother more strict.

General values ​​characteristic of a particular gender are laid down at a very early age. Hofsteed's research shows that in masculine cultures, children are taught to be ambitious, to be competitive, to be ambitious. A person should strive to become the best and achieve success through his own efforts. An example of how masculine cultures admire strong people, are the heroes of Hollywood films (for example, “Batman”, “Rambaud”, “Superman”, etc.).

Feminine cultures teach modesty and obedience, and children help their parents. A person must maintain harmonious relationships with others and follow moral and ethical standards of behavior. Even in cinema, it is customary to sympathize with the defeated and anti-heroes, rather than praising lone heroes who show incredible courage in the fight for the truth and their interests (for example, in Russia they usually sympathize with Ostap Bender, the main character of Ilf and Petrov’s work “The Twelve Chairs”, and in modern The bandit Sasha Bely from the TV series “Brigada” is quite popular in society.

At school, the formation of the child’s value system continues. In countries with a masculine culture, leaders and the best students are valued. If you don't succeed, if you don't stand out from the crowd, then it's tantamount to disaster (“In countries with high levels of masculinity, such as Japan and Germany, newspapers annually publish reports of students who committed suicide because they failed exams "). The school is mostly taught by women, while the university is taught by men. Teachers are valued for their skill and academic knowledge.

In countries with a feminine culture, students do not want to stand out; it is better to be like everyone else. It's completely normal to fail at school. Students do not strive to achieve high results because this is not the most important thing to learn in school. The main thing is to learn to adapt to society and maintain good relationships in the team. Therefore, teachers are valued for their social qualities and friendliness. And men, just like women, can teach in lower grades of school.

The type of culture influences what majors young men and women choose when entering university. In masculine countries, specialties are divided depending on what type of behavior is characteristic of a particular gender. For example, pedagogy is mainly chosen by women (because it is a specialty that requires the ability to communicate with children), law and engineering are chosen by men (as it is a specialty that requires rigor and technical skills). Students choose their future profession depending on the size of their future income or, at least, visible benefits. In feminine countries, the social roles of men and women do not differ. Approximately the same number of men and women study in the same specialties. Choice future profession It is not the desire for money that determines, but rather the interest in a certain subject.

Hofsteed identifies the following aspects that are most important for representatives of masculine and feminine cultures when choosing a job.

For masculine cultures:

1. Earnings. People strive for jobs with high salaries.

2. Awareness of one’s merits when performing certain work.

3. Opportunity professional growth, performing more complex work.

4. The desire for work that will give a sense of self-realization.

For feminine crops:

1. Having a good relationship with your boss.

2. Work in a friendly team.

3. It is important to live in a good area.

4. Confidence that you will not lose your job.

In a masculine society, a person “lives to work.” People prefer to work in large organizations. At work, such qualities as desire for career growth, competitiveness, assertiveness, self-confidence, and ambition are welcomed. Everyone strives to achieve results and receive fair compensation. Because of internal struggle For leadership, a person works in a highly competitive environment.

In feminine society, it is customary to “work to live.” Humility in self-esteem is encouraged. Bragging and loudness are not encouraged. In feminine cultures, work should provide more opportunities for communication and mutual assistance. For efficient work A good atmosphere in the team is important. A person is focused on a harmonious family life, and not on material success (it is much more important to spend time with family than to sit late at work). In feminine countries, people prefer to work in small companies.

Depending on the type of culture, there are different ways to resolve conflicts. In countries with a masculine culture, conflicts are usually resolved through argument, through struggle: “let the strongest win.” In countries with a feminine culture, it is not customary to single out winners and losers. A typical method of resolving conflicts is to negotiate and make a compromise solution.

Specific situation. “The Russian-American furniture enterprise was created on the basis of a Soviet furniture factory. It was able to fit into the economy of the transition period. Furniture was in demand, and its sales were profitable. However, as competition in the furniture market grew, the profitability of the enterprise began to fall. By decision of the shareholders, an American manager was appointed to the position of financial director (FD). The following dialogue took place between him and the Russian General Director (DG):

FD: The senior engineer of the enterprise, Mr. Petrov, is not coping with his functions. I propose to fire him and hire a younger, more competent and energetic person in his place.

GD: Ivan Petrovich Petrov worked at our factory for almost 40 years. He considers our company his second home and is devoted to it. People love him. Moreover, he is crystal honest man. Of course, he is not young and it is difficult for him to keep up with the times...

FD: The recruitment agency has already offered me a young candidate. He is dissatisfied with the working conditions of our competitor and is ready, if we pay him more, to come to us. I made inquiries - he is very competent and proactive. During the year and a half of its operation, our competitors’ sales volume increased by almost 30%.

GD: I don't really like it. Firstly, how can you just fire your oldest employee? This is a conflict. Besides, he tries. He just doesn't succeed at everything. Let's think about how to help him. And regarding your candidate: a person who runs for a long ruble to another enterprise will run away from us. Why do we need someone we can’t rely on?

FD: Listen, but due to the fact that Mr. Petrov cannot cope, our shareholders are losing profits. I am confident that the appointment of a young and competent person with whom I met to the post of senior engineer will benefit the factory and will be in the interests of the shareholders.”

In the business culture of a Russian manager, femininity predominates, while in the culture of an American manager, masculinity predominates. The first one does not like to create conflict situations, therefore he is against dismissal. It is more important for him to maintain harmonious relationships with his employees than to receive material benefits. A Russian manager is emotionally attached to his subordinate. The goal of the American manager is to increase sales and increase profits. He cares about the employee's productivity, not his loyalty to the company. And since Mr. Petrov cannot cope with his functions, a more capable, better worker should take his place.

The type of culture determines the way a leader makes decisions. In a masculine culture, the manager makes decisions alone, paying attention to the facts. In feminine cultures, managers act more intuitively. To make decisions, he needs to consult, convene a meeting, a commission.

Feminine and masculine countries do well in different industries. Masculine cultures excel in production, especially mass production, because they work quickly and efficiently. Feminine cultures have an advantage in those industries where there is a focus on people: the service sector (for example, tourism), production focused on the individual desires of the consumer, as well as the processing of natural materials.

Long term orientation(LTO - Long Term Orientation) - an indicator of how pragmatic and strategically oriented a society is to the future, as opposed to traditionalism and short-term (tactical) orientation.

In societies with a strong long-term orientation, people recognize the importance of persistence, relationship status, frugality, and shame. All these values ​​contribute to entrepreneurial activity. So, perseverance and perseverance are the key to any entrepreneurial activity, a harmonious and stable hierarchy makes it easier to fulfill role responsibilities, frugality contributes to the accumulation of capital, which can then be reinvested in the business, and, finally, a feeling of shame makes people more sensitive to social contacts and strive to fulfill their obligations. A low level of Confucian dynamism, or short-term orientation, on the contrary, inhibits entrepreneurship. The desire for sustainability and stability when exceeding a certain norm hinders the initiative, risk-taking and flexibility that are so necessary for an entrepreneur in a constantly changing market. “Saving face”, excessive respect for traditions is directly related to the rejection of all kinds of innovations. And the mutual exchange of gifts, congratulations and patronage is a ritual that places more emphasis on impeccable manners than on completing assigned tasks.

Value indicators for some countries of the world

The Dutch scientist, professor of anthropology, social psychologist G. Hofstede from 1960 to 1980 studied the national cultures of 70 countries of the world, on the basis of which he derived a multifactor model of values ​​(the object of the study was a transnational corporation 1VM).

The terminology proposed by G. Hofstede to describe national culture includes five parameters (general indicators), which he called “dimensions”, since they occur in almost all possible combinations (Fig. 1.3.4):

• 1) individualism - collectivism;
• 2) power distance (large - small);
• 3) rejection (avoidance) of uncertainty (strong - weak);
• 4) masculinity - femininity;
• 5) orientation (long-term - short-term). It appears that these parameters are independent of each other.

Rice. 1.3.4.

Data obtained from a survey of employees of a transnational corporation 1VM, allowed G. Hofstede to assign a quantitative rating (from 0 to 100) to the country represented in the database for each of these dimensions. These five dimensions were identified using multivariate statistical analysis (factor analysis) and theoretical considerations. The results of a comparative analysis of cultural variables of some countries and regions are given in Table. 1.3.2. Variables were means or percentages answers to various questions about values.

Table 1.3.2

RESULTS OF COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CULTURAL VARIABLES IN SOME COUNTRIES AND REGIONS

Country, region	Designation reading	Country culture variables
					M - A - F
United Kingdom
Venezuela
Germany
Holland

Country, region	Designation	Country culture variables
					M -A -F
Hong Kong (Hong Kong)
West Africa
Indonesia
	CH1YA
Norway
Singapore
Finland

Note.

Degree of manifestation: B - high, N - low, B - large, C - medium, M - small. DV - power distance;

NN - rejection (avoidance) of uncertainty;

I - K - individualism - collectivism;

M - A - F - masculinity (masculinity) - androgyny - femininity; DO - duration of orientation.

Let's take a closer look at these parameters (measurements). Individualism - collectivism. This is the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of a group, and vice versa.

Fundamental here is the question of the connection of the individual with the surrounding society.

Differences organizational cultures according to the parameter “individualism - collectivism” (“I - K”) are given in table. 1.3.3.

Power distance. Power distance (zone) is the degree of inequality between people that they consider acceptable or normal.

DIFFERENCES IN ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES ACCORDING TO THE PARAMETER “INDIVIDUALISM - COLLECTIVISM”

Table 1.3.3

Organizations with low I - K" (“collectivist” culture)	Organizations with high I - K ("individualist" culture)
Employees expect the organization to take care of their personal affairs and protect their interests, so the life of the organization greatly influences the well-being of its members	Employees do not want the organization to interfere in their personal lives and avoid its guardianship; they rely only on themselves, defend their interests; emotional independence from the company
Interaction in an organization is based on a sense of duty and loyalty; moral obligations towards the company	The organization has little influence on the well-being of its employees; its functioning is carried out based on the individual initiative of each member
Managers strive for obedience and order; they name duty, experience and prestige as the main goals in life.	Managers strive for leadership and diversity; they name pleasure and safety as their main goals in life.
Managers evaluate their position by prioritizing confidence and stability.	Managers evaluate their position by putting their autonomy first.
Managers adhere to traditional views on forms of maintaining the activity of subordinates, not approving of employee initiatives or group activity	Management is aware of the latest ideas and methods, tries to put them into practice, adheres to modern views on stimulating employee initiative or group activity
Group solutions are considered more attractive than individual ones; making decisions based on personal relationships	Individual solutions are more attractive than group solutions; the main emphasis is on the formal business principle
Promotion is carried out in accordance with length of service; there is a longer period of apprenticeship prior to obtaining a specific position	Promotions are made within or outside the organization based on the individual's competence and "market value"; There is a shorter period of apprenticeship prior to obtaining a specific position.
Social connections within an organization are characterized by cohesion	Social connections within an organization are characterized by a certain distance

Fundamental here is the question of how society copes with the fact of human inequality. The “power distance” characteristic characterizes the level of democratization (authoritarianization) of the management style. The concepts of low or high power distance indices are introduced, characterizing deep differences in the organization’s management structure, the system of distribution of roles, etc. Each organization has its own degree of socially approved inequality of employee status (Table 1.3.4).

MAIN DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF ORGANIZATIONS WITH LOW AND HIGH POWER DISTANCE (PD) INDICATORS

Table 1.3.4

Tendency towards decentralization, managers tend to consult with subordinates when making decisions	Tendency towards centralization, managers make decisions on an autocratic and paternalistic basis
Constant supervision and control is assessed negatively by subordinates. The organization has the shape of an oblate pyramid	Constant supervision and control is assessed positively by subordinates. The organization looks like a tall, pointed pyramid
Strong work ethic: they do not believe that a person could not like to work	Weak work ethic: more likely to believe than not to believe that a person may not like work
Managers prefer a boss who is directly involved in the work	Managers prefer a directive and motivating boss
With regard to the manager's decision-making style, subordinates' preferences are given to a consultative, compromising style	With regard to the manager’s decision-making style, the preferences of subordinates are polarized between the autocratic-paternalistic style and the rule of subordination of the minority to the majority

Organizations with low DV	Organizations with a high DV rate
Employees are not afraid to express disagreement with management	Employees are afraid to express disagreement with bosses
Employees show greater willingness to cooperate	Workers are less likely to trust each other
Small number of management staff	Large number of management and supervisory personnel
Mixed sentiments about subordinates' participation in the management process	Ideological support for the participation of subordinates in the management process
Workers have the same status as employees	Employees have higher status than workers
Relatively small wage differentiation	Significant wage differentiation

Analyzing the contents of the table. 1.3.4, we can conclude that a high power distance index means the recognition that hierarchy is a natural inequality, orders are not discussed, power prevails over right, senior management is inaccessible, employees are afraid to express their opinions, express disagreement, do not trust each other too much to a friend.

A low index, in turn, means that the inequality of roles is quite clearly defined in the organization, and the hierarchical leadership is focused on a management style that is convenient for employees, right, not force, prevails, top managers are accessible, a redistribution of power is sufficient to change the existing hierarchy; There is a hidden harmony between managers and subordinates, and solidarity between ordinary employees.

Aversion (avoidance) of uncertainty. The desire to avoid uncertainty is the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals (being in conditions of free social connections, taking care of themselves and their loved ones), rather than as members of a group, and vice versa. Research shows that, as a rule, in organizations with a high index of uncertainty avoidance, managers to a greater extent busy with private issues and details, task-oriented, use a more or less constant management style, do not like to make risky decisions and take responsibility; Low staff turnover is seen as normal and positive. In organizations with a low value of this index, managers prefer to deal with strategic issues, are people-oriented and adhere to a flexible management style, are ready to make risky decisions and take full responsibility upon themselves; high staff turnover is considered as a normal and positive phenomenon (Table 1.3.5).

Table 1.3.5

MAIN DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF ORGANIZATIONS WITH LOW AND HIGH “UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE” (UN) INDICATORS

Willingness to live for today	Caring for the future
Less emotional resistance to change	More emotional resistance to change
Smaller generation gap	Gerontocracy: older people tend to hold top positions
Sustainable motivation to achieve goals; hope for success	Low motivation to achieve goals; fear of success
Greater risk taking	Low risk appetite
Stronger focus on individual achievement	Less strong focus on individual achievement
Preference for a managerial career over a specialist career	A manager must be an expert in the field he manages
Broader directives are preferred	Preference is given to clear requirements and instructions
Possibility of breaking rules for pragmatic reasons	Impossibility of breaking the rules
The presence of conflict in an organization is a normal situation.	Conflict in an organization is undesirable
Rivalry and competition between employees is normal and productive; the belief that competition between employees should be fair	Competition and rivalry between employees is not encouraged
	Requirement for Consensus and Consultative Leadership
The manager is not a management specialist	The leader must be an expert in management

Organizations with low NV indicators	Organizations with a high NI rate
Full delegation of authority to subordinates is possible	The initiative of subordinates should be controlled
High willingness to reach compromise with opponents	Low willingness to compromise with opponents
Higher tolerance for ambiguity in evaluating one's own work (low level of satisfaction)	Low tolerance for ambiguity in evaluating one’s own work (high level of satisfaction)
Workers prefer small organizations	Workers prefer large organizations

Masculinity - femininity. G. Hofstede called societies with a strict social division of roles between the sexes masculine, and societies with a weak division of roles - feminine.

Fundamental here is the question of the distribution of roles between the sexes. This parameter of organizational culture reflects the motivational orientation of personnel to achieve a goal or complete a task. The very name of this parameter is associated with the understanding of the traditional family roles of men and women. A man, as a rule, demonstrating strength, must provide for the life of the family, and a woman must improve the quality of life. Consequently, the male role in relation to the organization implies “life for work”, i.e. orientation towards achieving a goal, and the female role - work “for the sake of life”, i.e. task orientation. These differences (Table 1.3.6) were first identified by the American sociologist F. Herzberg.

Consequently, in “male” organizational cultures, the humanization of work is understood as an opportunity to be recognized, self-realization, and make a career. In “feminine” organizational cultures, the humanization of work is seen primarily as the presence of constant attention to employees and good relations between members of the organization.

The ways of resolving conflicts also depend on the nature of the organizational culture: in “male” organizations, the conflict has the character of an open and harsh confrontation, which is usually brought to its logical conclusion. In “women’s” organizations, the conflict is more often of a hidden nature and the settlement of relations is carried out through negotiations.

Table 1.3.6

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN “MALE” AND “FEMALE” CULTURES

"Male" culture	« Women's culture
A man should earn money, and a woman should raise children	A man does not have to earn a living; he can raise children
A man must dominate in any situation	Differences between the sexes do not affect positions of power
Success is the only thing that matters in life	Quality of life is important
Life for work	Work to live
It is important to have money and good material conditions	The presence of men and surroundings is important
We must always strive to be the best	Focus on equality, without trying to appear better than others
Independence	Solidarity welcome
Focus on maximizing the realization of your claims	Service focus
Decisions are made based on rational thought	Decisions are made based on intuition

The typology is of greatest interest for practical diagnostics and the study of organizational culture K. Cameron And R. Quinn, which covers the key characteristics of crops, allows you to obtain their quality and quantitative estimates and diagnose changes in company culture.

The typology is based on a framework of competing values. The development of the competing values ​​framework was initially supported by research on the leading indicators of effective organizations. Thirty-nine indicators were identified to define a comprehensive set of measures of organizational effectiveness. Each performance indicator was subjected to statistical analysis, which made it possible to identify two main dimensions (horizontal and vertical), according to which the indicators under consideration ended up in one of the four main groups (Fig. 1.3.5).

Some firms are considered effective if they embrace change, are adaptable, and move forward.

Rice. 1.3.5.

(for example, companies Microsoft, Nike etc.); other organizations are considered effective if they are stable, predictable and mechanically consistent (government bodies, scientific institutes, universities, military conglomerates, etc.).

The second dimension defines performance criteria located between internal orientation, integration and unity and external orientation, differentiation and competition (internal harmony is considered effective in firms IBM, Hewlett-Packard; an attitude towards external factors and competition is observed in firms Honda And Toyota).

Rice. 1.3.6.

Both dimensions form four quadrants, each of which corresponds to its own ideas about effectiveness, values, leadership styles and forms its own culture. Thus, four types of culture are distinguished: hierarchical (bureaucratic), market, clan and adhocratic (Fig. 1.3.6).

In table 1.3.7 provides a description of each organizational culture.

DESCRIPTION OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES

Table 1.3.7

Clan culture	Adhocratic culture
A very friendly place to work where people have a lot in common. Organizations are like big families. Leaders or heads of organizations are perceived as educators and perhaps even as parents. The organization is bound together by loyalty and tradition. The commitment of the organization is high. The emphasis is on the long-term benefits of personal improvement, and a high degree of team cohesion and moral climate are emphasized. Success is defined in terms of being customer friendly and caring about people. The organization encourages teamwork, people's participation in business and agreement	A dynamic, entrepreneurial and creative place to work. People are willing to sacrifice themselves and take risks. Leaders are seen as innovators and risk takers. The unifying essence of the organization is its dedication to experimentation and innovation. The need for action at the forefront is emphasized. In the long term, the organization focuses on growth and acquiring new resources. Success means producing/providing unique and new products and/or services. It is important to be a leader in the product or service market. The organization encourages personal initiative and freedom
Hierarchical (bureaucratic) culture	Market culture
A very formalized and structured place to work. Leaders pride themselves on being rational facilitators and organizers. It is important to maintain the smooth running of the organization's operations. An organization is held together by formal rules and official policies. The long-term concerns of an organization are to ensure stability and smooth running of operations in a cost-effective manner. Success is defined in terms of reliable supply, smooth schedules and low costs. Employee management is concerned with job security and long-term predictability	A results-oriented organization whose primary concern is getting the job done. People are goal-oriented and competitive. Leaders are tough managers and tough competitors, they are unwavering and demanding. What binds the organization together is the desire to win. Reputation and success are a common concern. A forward-looking strategy is aimed at competitive actions, solving assigned problems and achieving measurable goals. Success is defined in terms of penetrating markets and increasing market share. Competitive pricing and market leadership are important. The style of the organization is a strict focus on competitiveness

Based on table 1.3.7 we can highlight features characteristic of each type of organizational culture.

Clan culture:

• dedication;
• separation of value and purpose;
• cohesion;
• complicity;
• organization of team work;
• trust in each other;
• traditions;
• commitment of the organization;
• high degree of team cohesion;
• perception of consumers as partners;
• highly moral internal climate;
• team rather than individual remuneration;
• care about improving the skills of employees. Adhocratic culture:
• adaptation to external environment;
• innovation;
• lack of centralized power and relationships;
• emphasis on individuality;
• readiness for change;
• entrepreneurial and creative attitude to work;
• high dynamism;
• risk promotion and risk orientation;
• production of original products (provision of unique services);
• fluidity of power depending on problems. Hierarchical (bureaucratic) culture:
• strict adherence to the rules;
• specialization;
• hierarchy;
• selection system based on assessments;
• standardized rules and procedures;
• formal rules and policies hold the organization together;
• control and accounting mechanisms;
• depersonalization.

Market culture:

• an alternative set of activities;
• transaction costs;
• results orientation;
• market leadership;
• strength in market niches;
• ahead of competitors;
• conducting operations (sale, exchange of contracts). The main tool for assessing the current culture and its preferred state is the following questionnaire.

• Hofstede Geert. Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work Related Values, Sage, Beverly Hills, Calif., 1980.
• Cameron K., Quinn R. Decree. op.

Please select a country in the dropdown menu below to see the values ​​for the 6 dimensions. After a first country has been selected, a second and even a third country can be chosen to be able to see a comparison of their scores.

To compare your personal preferences to the scores of a country of your choice, please purchase our cultural survey tool, the .

Description

Please note that culture is defined as the collective mental programming of the human mind which distinguishes one group of people from another. This programming influences patterns of thinking which are reflected in the meaning people attach to various aspects of life and which become crystallised in the institutions of a society.

This does not imply that everyone in a given society is programmed in the same way; there are significant differences between individuals. It may well be that the differences among individuals in one country culture are bigger than the differences among all country cultures. We can, nevertheless, still use such country scores based on the law of the big numbers, and on the fact, most of us are strongly influenced by social control. Please realize that statements about just one culture on the level of “values” do not describe “reality”; such statements are generalizations and they ought to be relative. Without comparison, a country score is meaningless.

The scores used for the fifth dimension are based on the research of Michael Minkov as published in the 3rd and the latest edition of Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind(2010), pages 255-258.

Please feel free to contact us if you have any questions:

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