Directive planning- is the process of developing plans that have the force of legal law, and a set of measures to ensure their implementation. Directive plans are targeted in nature, mandatory for all performers, and officials are responsible for failure to fulfill planned targets.
The essence of directive planning is that work plans are communicated to business entities from a single planning center, prices are approved, suppliers are assigned and sales are regulated. The implementation of plans is strictly controlled. The objective basis of directive national planning is the functioning of only one owner in the national economy - the state. An important condition for the use of directive planning is the use of methods of coercion and encouragement for the implementation of plans. macroeconomic planning policymaking
In its most complete form, directive planning was used in former USSR for direct impact central government at all levels of the national economy, to achieve the goals set general directions development. The plan prepared by the State Planning Committee was mainly production and technical - macroeconomic indicators were made up of natural indicators, which in turn flowed from production, technological and other plans and acted as their consequence. Accordingly, from the production plan, a product distribution plan was built, which served as the basis for establishing economic relations. Each supplier became attached to his consumer, knowing how much he had to supply him with his products, and vice versa, the consumer knew who supplied him with raw materials, semi-finished products, and components.
The plans were targeted and characterized by excessive detail. Due to these features, they were difficult to implement on a national scale and gradually exhausted themselves.
Three “evils” of the consequences of such planning on a national scale can be identified:
The low efficiency of the public sector in the economy and the encouragement of so-called unprofitable enterprises did not contribute to economic growth.
State guardianship gave rise to dependency and inertia of the population.
Excessive government intervention led to the undermining of the market itself, its natural (inherent in human nature) laws.
Despite the noted shortcomings, elements of directive planning can and should be used in certain conditions not only at the state level, but also in business. However, in each specific case, the scale, objects and areas of application of directive planning must have a scientific basis.
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE
FERREAL EDUCATION AGENCY
STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
TYUMEN STATE UNIVERSITY
BRANCH IN ZAVODOUKOVSK
Discipline: "Budget planning and forecasting"
On the topic: “Indicative and directive planning, budget planning using the normative method.”
Completed:
IV year student of OZO
Specialty "FiK"
1261 group
Scientific supervisor
Kamenets M.Yu.
Zavodoukovsk, 2010
Directive planning…………………………………………..3
Indicative planning………………………………………....3
Budget planning using the normative method……………………5
List of references…………………………………..9
Directive planning.
Directive planning is the process of developing plans,
having the force of legal law, and a set of measures to ensure their implementation.
Directive plans are targeted in nature, mandatory for all performers, and
officials are responsible for failure to fulfill planned targets.
The essence of directive planning is that before economic
subjects from a single planning center, work plans are communicated, prices are approved,
suppliers are assigned and sales are regulated. Execution of plans is tough
controlled. An objective basis for directive national planning
is the functioning of only one owner in the national economy -
states. An important condition for the use of directive planning is
the use of methods of coercion and encouragement for the implementation of plans.
In its most complete form, directive planning was used in the former
USSR for direct influence of the central government on all levels of the national economy,
to achieve the goals set by the general directions of development. Plan being prepared
Gosplan, was mainly production and technical - macroeconomic
indicators consisted of natural indicators, which in turn followed
from production, technological and other plans and acted as their consequence.
Accordingly, from the production plan, a product distribution plan was built,
served as the basis for establishing economic ties. Each supplier
became attached to his consumer, knowing how much he should supply him with his
products and vice versa, the consumer knew who supplied him with raw materials, semi-finished products,
component products.
The plans were targeted and characterized by excessive detail.
Due to these features, they were difficult to implement on a national scale
and gradually exhausted themselves.
Three “flaws” of the consequences of such planning can be identified:
national scale:
Low efficiency of the public sector in the economy and encouragement
so-called planned unprofitable enterprises did not contribute to economic growth.
State guardianship gave rise to dependency and inertia of the population.
Excessive government intervention led to the undermining of the market itself, its
natural (inherent to human nature) laws.
Despite the noted shortcomings, elements of prescriptive planning can
and must be used in certain conditions not only in state,
level, but also in the business sphere. However, in each specific case, the scale, objects and
The scope of application of directive planning must have a scientific basis.
Indicative planning.
Indicative planning is “a mechanism for coordinating interests and activities
state and non-state subjects of economic management, combining it
government regulation with market and non-market regulation, based on development
system of indicators (indicators) of socio-economic development and including
determination of its national priorities, goal setting, forecasting,
budgeting, programming, contracting and other approval procedures
decisions at the macro-, meso-, and micro levels, tax and other government measures
support for business entities participating in the implementation of the plan (under
non-state carriers of economic management are understood as institutions
local government, management bodies of corporations, financial
industrial groups and other economic units, self-regulatory organizations
market participants, etc.)"
In a market economy indicative planning- method of implementing social
economic policy state and an instrument of influence on the processes of its
functioning. Indicative planning is the main method
impact on functioning market economy. It is intended to provide
solving many issues of socio-economic development, the implementation of which
It is impossible or difficult to use market methods alone. This is a form of interaction
regional authorities.
Indicative plans are organically and interconnectedly combined in a single document
concepts of socio-economic development; forecasts for the functioning of the economy;
government programs; economic regulators.
Indicative planning is a continuation and development
forecasting.
Being the most common form of government throughout the world
macroeconomic development planning, indicative planning represents
is a set of processes for forming a system of parameters (indicators),
characterizing the state and development of the country’s economy, corresponding
state socio-economic policy, as well as the development of a system of measures
state influence on social and economic processes in order to
achieving the established level of indicators.
The main function of the indicative plan is to coordinate the actions of equal
economic entities. Information, orientation, stimulation
economic entities to fulfill plan tasks in one form or another
forms the basis for directive planning.
goals, objectives, directions and methods of implementation of the state social
economic policy and is an effective form of organizing interaction
all links of the system of federal government bodies, both among themselves and with
regional authorities. Indicative plans allow you to organically
combine the concepts of socio-economic policy in a single document
states, economic performance forecasts, government programs,
system of economic regulators, supplies for government needs, volumes
government capital investments, etc.
The indicative plan contains a limited number of mandatory tasks, it is
provide solutions to many issues of socio-economic development,
implementation of which by purely market methods without government measures
influence is difficult and sometimes impossible.
The following are used as indicators of socio-economic development:
indicators characterizing the dynamics, structure and efficiency of the economy;
the state of the financial and credit system and money circulation; market condition
goods and securities, foreign exchange market; price movements; employment, standard of living
population foreign economic relations, etc.
An interconnected and balanced system of indicators is complemented by measures
government influence, including the use of budgetary funds,
depreciation rates, loan interest, taxes, customs duties, licenses and quotas,
government orders, etc.
The activities of enterprises also fit into the indicative planning system.
because indicative plans are drawn up to help various businesses
subjects to navigate when developing their own plans, based on indicators
state indicative plan. Indicative planning allows
economic entities, make independent decisions, act
in the best interests of themselves and the public. This leads to one of the
main tasks - creating organizational and economic conditions for the formation and
free functioning of the market for goods, capital, labor in the country, as well as
beneficial external economic relations.
These include centralized financial and currency funds and loans,
tax levers, depreciation system, customs duties, licenses and quotas,
volumes of product supplies for government needs, determination of conditions
functioning of state enterprises.
Thus, the direct involvement of everyone in the planning process
economic entities on the basis of equal interaction between state
management bodies and all economic entities are distinguished by indicative
planning from the directive. Indicative planning acts simultaneously and
a means of state regulation of the economy, and a means of its
self-regulation, correcting both defects of the market mechanism and flaws
direct government intervention in reproductive processes.
In its development, indicative planning went through the forms
corresponding to various stages of state regulation of the economy.
Historically, the first form of indicative planning is opportunistic,
implying increased influence of the budget on the pace and proportions of economic
As discussed, the national economic forecast and budget form a single
system consisting of forecast and budget indicators, and execution
the latter is mandatory. Procedure for developing budget forecast documents
their interconnectedness and adequacy to real economic
processes, they draw up a macroplan in which budget indicators have
directive, and the rest - forecasting and informational in nature. Thus,
indicative and directive planning are not antipodes and only their scientifically based
the combination makes it possible to increase the efficiency of macroeconomic regulation.
Budget planning using the normative method.
The normative method is one of the ways to substantiate and develop forecast and
planned decisions. It is based on the development and use of a system of norms and
standards. The main advantage of the normative method is that through
it establishes a connection between resources as well as end results
production, in the improvement of which society as a whole is interested.
The word "norm" comes from the Latin norma, which means "guiding
beginning, rule, pattern." It is understood as a certain quantity that denotes
the maximum permissible or average permissible amount of something. In general
form of a norm - a scientifically based measure of socially necessary resource costs for
manufacturing a unit of product (performing work or providing a service) of a given
quality under the conditions of the planned period.
Norm is a quantitative measure of the costs of living or material labor for
unit of production, which ultimately reflects the level of development
production. The norm not only reflects this level of development of production, it
actively influences him.
Standards are indicators characterizing the relative value or
the degree of use of tools and objects of labor, their consumption per unit area,
weight, volume, etc. (for example, material utilization rate, product removal from
one square meter production area, percentage of losses, coefficient
use of materials, standards for metal cutting conditions, etc.). Economic
standards reflect social demands to performance results and
characterize the required level of resource use (its specific consumption) for
the final result or regulate relations during the distribution of results
activities.
A set of norms and standards used to develop forecasts and plans,
assessment of their implementation is called the regulatory framework. Depending on the level
planned regulation (national economy, industry, region, enterprise)
The composition and content of the regulatory framework are changing.
The system of norms and standards is a complex of scientifically based material,
labor and financial standards and regulations, the procedure and methods for their formation,
updating and use in developing forecasts and plans, as well as organizing
preparation and control of norms and standards at all levels of forecasting and planning work.
The purpose of developing a system of norms and standards is to provide a scientific foundation
forecasts and plans, their proportionality and balance, in identifying and accounting
production reserves that contribute to increased operational efficiency
economic object.
Norms and standards are formed into regulatory frameworks in industries
economy, departments, associations and enterprises. They include
specific values of standard indicators that establish relationships
between resource costs and production, performance of work and services, etc.
In the system of norms and standards, the most important subsystems are
Social norms and standards - determine the size and structure of social
expenses, as well as procedures for their adjustment (indexation) depending on the pace
inflation and growth wages. They include the following basic norms and
standards: standard of living; consumption by the population of certain material goods and
services; provision of the population with housing, utilities and transport
services; level of development of healthcare, science, culture, education, trade and
catering etc.
Financial and economic norms and standards - determine the size of: tax
rates (income tax scales); value added tax rates; normal
depreciation charges; norms of required reserves; norms and standards
deductions from profits; refinancing rates; norms of required reserves;
loan reserve standards; excise taxes, etc.
Norms and standards for capital investments and duration
investment cycle - standards for specific capital investments, efficiency
capital investments; norms and standards for construction duration,
construction backlog, technological structure of capital investments,
design duration, etc.
Norms and standards for the consumption of raw materials, materials, fuel and energy are standards
and standards for the consumption of material resources for main production, repair and
operational needs, reserves of material resources, consumption of material
resources for capital construction etc.
Norms and standards of labor and wages - include: standard
minimum wage; salary standards in budgetary
organizations; standards of time, production, number, service; use
labor resources, etc.
Security norms and standards environment- include rules and regulations
air protection, protection and rational use of flora and fauna,
water resources, lands; reserves natural resources etc.
Benefit standards various categories population and organizations - include
rules and regulations that affect their tax obligations, their needs for
budget financing (in benefits) or on the prices of the goods they consume
(cross subsidies and price subsidies), etc.
Standards for providing military personnel and law enforcement officers
bodies - include norms and standards for the provision of premises, ammunition, military
equipment and weapons, etc., regulating the activities of the armed forces and
law enforcement agencies.
Regulatory methods are the basis for ensuring appropriate
international standards level of social development, achievements
balancing production, consumption, searching for reserves of effective
resource use, rational production management, scientific organization
labor, etc.
Use of regulatory methods in planning and regulation
state regulation generates less corruption and less corruption than with administrative methods
voluntarism, but if used incompetently they can paralyze
economic life. For example, in the second half of the 90s, the application of the rate
refinancing as a ruble exchange rate stabilizer led to almost
a complete cessation of long-term lending to production and the outflow of capital from
real sector into the “pyramid” of public debt. Inflated yields on government bonds have become
factor not only in the non-competitiveness of investments in the real sector (compared to
speculative investments), but also a rapid increase in public debt.
In the preparation and practical use of a system of norms and standards
The following requirements must be taken into account:
compliance with the methodological unity of the formation of norms and standards for each
groups by management levels and planning periods;
ensuring progressiveness of norms and standards;
validity of norms and standards - technical, economic and social;
systematic updating of norms and regulations based on their reflection
changes in technology, improving product quality, improving organization
production and labor, improving socio-economic conditions and developing market
management methods, etc.
In general, rules and regulations are a management tool
social relations in the process of reproduction. With this approach, the object
management carried out using norms and regulations is
reproduction, which includes four phases: production, distribution, exchange,
consumption. One of the promising tasks of economic reform is to
in order to ensure effective
management of all phases of the reproduction process.
The basic principles on which the system of norms and
standards for indicative planning purposes:
The principle of progressivity presupposes the need to take into account in the process
development of norms and standards for achievements of scientific and technological progress, activities
on savings and rational use all types of resources, increasing
efficiency of social production, etc.
The principle of decentralization presupposes the independence of economic entities
subjects when determining specific volumes of resource inputs, product output,
services based on norms and standards defining the distribution of net income, and others
standards linking costs and results economic activity.
Business entities develop forecasts and plans for their activities and
implemented independently, without interference from above. At the same time, microplanes, according to
in relation to the macroplan, perform an information function. Receiving from
economic entities their plans, planning bodies are expanding their information
analytical capabilities, increasing the validity of forecasts and plans for
macro level.
The principle of equilibrium assumes that the arbitrary establishment
regulations do not allow for balanced and effective development
economy. The unreasonable establishment of strict standards forces
economic entities structure their behavior accordingly - when
In a strong state, subjects, submitting to pressure from above, respond passively
behavior, i.e. reduce entrepreneurial activity, export capital abroad and
etc. As a result, the country lags behind in competition with other countries for no apparent reason.
according to production efficiency indicators. In a weak state, business owners
subjects “going into the shadows” - do not pay taxes, non-payments and other forms flourish
failure to fulfill contractual obligations.
Thus, in each specific case it is necessary to establish certain
equilibrium values of standards, deviations from which worsen the value of the “target
functions" of state regulation. For example, if tax rates increase
above the equilibrium state, the state loses tax revenues, an increase
refinancing rates - scares away investors who do not believe in the ability
states to service their debts at high interest rates. At the same time, you should know that
there are no methods for accurately establishing the values of economic standards,
however, there are some rational limits within which they should be.
For example, there is a "Laffer threshold" for the full income tax rate
(30-40%), exceeding which leads to a decrease in tax revenues, etc.
The principle of systematicity assumes that the equilibrium values of some
standards depend on the values of others. According to this principle there is
set of equilibrium trajectories of economic development corresponding to different
systems of norms and standards. At the same time, their choice and justification are difficult task, because
The improvement of some norms and standards is often associated with the deterioration of others. For example,
an increase in economic growth rates can be achieved by increasing public debt and
The choice and justification of a system of norms and standards should be based on
coordinating the interests of state, economic and other entities. This
coordination should be based on the principle of maintaining parity “from top to bottom” and
"bottom up". This principle of coordination of interests excludes spontaneous
(lobbying) nature and excludes arbitrariness and corruption in their establishment.
The principle of conditionality. In accordance with this principle, rules and regulations
can be divided into unconditional and conditional. Unconditional are norms and
standards valid for all cases and subjects of this group, and formalized
reflected in legislation. Conditional - these are the norms and standards,
conditioned by the preliminary fulfillment by economic entities of a number of
criteria requirements. For example, when new jobs are created, the
income tax rate, etc.
A system of norms and standards is not something created and frozen once and for all.
education. The development of the economic mechanism determines its constant
development, i.e. expanding the composition of norms and standards, improving methods
rationing.
Thus, the normative method of developing plans fits well with
indicative planning, and also acts as a basic tool for budgetary
tax macro planning, intra-company planning and expands
possibilities for coordinating the actions of government bodies and economic entities
subjects.
References
1. M. V. Chinenov, V. S. Semibratov, Budget planning and forecasting, 2008.
2. Forecasting and planning in market conditions: Textbook. manual for universities / Ed.
T. G. Morozova, A. V. Pikulkina. – M.: UNITY-DANA, 2000.
3. T. M. Kovaleva, Budget policy and budget planning in the Russian Federation, 2009.
4. Budget system of the Russian Federation / ed. M.V. Romanovsky, O.V. Vrublevskaya. - Moscow: Yurayt, 2005.
5. Budget system of Russia: Textbook / Ed. G.B. Polyaka.-M.: Unity-Dana, 2003.
Planning– the process of economic justification and making interrelated decisions in a specific situation to achieve goals (in a broad sense); identifying effective ways to achieve goals (in the narrow sense).
It is considered as the final stage of forecasting, during which decisions are made based on the choice of development alternatives.
Plan – work planned for a certain period, indicating its goals, content, volume, methods, sequence and deadlines. Hence, main goal plan is a realized event . The main task planning - the choice of strong-willed responsible actions in the conditions of existing resource limitations, balanced by performers, time, resources.
Basic characteristics plan:
strong-willed and active influence on the future;
reflection of a subjective idea of the future;
represents a numerical model of future development;
assumes responsibility for the implementation of the future, provides measures of responsibility for performers;
reality, i.e. take into account internal and external factors and their rational relationship.
The use of planning has a number of limitations: - uncertainty, multidimensionality and stochasticity of the business environment; - imperfection of the country's legislative framework; - by resources; - authoritarian leadership; - subjectivity of performers’ views; - lack of financial support for actions; - errors in economic calculations.
According to implementation methods, plans are divided:
Directive, having the force of legal law, i.e. intended for unconditional execution. Formation methods must ensure the unambiguity of directive plans.
Advantages directive planning: the relationship between social and economic aspects of social development; concentration of forces on the implementation of priority areas of activity; an integrated approach to solving the problem; taking into account the possibilities of continuous long-term and current planning; a combination of sectoral and territorial approaches; attempts to balance the use of labor, material, and financial resources.
TO shortcomings Directive planning should include: weak consideration of natural laws and trends in the development of commodity-money relations; the increasing role of the plan as an end in itself of activity according to the principle “plan at any cost” (the fetish of the plan over economic relations); lack of room for maneuverability of actions of enterprises in different regions and the inflexibility of the existing planning system; methodological weakness of planning, which does not take into account reserves, initiative, diversity and diversity at the micro level; a imbalance of power in favor of the goals chosen by the ruling party; oblivion of certain aspects of life recognized as unpromising (cybernetics, genetics).
Indicative They represent only guidelines for economic development and economic policy for enterprises, organizations, households, the state, and regions. Economic indicators may vary depending on conditions. Formation methods should ensure the determination of acceptable limits for random changes in economic indicators, identification of the consequences of fulfillment (non-fulfillment) of individual conditions of the plan by subjects.
Strategic planning– a set of actions and decisions taken by management to develop functional strategies and assist the country in solving its development problems
Characterized by the following features:
Provides for a variety of types of planning activities: generalizes long-term, medium-term, short-term, current planning;
It is a multi-stage, sequential and parallel process,
Covers many decisions: resource allocation; adaptation to the external environment of internal coordination; organizational long-term foresight;
Provides a promising direction of development and main activities;
Coordinates efforts; defines objectives and policies;
Creates a basis for the allocation of limited economic resources;
Provides alternative actions for a long period, based on the results of studying the external and internal business environment.
List of used literature: 1-4
The formation of forecasting and planning in foreign countries.
Developments in the field of economic forecasting in foreign countries arose in the last quarter of the 19th century. They were associated with the attempts of researchers to identify future trends in the production of basic products based on an analysis of the “behavior” of the statistical data at their disposal. The main forecasting methods at that time were expert assessments(based on qualitative analysis of series) and simple extrapolation (transferring past trends to the future).
At the beginning of the 20th century. The first attempts were made to identify economic indicators. In particular, J. Brookmyer already in 1911 tried to use three chronological series of the following indicators for forecasting: an index of bank loans, an index of stock prices, and an index of general economic activity. This approach was further developed in the 1920s. in studies at Harvard University, where the so-called “Harvard A, B, C curves” were used. Curve A represented the index of the value of securities on the stock exchange, curve B represented the amount of deposits in banks, curve C represented the interest rate. The choice of these particular indicators as indicators was based on the idea that in the vicinity of the turning points of the cycle, these indicators were supposed to record, first of all, changes in the economic situation in the specified sequence.
A powerful impetus for the development of forecasting and planning abroad was the crisis of 1929-1933, which forced us to look for ways out of it.
In the 30s For the first time abroad, planning at the macro level appears. Forecasts and plans are becoming a necessary element of the economic regulation system. Forecasts were made using input-output models, linear programming, systems analysis models, and based on expert assessments.
The first plans at the macro level covered fiscal and monetary policies and were expressed in the formulation of national budgets. They differed from state budgets in that they took into account income not only of the state, but also of the country as a whole.
In 1944, K. Landauer, in his book “The Theory of National Economic Planning,” proposed a planning system very similar to what later became known as “indicative planning,” in which the government influences economic development by coordinating and providing information rather than by making decisions and issuing instructions.
In the post-war years, planning at the macro level became the subject of wide discussions with the aim of not only avoiding crises, but also regulating the processes of distribution of goods. The nationalization of a number of industries and the growing share of the public sector in the economy made it possible for governments to exercise direct control over foreign trade, prices, and finances.
In the 50s In many countries there has been a move away from drawing up national plans in the form of budgets. Two new directions have emerged. The first is associated with the complication of the administrative apparatus used to develop plans, the second with the expansion of the scope of planning. If at the first stage national economic plans were drawn up in the Ministry of Finance, then in the early 60s. special planning bodies are created: in France - the General Commissariat for Planning; in Japan - Economic Advisory Council, Economic Planning Administration; in the Netherlands - Central Planning Bureau; in Canada - Economic Council.
The need for macroeconomic planning was due to macroeconomic instability, the increasing degree of integration of various economic units and sectors of the economy, the growing share of the government in the use of GNP, and environmental pollution.
Until the 70s. countries made forecasts through national forecasting models. In the mid-70s. Macroeconomic models are beginning to be created, with the help of which the economic development of a number of countries, regions and the whole world is predicted. For the first time they began to be developed in the USA. Thus, the LINK model includes 10 national models (9 European countries and Japan). When developing the future of the world economy, the UN used V. Leontiev’s macroeconomic model, which consisted of 15 interconnected regional models.
Each country, taking into account the specifics of the national economy, uses certain approaches to forecasting and planning economic and social processes, constantly improving them in relation to changing conditions.
It is advisable to consider the features of forecasting and planning in countries representing three existing planning and regulation systems in the world: North American (USA and Canada); Asian (Japan and South Korea); European (France and Sweden). The leader of the Western world in forecasting is the United States.
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Introduction
1. Directive planning
2. Indicative planning
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
Planning is the most important management function, which, like management, changes in the process of economic development. The centralized system of economic planning corresponds to an adequate system of national economic planning. The transition to a market management concept required a revision of all planning elements.
It should be borne in mind that the economic management system in our country has developed under the influence of a number of specific factors, which include the following: the monopoly of state-owned enterprises, due to the predominance of state ownership; a strict system for establishing economic ties between enterprises; restriction of production and economic independence of business entities; concentration of production, orientation of production specialization towards national economic efficiency; isolation of a single national economic complex. The existing economic system was fully consistent with the mechanism of national economic planning, which was characterized by the following principles: centralization of management of a single national economic complex in one center; dominance of planning over other management functions; strict state control over the production and economic activities of business entities; directiveness of planning decisions, etc.
The main objectives of national economic planning were the following: ensuring progressive proportions in the development of social production, sustainable balanced growth and rational placement of the national economic complex; orientation of all parts of the economy towards achieving high final economic results at the lowest cost; comprehensive development of progressive forms of organization of social production; accelerating the implementation of scientific and technological progress; improving the use of production assets, material and labor resources, increasing profits and profitability of business entities.
Ensuring the balanced development of a huge and complex economic organism, such as the country's economy, on the basis of a single plan is unthinkable without a centralized distribution of resources. Therefore, in practice, national economic planning was reduced to the distribution of limited resources by ministries and departments, territorial production complexes, construction projects, enterprises and associations. All major fund holders were drawn into the orbit of influence of the central planning body.
However, this approach not only did not lead to a balance between the tasks of the plans for industry, agriculture, construction and trade turnover with the real capabilities of the national economy, but also gave rise to a lot of contradictions, which ultimately led to a discrepancy between the interests of business entities and the goals and objectives of the plans. For this reason, the methodology of centralized national economic planning did not stand the test of time and required a revision of both the principles and the means and methods of practical implementation. Unfortunately, neither in the theoretical nor in the practical aspect, work on adapting planning to market economic conditions has been carried out. Planning as a management tool was rejected, which made the economy unmanageable. The entire history of economic development shows that planning is a powerful management tool. In view of the fact that it is important to determine what and how the state should plan, and what should be planned by business entities themselves, it is necessary to consider what kind of planning happens, which is the goal of this work. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to bring and reveal the essence of classifications of planning in economics on various grounds.
1. Directive planning
indicative directive planning
Directive planning is the process of developing plans that have the force of legal law, and a set of measures to ensure their implementation. Directive plans are targeted in nature, mandatory for all performers, and officials are responsible for failure to fulfill planned targets.
The essence of directive planning is that work plans are communicated to business entities from a single planning center, prices are approved, suppliers are assigned and sales are regulated. The implementation of plans is strictly controlled. The objective basis of directive national planning is the functioning of only one owner in the national economy - the state. An important condition for the use of directive planning is the use of methods of coercion and encouragement for the implementation of plans.
In its most complete form, directive planning was used in the former USSR for the direct influence of the central government on all parts of the national economy, to achieve the goals set by the general directions of development. The plan prepared by the State Planning Committee was mainly production and technical - macroeconomic indicators were made up of natural indicators, which in turn flowed from production, technological and other plans and acted as their consequence. Accordingly, from the production plan, a product distribution plan was built, which served as the basis for establishing economic relations. Each supplier became attached to his consumer, knowing how much he had to supply him with his products, and vice versa, the consumer knew who supplied him with raw materials, semi-finished products, and components.
The plans were targeted and characterized by excessive detail. Due to these features, they were difficult to implement on a national scale and gradually exhausted themselves.
Three “evils” of the consequences of such planning on a national scale can be identified:
The low efficiency of the public sector in the economy and the encouragement of so-called unprofitable enterprises did not contribute to economic growth.
State guardianship gave rise to dependency and inertia of the population.
Excessive government intervention led to the undermining of the market itself, its natural (inherent in human nature) laws.
Despite the noted shortcomings, elements of directive planning can and should be used in certain conditions not only at the state level, but also in business. However, in each specific case, the scale, objects and areas of application of directive planning must have a scientific basis.
2. Indicative planning
Indicative planning is “a mechanism for coordinating the interests and activities of state and non-state economic management entities, combining its state regulation with market and non-market regulation, based on the development of a system of indicators (indicators) of socio-economic development and including the determination of its national priorities, goal setting, forecasting, budgeting, programming, contracting and other procedures for coordinating decisions at the macro-, meso-, and micro levels, tax and other measures state support economic entities participating in the implementation of the plan (non-state carriers of economic management are understood as institutions of local self-government, management bodies of corporations, financial and industrial groups and other economic entities, self-regulatory organizations of market participants, etc.)"
In a market economy, indicative planning is a method for implementing the state’s socio-economic policy and a tool for influencing the processes of its functioning. Indicative planning is the main method of influencing the functioning of a market economy. It is designed to provide solutions to many issues of socio-economic development, the implementation of which is impossible or difficult only by market methods. This is a form of interaction between all parts of the system of federal government bodies, both among themselves and with regional bodies.
Indicative plans organically and interconnectedly combine the concepts of socio-economic development in a single document; forecasts for the functioning of the economy; government programs; economic regulators.
Indicative planning is a continuation and development of forecasting.
Being the most widespread form of state planning of macroeconomic development throughout the world, indicative planning is a set of processes for forming a system of parameters (indicators) characterizing the state and development of the country's economy, corresponding to the state socio-economic policy, as well as the development of a system of measures of state influence on social and economic processes in order to achieve the established level of indicators.
The main function of the indicative plan is to coordinate the actions of equal economic entities. Information, orientation, and stimulation of business entities to fulfill plan tasks in one form or another forms the basis of directive planning.
The main content of indicative planning is to substantiate the goals, objectives, directions and methods of implementing state socio-economic policy and is an effective form of organizing the interaction of all parts of the system of federal government bodies, both among themselves and with regional government bodies. Indicative plans make it possible to organically combine in a single document the concepts of the state’s socio-economic policy, forecasts for the functioning of the economy, government programs, a system of economic regulators, supplies for government needs, the volume of government capital investments, etc.
The indicative plan contains a limited number of mandatory tasks; it is largely of a guiding, recommendatory nature and allows for the solution of many issues of socio-economic development, the implementation of which by purely market methods without government measures is difficult and sometimes impossible.
As indicators of socio-economic development, indicators characterizing the dynamics, structure and efficiency of the economy are used; the state of the financial and credit system and monetary circulation; the state of the commodity and securities market, the foreign exchange market; price movements; employment, living standards of the population, foreign economic relations, etc.
An interconnected and balanced system of indicators is complemented by measures of government influence, including the use of budget funds, depreciation rates, interest on loans, taxes, customs duties, licenses and quotas, government orders, etc.
The activities of enterprises also fit into the indicative planning system, because indicative plans are drawn up to help various business entities navigate when developing their own plans, based on the indicators of the state indicative plan. Indicative planning allows business entities to make independent decisions and act in the best possible way in their own and public interests. This entails one of the main tasks - the creation of organizational and economic conditions for the formation and free functioning of the market for goods, capital, labor in the country, as well as profitable external economic relations.
These include centralized financial and foreign exchange funds and loans, tax levers, a depreciation system, customs duties, licenses and quotas, volumes of product supplies for government needs, and determination of the operating conditions of state-owned enterprises.
Thus, the direct involvement of all economic entities in the planning process on the basis of equal interaction between government bodies and all economic entities distinguishes indicative planning from directive planning. Indicative planning is both a means of state regulation of the economy and a means of its self-regulation, correcting both defects of the market mechanism and the shortcomings of direct government intervention in reproductive processes.
In its development, indicative planning went through forms corresponding to various stages of state regulation of the economy. Historically, the first form of indicative planning is opportunistic, which involves increasing the influence of the budget on the rates and proportions of economic growth.
As discussed, the national economic forecast and budget form a single system consisting of forecast and budget indicators, and the implementation of the latter is mandatory. The procedure for developing budget forecast documents ensures their interconnectedness and adequacy to real economic processes; they constitute a macroplan in which budget indicators are of a directive nature, and the rest are of a forecast and informational nature. Thus, indicative and directive planning are not antipodes, and only their scientifically based combination can improve the efficiency of macroeconomic regulation.
3. Budget planning using the normative method
The normative method is one of the ways to justify and develop forecast and planning decisions. It is based on the development and use of a system of norms and standards. The main advantage of the normative method is that through it a connection is established between resources, as well as the final results of production, in the improvement of which society as a whole is interested.
The word “norm” comes from the Latin norma, which means “guiding principle, rule, pattern.” It is understood as a certain value indicating the maximum permissible or average permissible amount of something. In its most general form, a norm is a scientifically based measure of the socially necessary expenditure of a resource to produce a unit of production (performing work or providing a service) of a given quality under the conditions of the planned period.
Norm is a quantitative measure of the cost of living or embodied labor per unit of production, which ultimately reflects the level of development of production. The norm not only reflects this level of development of production, it actively influences it.
Standards are indicators characterizing the relative magnitude or degree of use of tools and objects of labor, their expenditure per unit of area, weight, volume, etc. (for example, material utilization rate, product removal from one square meter of production area, percentage of losses, material utilization rate, standards for metal cutting conditions, etc.). Economic standards reflect social requirements for the results of activities and characterize the required level of resource use (its specific consumption) for the final result or regulate relations in the course of distributing the results of activities.
The set of norms and standards used to develop forecasts and plans and evaluate their implementation is called the regulatory framework. Depending on the level of planned regulation (national economy, industry, region, enterprise), the composition and content of the regulatory framework changes.
The system of norms and standards is a set of scientifically based material, labor and financial norms and standards, the procedure and methods for their formation, updating and use in the development of forecasts and plans, as well as the organization of preparation and control of norms and standards at all levels of forecasting and planning work. The purpose of developing a system of norms and standards is to provide a scientific foundation for forecasts and plans, their proportionality and balance, in identifying and taking into account production reserves that contribute to increasing the efficiency of the functioning of an economic entity.
Norms and standards are formed into regulatory frameworks in sectors of the national economy, departments, associations and enterprises. They include specific values of standard indicators that establish the relationship between resource costs and production, performance of work and services, etc.
In the system of norms and standards, the most important subsystems are
Social norms and standards determine the size and structure of social expenditures, as well as procedures for their adjustment (indexation) depending on the rate of inflation and wage growth. They include the following basic norms and standards: standard of living; consumption of certain material goods and services by the population; provision of population with housing, utilities and transport services; level of development of healthcare, science, culture, education, trade and public catering, etc.
Financial and economic norms and standards - determine the size of: tax rates (income tax scale); value added tax rates; depreciation rates; norms of required reserves; norms and standards for deductions from profits; refinancing rates; norms of required reserves; loan reserve standards; excise taxes, etc.
Norms and standards for capital investments and the duration of the investment cycle - standards for specific capital investments, efficiency of capital investments; norms and standards for construction duration, construction progress, technological structure of capital investments, design duration, etc.
Norms and standards for the consumption of raw materials, materials, fuel and energy are the norms and standards for the consumption of material resources for main production, repair and maintenance needs, reserves of material resources, consumption of material resources for capital construction, etc.
Norms and standards of labor and wages - include: the minimum wage standard; wage standards in budgetary organizations; standards of time, production, number, service; use of labor resources, etc.
Norms and standards for environmental protection - include norms and standards for the protection of the air basin, the protection and rational use of flora and fauna, water resources, and lands; reserves of natural resources, etc.
Standards for benefits of various categories of the population and organizations include rules and regulations that affect their tax obligations, their needs for budget financing (benefits) or the prices of the goods they consume (cross-subsidies and price subsidies), etc.
Standards for providing military personnel and law enforcement officers - include norms and standards for providing premises, ammunition, military equipment and weapons, etc., regulating the activities of the armed forces and law enforcement agencies.
Regulatory methods are the basis for ensuring a level of social development that meets international standards, achieving a balance of production and consumption, and searching for reserves effective use resources, rational production management, scientific organization of labor, etc.
The use of normative methods of state regulation in planning and regulation generates less corruption and voluntarism than with administrative methods, but if used incompetently, they can paralyze economic life. For example, in the second half of the 90s, the use of the refinancing rate as a stabilizer of the ruble exchange rate led to an almost complete cessation of long-term lending to production and an outflow of capital from the real sector into the “pyramid” of public debt. The inflated yield of government bonds has become a factor not only in the uncompetitiveness of investments in the real sector (compared to speculative investments), but also in the rapid increase in government debt.
When preparing and practical use of a system of norms and standards, the following requirements must be taken into account:
Compliance with the methodological unity of the formation of norms and standards for each group at management levels and planning periods;
Ensuring progressiveness of norms and standards;
Validity of norms and standards - technical, economic and social;
systematic updating of norms and standards based on their reflection of changes in technology, improving product quality, improving the organization of production and labor, improving socio-economic conditions and developing market methods of management, etc.
In general, norms and standards are a tool for managing social relations in the process of reproduction. With this approach, the object of management, carried out with the help of norms and regulations, is reproduction, which includes four phases: production, distribution, exchange, consumption. One of the promising tasks of economic reform is to ensure effective management of all phases of the reproduction process with the help of scientifically based norms and standards.
The basic principles on which the system of norms and standards should be used for the purposes of indicative planning:
The principle of progressiveness presupposes the need to take into account in the process of developing norms and standards the achievements of scientific and technological progress, measures to save and rationally use all types of resources, increase the efficiency of social production, etc.
The principle of decentralization presupposes the independence of business entities in determining specific volumes of resource expenditures, output of products, services based on norms and standards defining the distribution of net income, and other standards linking costs and results of economic activity. Business entities develop and implement forecasts and plans for their activities independently, without interference “from above.” At the same time, microplans, in relation to the macroplan, perform an information function. By receiving their plans from business entities, planning authorities expand their information and analytical capabilities, increasing the degree of validity of forecasts and plans at the macro level.
The principle of equilibrium assumes that the arbitrary establishment of standards does not allow for balanced and efficient development of the economy. The unreasonable establishment of strict standards forces economic entities to structure their behavior accordingly - under a strong state, entities, submitting to pressure “from above”, respond with passive behavior, i.e. reduce entrepreneurial activity, export capital abroad, etc. As a result, the country, for no apparent reason, lags behind in competition with other countries in terms of production efficiency. With a weak state, business entities “go into the shadows” - do not pay taxes, non-payments and other forms of failure to fulfill contractual obligations flourish.
Thus, in each specific case it is necessary to establish certain equilibrium values of standards, deviations from which worsen the value of the “target function” of state regulation. For example, when tax rates increase above the equilibrium state, the state loses tax revenues; an increase in refinancing rates scares off investors who do not believe in the state’s ability to service its debts at high interest rates. It should be known that there are no methods for accurately establishing the values of economic standards, but there are some rational limits within which they should be. For example, there is a “Laffer threshold” for the full income tax rate (30-40%), exceeding which leads to a decrease in tax revenues, etc.
The principle of systematicity assumes that the equilibrium values of some standards depend on the values of others. In accordance with this principle, there are many equilibrium trajectories of economic development that correspond to different systems of norms and standards. At the same time, their selection and justification is a difficult task, because The improvement of some norms and standards is often associated with the deterioration of others. For example, an increase in the rate of economic growth can be achieved by increasing public debt, etc.
The choice and justification of a system of norms and standards should be based on the coordination of the interests of state, economic and other entities. This coordination should be based on the principle of maintaining parity “top-down” and “bottom-up”. This principle of coordination of interests excludes spontaneous (lobbying) character and excludes arbitrariness and corruption in their establishment.
The principle of conditionality. In accordance with this principle, norms and regulations can be divided into unconditional and conditional. Unconditional are norms and standards that are valid for all cases and subjects of a given group, and are formally reflected in legislation. Conditional - these are norms and standards determined by the preliminary fulfillment by business entities of a number of criteria requirements. For example, when new jobs are created, the income tax rate is reduced, etc.
A system of norms and standards is not a once-for-all created and frozen formation. The development of the economic mechanism determines its constant development, i.e. expansion of the composition of norms and standards, improvement of standardization methods.
Thus, the normative method of developing plans combines well with indicative planning, and also acts as a basic tool for fiscal macroplanning, intra-company planning and expands the possibilities of coordinating the actions of government bodies and business entities.
Conclusion
One of the main achievements of human civilization is the systematic development of society. It is planning that makes it possible to clearly organize, comprehensively justify and coordinate the activities of all parts of the economic system of society to achieve the set goal. Planning can be considered as a specific form of social practice of people and as a function of management. It is an effective tool for implementing the economic and social policies of the state. In the former socialist countries, planning - centralized directive - was the main form of economic management.
The socialist system has become history; the science of socialist planning has not stood the test of time. However, the importance of planning in the socio-economic development of countries, aimed at achieving and maintaining high rates of economic growth in order to ensure a high standard of living for the population, is constantly and naturally increasing. In the middle of the 20th century, a system of directive planning in the USSR and a system of indicative planning in developed Western countries were simultaneously formed. It should be noted that initially planning in the West, especially in a number of countries restoring the post-war economy, contained directive elements. At the same time, we can say that, starting from the 1960s, the Soviet economic system “gently” evolved towards indicative planning (Kosygin’s reforms, Gorbachev’s perestroika). With directive centralized planning, the Center performs only the final planning functions: collating and aggregating indicators, drawing up general balance sheets, approving the plan and communicating directive indicators to responsible executors.
Directive planning does not deny the thousand-year experience of individual planning of independent producers of products and services. In the theory and practice of socialist planning, a procedure was developed for coordinating individual plans “from below” with social needs and resources determined “from above”. In practice, not everything worked out as expected in theory. But we can say with all certainty that the Center was not able to ignore planning from below.
Indicative planning is the main working tool for achieving the goals set in the strategic development plan, taking into account the specific economic situation. The indicative forecast plan fills the strategic plan and acts as a practical tool in the development of the economy in the short and medium term. The indicative plan includes a conceptual plan (the concept of socio-economic development); forecast (forecast of socio-economic development); planning and regulatory part (system of economic regulators and state targeted comprehensive programs).
Indicative planning in a regulated market economy is carried out by the state in order to form ideas about the future development and structure of the national economy by solving such problems.
List of sources and literature used
1. G.P. Kapkanshchikov, S.G. Kapkanshchikov. State regulation of the economy. Textbook, Ulyanovsk, 2010.
2. I.N. Myslyaeva. The role of the state in an open economy // Problem analysis and public management design, issue 2, 2010.
3. Indicative planning system. St. Petersburg, 2002/www.refstar.ru.
4. Planned and indicative development/ http://institutiones.com/general/91-2008-06-12-13-11-42.html.
5. N.I. Morozova. Indicative planning: theoretical and practical experience of developed countries / www.uecs.ru/marketinq/item/402-2011-04-25-08-47-52.
6. B.I. Klimenko. Inter-sectoral balances of capitalist countries. M.: Nauka, 2011.
7. Problems of using macroeconomic models in planning. Materials of the Soviet-French symposium. M.: Progress, 2010.
8. Reader on the development of PPP. Financial Academy under the Government of the Russian Federation, M., 2010/ http://partner-fin.ru/u/Hrestomatig_NKO.
9. A.G. Seldner. Partnerships between the state, business and society in a mixed economy. M., LLC "Economic Sciences", 2010.
10. V. Khlynov. National planning of a market economy // World Economy and International Relations, 2010, No. 8.
11. B.N. Kuzyk, V.I. Kushlin, Yu.V. Yakovets. Forecasting, strategic planning and national programming. Textbook, second edition. M., Economics, 2012.
12. I.L. Timonina. Long-term economic strategy / Russian Journal, 2011, No. 2.
13. O.V. Malyarov. Modernization and reform of the economy. Correction of the economic course // Strategy of Russia, No. 5, 2010.
14. O.V. Malyarov. The role of the state in the transition economy // Economic science of modern Russia, No. 2, 2010.
15. V. Mikheev. Evolution of the socio-economic model / Society and Economics, No. 3-4, 2011.
16. A.N. Petrov et al. Indicative planning: theory and ways of improvement. Society "Knowledge", St. Petersburg, 2010.
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Among the planning methods that until recently were common in countries with different social formations are genetic and theological methods. Genetic is based on an analysis of the origin and development of socio-economic processes, natural and climatic conditions, natural features and the creation on their basis of a scientifically based forecast and forecast for the future, taking into account objective economic laws, on the basis of which the national plan is developed, only after that can it be used to carry out specific actions. Theological method formed on the recognition of the development of society in accordance with a predetermined goal, which surpasses all other factors, which leads to the priority of a subjective approach in choosing a goal and ways to achieve it. Hence, the will of individuals or groups is opposed to objective laws, as a result of which the effectiveness of planning and its overall feasibility within a particular economic system are reduced. The theological method of planning is the property of the command-administrative economy, with the collapse of which it also practically went into oblivion.
Let's consider two main types of planning - directive and indicative.
Directive planning is carried out by establishing targeted tasks and distributing the resources necessary for their implementation among the plan’s implementers. In a command-administrative economy, due to the monopoly of state ownership of the main means of production, planning extends to all aspects of social life. The main levers of such planning are budget financing, capital investment limits, funds for material and technical resources and government orders.
In a market economy, due to the versatility of forms of ownership, elements of directive planning are kept in the public sector. The transition from directive planning to its other forms primarily involves the elimination of contradictions between the bodies that create planning documents and their executors. Plans are developed directly by the executors, and do not come in the form of tasks. Such a planning methodology is possible only with the effective functioning of the purely market components of a free competition economy.
The achievements of centrally directed planning are:
Accumulated experience in forecasting economic development, including the dynamics of uncontrollable parameters (for example, world market prices);
- Using the principle of priority of solving medium- and long-term problems over current ones;
- Application of the procedure for approval of plans in sectoral and territorial aspects;
- Ideas for optimizing decision making have been deeply and comprehensively developed;
- Gained extensive experience in technical, production and financial planning at enterprises.
The disadvantages of such planning include:
- By its nature, it can only work when high degree implementation of plans;
The absence of centrally directed planning of compensators and reserves in the system led to the fact that even minor failures in individual links of the economic system caused significant disruptions in the plans of allied partners;
- Use of planning procedures “from what has been achieved”;
- Forced increase in “plan intensity”;
- Focus on the growth of gross indicators, rather than production efficiency;
- The planning system was based on unmet demand;
- Formalization of financial restrictions at the macro and micro levels;
- Unfavorable conditions for the creation and implementation of new equipment and technologies;
Postscripts and other forms of distortion of information. Ineffectiveness of extending prescriptive planning to everything
aspects of social life are illustrated by the experience of the Soviet Union. Back in the 20s of the XX century. many economists and statesmen actively discussed the danger of the emergence of centralization in planning, defending the possibility and objective need for the functioning of commodity-money relations and methods for their systematic regulation. For example, N. Bukharin warned about negative consequences revaluation of planned centralism without taking into account elements of spontaneity in the development of the national economy, especially the peasant market.
Among the leading scientists who introduced this direction in life, the figure of N. Kondratiev plays a significant role. He proved that the development of an optimal long-term plan is possible based on an analysis of economic development, market conditions and forecasting for the future. The scientist raised the question of a complete study of the situation, climatic and natural conditions, economic laws, characteristics of territories, etc. To adopt planning documents, knowledge and forecast are needed. Particular emphasis was placed on using various methods of economic analysis in the process of determining specific indicators in plans in order to identify objective patterns and the effect of potential subjective factors in the planning period. He also defined the categories on which the plan should be formed. In planning practice, when discussing the first five-year plans, M. Kondratiev defended the position of balanced development of all sectors of the national economy, including agriculture and industry.
The low efficiency of planning in the Soviet Union can be explained by dividing its numerous factors into two main groups:
1) planning was formed on the direct state distribution of resources without the use of commodity-money relations. It was idealized as an effective means of managing the national economy;
2) methodological approaches The practical use of planning was not always based on the interests of society, but rather on the use of command-administrative methods.
Measures to improve planning, which were carried out in the ZO-80s, were divorced from reality, and therefore did not give desired results. When planning, the interests of the regions were not taken into account, and methods for regulating national and regional processes were not developed. After the 20s, the territorial aspect of national economic planning was not observed.
Indicative planning- orientation of private enterprises to fulfill the tasks set by the state.
The indicative plan contains mandatory tasks for the state and the public sector. Private enterprises are guided by indicative planning and adapt to the powerful “player” in the market system - the state, even if this is not necessary for them.
Such planning performs a coordination function, that is, it provides for coordination of the activities of the “center,” industries and enterprises in the process of the latter’s independent development of their production and economic programs.
The following forms of indicative planning are distinguished:
- Opportunistic, associated with the increasing influence of the budget on the rate and proportions of economic growth as government spending increases in GDP. In the context of structural restructuring of economies and their accelerated development, it became necessary to harmonize budgets with forecast indicators on which tax revenue estimates were based. This led to the development of mid-range and, as a result, long-term forecasts;
- Structural, arose in connection with the involvement of private enterprises and territorial authorities in the implementation of indicative plans using tax benefits, preferential loans and other government support measures within the framework of selective structural policy;
- Strategic- with the development of a mixed economy and the globalization of markets (primarily on a pan-European scale), indicative planning is transformed into a strategic form, the essence of which is the selection of the main priorities for the development of the national economy, the leading position in the implementation of which is assumed by the state.
Indicative planning is a way to involve independent market entities in mutually beneficial cooperation with the state in the development and implementation of development programs. It does not restrain the initiative of private business, helps determine development directions, informs stakeholders about potential demand, the situation in related industries, the labor market, etc.
The development of an indicative plan involves assessing the sustainability of the economy, analyzing macro-proportions, identifying priorities and tasks of the economic complex. Therefore, it must be accompanied by resource support, for which they create balances of financial, labor, fuel and energy resources, exports and imports of consumer goods and durable goods, etc.
Plans are developed at all levels of management, each of which determines its own goals and development priorities, previously coordinating them with the priorities higher authorities management. In individual territories, subprograms can be developed that differ depending on the goals set and the means of their implementation.