Literary type
The concept " literary type" first appears in Hegel's Aesthetics. In literary theory, “type” and “character” are close, but not interchangeable; "character" in to a greater extent reveals typical features personality, its psychological properties, and “type” is a generalization of certain social phenomena and is associated with typical traits. For example, Maxim Maksimych is a typical Russian soldier, “just a decent person,” as L.N. Tolstoy said about him, while Grigory Aleksandrovich Pechorin is a type of “suffering egoist,” the embodiment of “the vices of an entire generation in their full development.”
The concept of “typing” includes the process of creating a holistic picture of the world and is the basis of the creative process.
Recognizing typification as an internal need and a law of art, writers realize that the typical is not a copy of reality, but an artistic generalization.
In Moliere, Harpagon and Tartuffe are typical characters, but they are not social, but psychological types, illustrating neglect of moral requirements. If we want to call someone a miser or a hypocrite, we use these proper names as common nouns.
V. G. Belinsky in the article “On the Russian story and the stories of Mr. Gogol” defines the typifying features of a literary hero: “Don’t say: here is a man with a huge soul, with ardent passions, with an extensive mind, but a limited reason, who loves so madly his wife, that he is ready to strangle her with his hands at the slightest suspicion of infidelity - say more simply and briefly: here is Othello!.. Don’t say: here is an official who is vile by conviction, malicious with good intentions, criminal in good faith - say: here is Famusov!
The schematism of classic images is associated with the intentional intention of the authors, using the example of a particular character, to illustrate ethical and aesthetic principles. That is why the image, reduced to a theoretical premise, is marked by maximum typicality. However, an image that bears any one dominant feature, while winning in typicality, often loses in artistry.
The aesthetics of classicism are based on the principles of rationalism. Classicists affirm the view of a work of art as a creation that is consciously created, intelligently organized, and logically provable. Having put forward the principle of “imitation of nature,” classicists consider compliance with known rules and restrictions to be an indispensable condition. The goal of art is the artistic transformation of nature, the transformation of nature into a beautiful and ennobled aesthetic reality.
The strict hierarchy of genres of classicism also gives rise to the normalization of literary types. Social conflicts appear in the work reflected in the souls of the heroes. The division of characters into positive and negative in classic aesthetics is natural. There should be no intermediate types, since art is charged with the task of correcting vices and glorifying virtues ideal person.
Classical playwrights turn to Aristotle, who argued that tragedy “seeks to depict the best people than those currently existing." The heroes of classic plays are forced to struggle with circumstances that, as in the tragedy of antiquity, cannot be prevented. In the classic version of the conflict, the resolution of the tragic situation now depends not on fate, but on the titanic will of the hero, personifying the author’s ideal.
According to the poetics of the genre, the heroes of the tragedy could be mythological characters, monarchs, generals, persons who determined by their will the destinies of many people and even an entire nation. It is they who embody the main requirement - to sacrifice selfish interests in the name of the common good. As a rule, the content of character in a tragedy comes down to one essential trait. It determined the moral and psychological appearance of the hero. Thus, in Sumarokov’s tragedies, Kiy (“Khorev”) and Mstislav (“Mstislav”) are depicted by the playwright only as monarchs who violated their duty to their subjects; Khorev, Truvor, Vysheslav are like heroes who know how to control their feelings and subordinate them to the dictates of duty. Character in classicism is not depicted on its own, but is given in relation to the opposite property. The conflict between duty and feeling, caused by a dramatic combination of circumstances, made the characters of the heroes of the tragedies similar, and sometimes indistinguishable.
In the works of classicism, especially in comedy, the main character trait of the hero is fixed in his behavior and in his name. For example, the image of Pravdin cannot show at least any flaw, and Svinin cannot show the slightest dignity. Vice or virtue take a specific figurative form in Fonvizin’s comedies: the prude Zhekhvat, the braggart Verkholet.
In the literature of sentimentalism, the emphasis is transferred from the environment to the person, to the sphere of his spiritual life. Preference is given to characters in which “sensitivity” predominates. Sentimentality, according to G. Pospelov’s definition, “is a more complex state, caused mainly by the ideological understanding of a certain inconsistency in the social characters of people. Sensitivity is a personal psychological phenomenon; sentimentality has a general cognitive meaning.” Sentimentality of experience is the ability to recognize the external insignificance of other people’s lives, and sometimes in one’s own own life something intrinsically significant. This feeling requires the hero’s mental reflection (emotional contemplation, the ability of introspection). A striking example of a sentimental character is Werther Goethe. The title of the novel is symptomatic - “The Sorrows of Young Werther.” In Goethe's work, suffering is perceived not as a chain of unfortunate events, but as a spiritual experience that can cleanse the hero's soul and ennoble his feelings. The author did not idealize his hero. Upon completion of work on the novel, Goethe wrote that he depicted “ young man immersed in extravagant dreams,” who “perishes... as a result of unhappy passions.”
After a century of “thinking” (as Voltaire called the Age of Enlightenment), authors and readers felt that thought, a logically proven idea does not exhaust the potential of the individual: you can put forward a spectacular idea for improving the world, but this is not enough to correct a vicious world. The era of romanticism is coming. In its content, art reflects the rebellious spirit of man. The romantic theory of genius crystallizes in literature. “Genius and villainy are two incompatible things” - this phrase from Pushkin defines the main types of characters in romanticism. Poets discovered the unusual complexity, depth of the spiritual world of man, the inner infinity of the individual.
Intense interest in strong feelings and secret movements of the soul, in the mysterious side of the universe, gives rise to an exceptionally intense psychologism of images. The craving for the intuitive encourages writers to imagine heroes in extreme situations and to persistently comprehend the hidden sides of nature. The romantic hero lives by imagination, not reality. Special psychological types are emerging: rebels who oppose a high ideal to a triumphant reality; villains who tempt man with omnipotence and omniscience; musicians (gifted people capable of penetrating the world of ideas). Many Romantic heroes become literary myths, symbolizing the thirst for knowledge (Faust), uncompromising devotion (Quasimodo) or absolute evil (Cain). In romanticism, as in sentimentalism, the extra-class value of a person is decisive in assessing the character of a literary hero. That is why the authors deliberately weaken the fact of a person’s dependence on circumstances caused by social conflicts. The lack of motivation of character is explained by its predetermination and self-sufficiency. “One but fiery passion” guides the actions of the heroes.
At the center of romantic aesthetics is a creative subject, a genius who rethinks reality, or a villain who is convinced of the infallibility of his vision of reality. Romanticism professes the cult of individualism, emphasizing not the universal, but the exclusive.
The basis of the literary characterology of realism is the social type. The psychological discoveries of romanticism are reinforced in realism by broad social and historical analysis, ideological motivation for the hero’s behavior. The character, as a rule, is determined by circumstances and environment.
In Russian realistic literature types add up literary heroes, which have common characterological features, their behavior is determined by similar circumstances, and the disclosure of the image in the text is based on traditional plot collisions and motives. The most striking were the “extra man,” “little man,” and “simple man.”
Initially heroes in folklore and literary works characterized by one main feature, one quality. In fairy tales, Baba Yaga was always evil, good fellow- brave. Koschey the Immortal is greedy, a beautiful maiden is wise and faithful. Epic hero Ilya Muromets was powerful and unshakable. Sadko is broad-minded and generous. U fairy-tale heroes There were no individual characters or personal experiences yet.
IN ancient epic a type of epic hero, endowed with an integral character, developed. For example, the hero Achilles in Homer’s poem “The Iliad” is a fearless warrior, this is his main characteristic, which determines all his actions. The character of Hector, the defender of Troy, is determined by his humanity, which is why he wavered in the battle with Achilles and was afraid of him. Epic characters are also found in the literature of later times: let us remember the hero N.V. Gogol - Taras Bulba.
In works ancient Russian literature the characters' characters were not described in detail, although they were also integral and consistent. So, in the story about Peter and Fevronia, it was important for the author to show the courage of Peter and the wisdom of Fevronia; Epiphanius the Wise - piety and feat St. Sergius Radonezh. Hagiographic literature was intended to instruct people, to provide examples of righteous behavior, describing the lives of saints.
In the literature of the Renaissance, heroes of a new type appear. They are no longer determined by any one trait or quality, but by their fate and position in the world. So, Hamlet in tragedy of the same name V. Shakespeare is a type tragic hero - a person who finds himself in hopeless situation. The hero of M. de Cervantes Don Quixote, due to his madness and absurd behavior, is considered comic hero, although gradually as we read the novel we begin to recognize behind this comedy the seriousness and even tragedy of the image. Both Hamlet and Don Quixote - heroes of lofty ideals, they strive for truth and goodness and represent the type tall hero. The image of Don Quixote became the basis for the image of a tall hero in comedy. In Russian literature, an example of a hero of this kind is, for example, Chatsky in A. S. Griboyedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit.”
Drama as a type of literature is divided into genres: tragedy, comedy and drama. If the first two genres are characterized primarily by tragic and comic heroes, then in drama the center of the conflict is dramatic hero. This is the image of the unfortunate girl Larisa Ogudalova in the play “Dowry” by A.N. Ostrovsky. The images of Karandyshev and Larisa’s mother have dramatic features. And the drunkard Robinson in the play, in contrast to the lofty images of Don Quixote and Chatsky, represents type of reduced comic hero.
The image of the merchant Kalashnikov in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov's "Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich..." contains epic, heroic and tragic features, the type of this hero cannot be determined unambiguously. However, the merchant Kalashnikov accurately represents a heroic personality - a man who resists injustice and defends his honor, his faith, and his people. This is explained by the fact that in the literature of the last two centuries literary styles, genres, as well as the characters' personalities, have become more complex, thereby reflecting the fact that people's views on life have become fuller and more diverse.
Copyright Competition -K2
The word "hero" ("heros" - Greek) means a demigod or deified person.
Among the ancient Greeks, heroes were either half-breeds (one of the parents is a god, the other is a human), or outstanding men who became famous for their deeds, for example, military exploits or travel. But, in any case, the title of hero gave a person a lot of advantages. They worshiped him and composed poems and other songs in his honor. Gradually, the concept of “hero” migrated to literature, where it has stuck to this day.
Now, in our understanding, a hero can be either a “noble man” or a “worthless man” if he acts within the framework of a work of art.
The term “hero” is adjacent to the term “character”, and often these terms are perceived as synonyms.
Person in Ancient Rome they called the mask that the actor put on before the performance - tragic or comic.
A hero and a character are not the same thing.
A LITERARY HERO is an exponent of plot action that reveals the content of the work.
CHARACTER is any actor in the work.
The word “character” is characteristic in that it does not carry any additional meanings.
Take, for example, the term “actor.” It is immediately clear that it must act = perform actions, and then a whole bunch of heroes do not fit this definition. Starting from Papa Pippi Longstocking, the mythical sea captain, and ending with the people in “Boris Godunov”, who, as always, are “silent”.
The emotional and evaluative connotation of the term “hero” implies exclusively positive qualities = heroism\heroism. And then it will not fall under this definition yet more people. Well, how about, say, calling Chichikov or Gobsek a hero?
And so literary scholars are fighting with philologists - who should be called a “hero” and who a “character”?
Time will tell who will win. For now we will count in a simple way.
A hero is an important character for expressing the idea of a work. And the characters are everyone else.
A little later we'll talk about the character system in work of art, there will be talk about the main (heroes) and secondary (characters).
Now let's note a couple more definitions.
LYRICAL HERO
Concept lyrical hero was first formulated by Yu.N. Tynyanov in 1921 in relation to the work of A.A. Blok.
Lyrical hero - the image of a hero in lyrical work, experiences, feelings, thoughts which reflect the author’s worldview.
The lyrical hero is not an autobiographical image of the author.
You cannot say “lyrical character” - only “lyrical hero”.
THE IMAGE OF A HERO is an artistic generalization of human properties, character traits in the individual appearance of the hero.
LITERARY TYPE is a generalized image of human individuality, most characteristic of a certain social environment at a certain time. It connects two sides - the individual (single) and the general.
Typical does not mean average. The type concentrates in itself everything that is most striking, characteristic of an entire group of people - social, national, age, etc. For example, the type of Turgenev girl or a lady of Balzac's age.
CHARACTER AND CHARACTER
IN modern literary criticism character is the unique individuality of a character, his inner appearance, that is, what distinguishes him from other people.
Character consists of diverse traits and qualities that are not combined by chance. Every character has a main, dominant trait.
Character can be simple or complex.
A simple character is distinguished by integrity and staticity. The hero is either positive or negative.
Simple characters are traditionally grouped into pairs, most often based on the opposition “bad” - “good”. Contrast sharpens the virtues goodies and belittles the merits of negative heroes. Example - Shvabrin and Grinev in “The Captain’s Daughter”
A complex character is the hero’s constant search for himself, the hero’s spiritual evolution, etc.
A complex character is very difficult to label as “positive” or “negative.” There is inconsistency and paradox in it. Like Captain Zheglov, who almost sent poor Gruzdev to prison, but easily gave food cards to Sharapov’s neighbor.
STRUCTURE OF A LITERARY CHARACTER
A literary hero is a complex and multifaceted person. It has two appearances - external and internal.
To create the appearance of the hero they work:
PORTRAIT. This face, figure, distinctive features physique (for example, Quasimodo’s hump or Karenin’s ears).
CLOTHING, which can also reflect certain character traits of the hero.
SPEECH, the features of which characterize the hero no less than his appearance.
AGE, which determines the potential possibility of certain actions.
PROFESSION, which shows the degree of socialization of the hero, determines his position in society.
LIFE STORY. Information about the origin of the hero, his parents/relatives, the country and place where he lives, gives the hero sensually tangible realism and historical specificity.
The internal appearance of the hero consists of:
WORLDVIEW AND ETHICAL BELIEF, which provide the hero with value guidelines, give meaning to his existence.
THOUGHTS AND ATTITUDES that outline the diverse life of the hero’s soul.
FAITH (or lack thereof), which determines the presence of the hero in the spiritual field, his attitude towards God and the Church.
STATEMENTS AND ACTIONS, which indicate the results of the interaction of the soul and spirit of the hero.
The hero can not only reason and love, but also be aware of emotions, analyze his own activities, that is, reflect. Artistic reflection allows the author to identify the hero’s personal self-esteem and characterize his attitude towards himself.
CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT
So, a character is a fictional animate person with a certain character and unique external characteristics. The author must come up with this data and convincingly convey it to the reader.
If the author does not do this, the reader perceives the character as cardboard and is not included in his experiences.
Character development is a rather labor-intensive process and requires skill.
Most effective way- this is to write down on a separate sheet of paper all the personality traits of your character that you want to present to the reader. Straight to point.
The first point is the hero’s appearance (fat, thin, blond, brunette, etc.). The second point is age. The third is education and profession.
Be sure to answer (first of all, to yourself) the following questions:
- how does the character relate to other people? (sociable\closed, sensitive\callous, respectful\rude)
- How does the character feel about his work? (hardworking/lazy, creative/routine, responsible/irresponsible, proactive/passive)
- How does the character feel about himself? (has self-esteem, self-critical, proud, modest, arrogant, vain, arrogant, touchy, shy, selfish)
- how does the character feel about his things? (neat/sloppy, careful with things/careless)
The selection of questions is not random. The answers to them will give a FULL picture of the character's personality.
It is better to write down the answers and keep them before your eyes throughout the entire work on the work.
What will it give? Even if in the work you do not mention ALL QUALITIES of personality (for minor and episodic characters it is not rational to do this), then all the same, the author’s FULL understanding of his characters will be transmitted to the reader and will make their images three-dimensional.
ARTISTIC DETAIL plays a huge role in creating/revealing character images.
An artistic detail is a detail that the author has endowed with significant semantic and emotional load.
A bright detail replaces entire descriptive fragments, cuts off unnecessary details that obscure the essence of the matter.
An expressive, successfully found detail is evidence of the author’s skill.
I would especially like to note such a moment as CHOOSING A CHARACTER NAME.
According to Pavel Florensky, “names are the essence of categories of personal cognition.” Names are not just named, but actually declare the spiritual and physical essence of a person. They form special models of personal existence, which become common to each bearer of a certain name. Names are predetermined spiritual qualities, actions and even the fate of a person.
The existence of a character in a work of fiction begins with the choice of his name. It is very important what you name your hero.
Compare the options for the name Anna - Anna, Anka, Anka, Nyura, Nyurka, Nyusha, Nyushka, Nyusya, Nyuska.
Each of the options crystallizes certain personality qualities and provides the key to character.
Once you have decided on a character name, don’t change it (unnecessarily) as you go along, as this can confuse the reader’s perception.
If in life you tend to call your friends and acquaintances diminutively and disparagingly (Svetka, Mashulya, Lenusik, Dimon), control your passion in writing. In a work of art, the use of such names must be justified. Numerous Vovkas and Tankas look terrible.
CHARACTER SYSTEM
A literary hero is a clearly individual person and at the same time clearly collective, that is, he is generated by the social environment and interpersonal relationships.
It is unlikely that there will be only one hero in your work (although this has happened). In most cases, the character is at the intersection of three rays.
The first is friends, associates (good relations).
The second is enemies, ill-wishers (hostile relations).
Third - others strangers(neutral relationship)
These three rays (and the people in them) create a strict hierarchical structure or CHARACTER SYSTEM.
Characters are divided by the degree of author's attention (or frequency of depiction in a work), the purposes and functions that they perform.
Traditionally, there are main, secondary and episodic characters.
The MAIN CHARACTER(s) are always at the center of the work.
The main character actively masters and transforms artistic reality. His character (see above) predetermines events.
Axiom – main character must be bright, that is, its structure must be spelled out thoroughly, no spaces are allowed.
SECONDARY CHARACTERS are located, although next to the main character, but somewhat behind, in the background, so to speak, of the artistic depiction.
The characters and portraits of minor characters are rarely detailed, more often they appear dotted. These heroes help the main characters to open up and ensure the development of the action.
Axiom – minor character cannot be brighter than the main thing.
Otherwise, he will pull the blanket over himself. An example from a related area. Film "Seventeen Moments of Spring". Remember the girl who pestered Stirlitz in one of the last episodes? (“They say about us mathematicians that we are terrible crackers.... But in love I am Einstein...”).
In the first edition of the film, the episode with her was much longer. Actress Inna Ulyanova was so good that she stole all the attention and distorted the scene. Let me remind you that there Stirlitz was supposed to receive important encryption from the center. However, no one remembered about the encryption; everyone reveled in the bright clownery of an EPISODIC (completely passable) character. Ulyanov, of course, is sorry, but director Lioznova made the absolutely right decision and cut out this scene. An example to think about, though!
EPISODIC HEROES are on the periphery of the world of the work. They may have no character at all, acting as passive executors of the author's will. Their functions are purely official.
POSITIVE and NEGATIVE HEROES usually divide the system of characters in a work into two warring factions (“red” - “white”, “ours” - “fascists”).
The theory of dividing characters according to ARCHETYPES is interesting.
An archetype is a primary idea expressed in symbols and images and underlying everything.
That is, each character in the work should serve as a symbol of something.
According to the classics, there are seven archetypes in literature.
So, the main character could be:
- The protagonist – the one who “accelerates the action”, the real Hero.
- An antagonist - completely opposite to the Hero. I mean, a Villain.
- Guardian, Sage, Mentor and Assistant - those who assist the Protagonist
Minor characters are:
- A bosom friend – symbolizes support and faith in the Main Character.
- Skeptic - questions everything that happens
- Reasonable - makes decisions based solely on logic.
- Emotional – reacts only with emotions.
For example, Rowling’s Harry Potter novels.
The main character is undoubtedly Harry Potter himself. He is opposed by the Villain - Voldemort. Professor Dumbledore=The Sage appears periodically.
And Harry's friends are the reasonable Hermione and the emotional Ron.
In conclusion, I would like to talk about the number of characters.
When there are many of them, this is bad, since they will begin to duplicate each other (there are only seven archetypes!). Competition among the characters will cause discoordination in the minds of the readers.
The most reasonable thing is to stupidly check your heroes by archetypes.
For example, in your novel there are three old women. The first is cheerful, the second is smart, and the third is just a lonely grandmother from the first floor. Ask yourself – what do they represent? And you will understand that a lonely old woman is superfluous. Her phrases (if there are any) can easily be conveyed to the second or first (old ladies). This way you will get rid of unnecessary verbal noise and concentrate on the idea.
After all, “The idea is the tyrant of the work” (c) Egri.
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A literary archetype represents recurring motifs, plots, and images of the main characters in literary works.
Archetypes in literature
Archetypes may undergo changes, but they are united by one integral ethical core. Literary archetypes are classified into cross-cutting images, eternal heroes, and symbolic images (sea, stone, thunderstorm).
“Through images”: Don Juan, Don Quixote, Hamlet
Cross-cutting images are artistic literary images, which were created at a certain historical era, but managed to remain in the cultural memory of humanity. Cross-cutting images are characterized by a kind of travel in time and space, since they have that semantic stability that will be important for any generation of readers.
The most striking enduring images in literature are Don Juan, Don Quixote and Hamlet. Image Hamlet associated with the fragmentation of the world caused by the transitional state of culture. Danish prince represents a contradiction between essence and phenomenon; this literary hero contains the whole drama of split consciousness.
That is why many writers very often turn to the image of Hamlet, who, by the dictates of fate, had to create at turning points for society, in particular at the turn of the century.
In the image Don Quixote the whole tragedy of human idealism is captured: the desire to become a hero in a pragmatic world. The image of Don Quixote, created at the beginning of the 17th century, continued its literary march in the works of Dostoevsky and Dickens.
No less famous cross-cutting hero, Don Juan, has become a symbol of a person who, while searching for a dream, loses his morality.
A female seducer, he insensitively broke the hearts of his lovers after he did not discover his feminine ideal in their faces. The image of Don Juan turned out to be so archetypal that it was included in more than 150 literary works.
Types of literary heroes: Bashmachkin, Khlestakov, Pechorin, Onegin
Types of literary heroes are a reflection spiritual development society. The birth of one or another type of literary hero may be due to social order, that is, the need of society to see a hero with a certain set of personal qualities, or on the initiative of the writer himself.
Often, types of literary heroes acquire names that most accurately characterize their qualities, for example: “an extra person,” “nihilist,” “little man,” “tramp.”
A striking example of the “little man” type is Gogol’s Bashmachkin. The author clearly shows the meager and uninteresting inner world the main character, as well as his gray everyday life. However, Gogol still emphasizes that even such a flawed, defenseless creature deserves the respect of society.
The main character of "A Hero of Our Time" Pechorin and the hero novel of the same name A. S. Pushkin Evgeny Onegin belongs to the type “ extra person" Young nobles, before whom all blessings were open social life, realized their disdain for external gloss, alienation from the idle aristocratic life.
Gogol’s hero Khlestakov, a young man who, despite his pleasant appearance, was considered an ignoramus, comes into confrontation with Eugene Onegin and Pechorin. What became alien to Onegin and Pechorin, for Khlestakov is the main achievement of life.
Character(with gr. - literal line) - this is a set of psychological properties that make up the image of a literary character.
Individual details of the image, manifested in action, behavior, in certain circumstances, create a multifaceted world of the hero.
The concept of “character” refers to the category of content of a work. It is appropriate to use this term when an analysis of the idea of a work is given and its pathos is determined. In the broad sense of this term all images and heroes of any text inevitably have a typical character.
In antiquity, long before the emergence of a special science about man (anthropology, ethics, physiognomy), main theme literature was the involvement of man in the sphere of uncompromising laws of fate. In the epic, the hero is still entirely dependent on the deity: he cannot act independently; he, in the words of B. Snell, “may be a character, but not yet a personality.” The hero has the same qualities as the gods, but he is a victim of those properties of which he is the bearer. This explains the designation of character with a mask in the ancient theater.
IN modern literature character is a personality structure formed by individual and typological traits and manifested in behavioral characteristics and distinctive properties of nature.
In antiquity, on the contrary, character is a “stamp”, a “frozen mask”.
Literary type - an image of human individuality, the most possible, typical for a particular society.
The concept of “literary type” first appears in Hegel’s Aesthetics .
In literary theory, “type” and “character” are close, but not interchangeable.;
“Character” reveals to a greater extent typical personality traits, its psychological properties, A " “type” is a generalization of certain social phenomena associated with typical features.
For example, Maxim Maksimych is a typical Russian soldier, “just a decent person,” as L.N. Tolstoy said about him, while Grigory Aleksandrovich Pechorin is a type of “suffering egoist,” the embodiment of “the vices of an entire generation in their full development.” The concept of “typing” includes the process of creating a holistic picture of the world and is the basis of the creative process. Recognizing typification as an internal need and a law of art, writers realize that the typical is not a copy of reality, but an artistic generalization. In Moliere, Harpagon and Tartuffe are typical characters, but these are not social, but psychological types, illustrating neglect of moral requirements. If we want to call someone a miser or a hypocrite, we use these proper names as common nouns. The strict hierarchy of genres of classicism also gives rise to the normalization of literary types. Social conflicts appear in the work reflected in the souls of the heroes.
The division of characters into positive and negative in classic aesthetics is natural. There should be no intermediate types, since art is charged with the task of correcting vices and glorifying the virtues of an ideal person. The psychology of the “little man” was outlined by Pushkin in “ Stationmaster"("Belkin's Tales") in all the evidence of his social existence. An equally significant aspect of the topic is the analysis of dramatic family relationships.
Pushkin’s concept becomes the source of subsequent literary generalizations, predetermines the plots of Gogol (“The Overcoat”), Dostoevsky (Poor People) and Tolstoy about “unhappy families,” conflict situations where “each family is unhappy in its own way.” The “little man” becomes the dominant type in the “natural school.” L.M. Lotman wrote that “the man appeared to the writers” natural school» cast social form distorting human nature." Further evolution The literary type of the “little man” is associated with a shift in emphasis, in the words of M. M. Bakhtin, “from the environment to the person.” Already in early work“Poor people” F. M. Dostoevsky focuses on spiritual world hero, although dependence on social circumstances still determines the misfortunes of Makar Devushkin. Dobrolyubov in his article “Downtrodden People” noted: “In the works of Dostoevsky we find one common feature, more or less noticeable in everything he wrote: this is pain about a person who recognizes himself as unable or, finally, not even entitled to be a real person, a complete, independent person, in himself.”
The novel “Poor People” combines two views on the “little man” - Pushkin’s and Gogol’s; Makar Devushkin, after reading both stories, comes to the conclusion that “we are all Samson Vyrins.” This recognition points to a dramatic discovery - the tragedy is predetermined, there is no way to fight circumstances that are insurmountable. Dostoevsky’s famous phrase: “We all came out of Gogol’s “Overcoat”” - implies not so much apprenticeship as the continuation and development of the theme of mercy, immeasurable love for a person rejected by society. The world of Akakiy Akakievich is confined to the dream of an overcoat, the world of Makar Devushkin is caring for Varenka. Dostoevsky represents the type of dreamer who is content with little, and all his actions are dictated by the fear of losing the modest gift of fate. Thematic similarity is found between “Poor People” and the story “White Nights,” the hero of which gives himself a derogatory description: “A dreamer is not a person, but, you know, some kind of creature of the neuter kind. For the most part, he settles somewhere in an inaccessible corner, as if he were hiding there even from daylight.”
Dostoevsky reconsiders the famous type romantic hero who plunges into the world perfect dream, despising reality. Dostoevsky's heroes doomedly preach humility in life, which leads them to death. Another twist on the theme of the little man is associated with the writer’s interest in the topic of drunkenness as an allegory of rebellion against public morality. In the novel “Crime and Punishment,” this type of vice is viewed not as a consequence of social evil, but as a manifestation of selfishness and weakness. Oblivion in drunkenness does not save a person who has “nowhere else to go”; it destroys the destinies of loved ones: Sonya Marmeladova is forced to go to the panel, Katerina Ivanovna goes crazy, and, if not for chance, her children would have faced inevitable death. Chekhov expresses no compassion for " little man”, but shows the real “smallness” of his soul. The story “The Death of an Official” examines the problem of the voluntariness of social obligations undertaken by a person. It is resolved in a grotesque manner. Chervyakov dies not as a “humiliated and insulted” person, but as an official who has lost his natural appearance out of fear. Chekhov proved with all his creativity that a person should not conform his potentialities to the limits allowed by society. The spiritual needs of the individual must triumph over vulgarity and insignificance: “A person needs not three arshins of land, but the entire globe.” The isolation of “case life,” the writer insists, is harmful. The story “The Man in a Case” creates a frightening image of Belikov, an apologist for protective morality. His entire behavior is permeated with the fear that “something might not happen.” The writer exaggerates the image of a defender of social morality; a black suit, glasses, galoshes, and an umbrella are expressive details of the image that create an expressive portrait of a frightening social phenomenon. Belikov's death may seem to bring deliverance to people who fear the zealous guardian of morality, but an optimistic solution to a tragic collision is alien to Chekhov. The writer sadly admits that hopes to correct people who differ from Belikov in their lifestyle, but not in their inner self-awareness, are vain. At the end of the story, a symbolic emphasis is placed to make sure that protective ideas remain alive. The scene of Belikov's funeral is framed by the image of rain, and everyone present opens their umbrellas; this is read as the inescapability of what the fearful teacher actually stood for.