(Lab work)
n1.doc
IntroductionThe term "genre" originated in the aesthetics of French Classicism mid-17th century century, although genre self-determination existed much earlier. In the 16th century academic art theorists divided it into “high” and “low” genres depending on the subject of the image, theme, and plot. This division was strengthened in the practice of European art academies of the 17th-19th centuries. In painting, historical (heroic) and mythological genres, “low” - portrait (with the exception of ceremonial, ceremonial, statue), landscape, still life. In literature there was a contrast between tragedy and comedy. The Church, for its part, canonized the iconography of icon painting, altar painting and sculptural composition, paintings on biblical subjects.
The category of literary genre is a historical category. Literary genres appear only at a certain stage in the development of the art of words and then constantly change and are replaced. The point is not only that some genres come to replace others and not a single genre is “eternal” for literature; the point is also that the very principles of identifying individual genres change, the types and nature of genres change, their functions in that or another era. Modern division genres, based on purely literary characteristics, appears relatively late. For Russian literature purely literary principles the distinction of genres came into force mainly in the 17th century. Until this time, literary genres, to one degree or another, carried, in addition to literary functions, extraliterary functions. Many literary genres have their origins and roots in folklore.
GenreAndgenresystem
Literary genres are groups of works distinguished within types of literature. Each of them has a certain set of stable properties.
Genres are difficult to systematize and classify (unlike types of literature), and stubbornly resist them. First of all, because there are a lot of them: each artistic culture has specific genres. In addition, genres have different historical scope. Some exist throughout the entire history of verbal art (such as, for example, the ever-living fable from Aesop to S.V. Mikhalkov); others are correlated with certain eras.
Based on certain typological properties (i.e., inherent in a number of works), the work is classified as a specific one. literary family(epic, drama, lyrics, as well as their combinations); to poetry or prose; it identifies the dominant aesthetic category (tragic, comic, heroic, etc.), etc.
When determining the genre, the generic affiliation of the work is first taken into account. Epic genres include: short story, tale, novel, literary fairy tale, poem, epic, etc.; dramatic - tragedy, drama, comedy, vaudeville, melodrama, etc.; lyrical - lyric poem, ode, hymn, elegy, satire (in verse), epigram, sonnet, madrigal, etc., which arose in the Renaissance. There are genres that combine various generic principles: lyrical poem, ballad, fable, lyrical drama (for example, "The Rose and the Cross" by A. Blok), dramatic poem ("Cain" by J. G. Byron), etc. But in some genres it is difficult to determine the generic basis; Thus, essays, “stream of consciousness” literature, and essays can be considered “non-generic forms.”
The picture is further complicated by the fact that the same word often denotes deeply different genre phenomena.
The word “elegy” denotes several genre formations. Elegies early eras and cultures have different characteristics. What the elegy as such is and what is its supra-epochal uniqueness is impossible to say in principle. The only correct definition of elegy “in general” is as a “genre of lyric poetry.”
Many other genre designations (poem, novel, satire, etc.) have a similar nature.
Existing genre designations capture various aspects of works. Thus, the word “tragedy” states the involvement of this group of dramatic works in a certain emotional and semantic mood (pathos); the word “story” indicates that the works belong to the epic genre of literature and the “average” volume of the text (less than that of novels and greater than that of short stories and short stories); The sonnet is a lyrical genre, which is characterized, first of all, by a strictly defined volume (14 verses) and a specific rhyme system, and so on.
Authors often designate the genre of their works arbitrarily, without conforming to the usual usage of words. So, N.V. Gogol called " Dead souls"poem; “House by the Road” by A.T. Tvardovsky has the Subtitle “lyrical chronicle”, “Vasily Terkin” - “a book about a fighter”.
Naturally, it is not easy for literary theorists to navigate the processes of genre evolution and the endless “diversity” of genre designations. However, literary criticism of our century has repeatedly outlined, and to some extent, carried out the development of the concept “ literary genre“not only in the concrete, historical and literary aspect (studies of individual genre formations), but also in the theoretical itself.
Consideration of genres is unimaginable without reference to the organization, structure, and form of literary works. Theorists of the formal school persistently spoke about this. Fundamental in the approach of Russian formalists to a work of art (primarily poetic) was the assertion that it is the form that makes poetry poetry, determining the specifics of the latter.
Inheriting the traditions of the formal school, and at the same time revising some of its provisions, scientists turned close attention on the semantic side of genres, using the terms “genre essence” and “genre content”. The palm here belongs to M.M. Bakhtin, who said that the genre form is inextricably linked with the themes of the works and the features of the worldview of their authors.
Emphasizing that the genre properties of works constitute an indissoluble unity, Bakhtin at the same time distinguished between the formal (structural) and the actual substantive aspects of the genre. He noted that such genre names rooted in antiquity as epic, tragedy, idyll, which characterized the structure of works, were later, when applied to modern literature, “used as a designation of the genre essence.
In the same vein is the concept of literary genres by G.N. Pospelov, who in the 1940s undertook an original experiment in systematizing genre phenomena. He distinguished between “external” genre forms (“a closed compositional and stylistic whole”) and “internal” (“specific genre content” as a principle “ imaginative thinking"and "cognitive interpretation of characters"). Having regarded external (compositional and stylistic) genre forms as content-neutral (in this, Pospelov’s concept of genres, as has been repeatedly noted, is one-sided and vulnerable), the scientist focused on the internal side of genres. He identified and characterized three supra-epochal genre groups, basing their differentiation on a sociological principle: the type of relationship between an artistically comprehended person and society, the social environment in a broad sense.
Along with the epics, epics and odes about which N.G. Pospelov spoke about works of national-historical genre content, the scientist singled out another one: mythological, containing “folk figurative and fantastic explanations of the origin of certain natural and cultural phenomena.” He attributed these genres only to the “pre-art” of historically early, “pagan” societies, believing that “the mythological group of genres, during the transition of peoples to higher levels public life, did not receive further development.”
Characteristics of genre groups given by G.N. Pospelov, has the advantage of a clear systematic approach. However, it is incomplete. Now that the ban on discussing religious and philosophical issues of art has been lifted from Russian literary criticism, it is not difficult for scientists to add to what has been said that there is and is deeply significant a group of literary and artistic genres, where a person relates not so much to the life of society, but to cosmic principles, universal laws world order and the higher forces of existence. These are parable, life, mystery, religious and philosophical lyrics.
The named genres, which do not fit into any sociological constructs, can rightfully be defined as ontological (ontology is the doctrine of being).
The origins of the genres that we called ontological are mythological archaics, and above all, myths about the creation of the world, called etiological (or cosmological).
The ontological aspect of genres comes to the fore in a number of foreign theories of the 20th century. The content (semantic) basis of literary genres, as can be seen, attracts the closest attention of scientists of the 20th century. And it is interpreted differently.
Canonizationgenres.
Genres gradually acquire and accumulate their characteristics - necessary and sufficient conditions for their identity, then “live”, sharing the fate of all living things, that is, enduring changes; sometimes they “die”, leave the living literary process, sometimes they return to life, usually in a transformed form.
Genre norms and rules (canons) were initially formed spontaneously, on the basis of rites with their rituals and traditions folk culture. "And in traditional folklore, and in archaic literature, genre structures are inseparable from extra-literary situations, genre laws directly merge with the rules of ritual and everyday decency.”
Later, as reflection became stronger in artistic activity, some genre canons took on the form of clearly formulated provisions (postulates). The canon of a genre is “a certain system of stable and solid genre characteristics.”
Traditional genres, being strictly formalized, exist separately from each other, separately. The boundaries between them are clear and precise. Genre formations of this kind follow certain norms and rules that are developed by tradition and are mandatory for authors.
In the era of normative poetics (from antiquity to the 17th–18th centuries), along with the genres that were recommended and regulated by theorists, there were also genres that for a number of centuries did not receive theoretical justification, but also had stable structural properties. These include fairy tales, fables, short stories and similar humorous stage works, as well as many traditional lyrical genres (including folklore).
Genre structures have changed (and quite dramatically) in the literature of the last two or three centuries, especially in the post-Romantic era. They became pliable and flexible, lost their canonical rigor, and therefore opened up wide spaces for the manifestation of individual authorial initiative.
The “decanonization” of genre structures made itself felt already in the 18th century. In the XIX–XX centuries. these, as a rule, are no longer phenomena isolated from each other, possessing a clearly defined set of properties, but groups of works in which certain formal and substantive preferences and accents are more or less clearly visible.
Accordingly, in literature there are two types of genre structures: ready-made, complete, solid forms (canonical genres) (for example, a sonnet) and non-canonical genre forms: flexible, open to all kinds of transformations, restructuring, updates (for example, elegies or short stories in the literature of modern times) .
Genres, according to D.S. Likhachev, “they interact, support each other’s existence and at the same time compete with each other”; therefore it is necessary to study not only individual genres and their history, but also “the system of genres of each given era.” At the same time, genres are assessed in a certain way by the reading public, critics, creators of “poetics” and manifestos, writers and scientists. They are interpreted as worthy or, on the contrary, not worthy of the attention of artistically enlightened people; both high and low; as truly modern or outdated, exhausted; as main or marginal (peripheral). These assessments and interpretations create hierarchies of genres that change over time. Some of the genres receive the highest possible rating. Genres of this kind, based on the terminology of the formal school, are called canonized. Canonized is also called that part of the literature of the past that is recognized as the best, pinnacle, exemplary, i.e. classics.
If in the era of normative aesthetics were canonized high genres, then in times close to us those rise hierarchically genre beginnings, which were previously outside the scope of “strict” literature.
At the same time, traditional high genres evoke an aloof critical attitude towards themselves and are thought of as exhausted. “What is curious about the change of genres is the constant displacement high genres low,” noted B.V. Tomashevsky, stating in literary modernity the process of “canonization of low genres.”
In the 20th century, as can be seen, predominantly new (or fundamentally updated) genres rise hierarchically, as opposed to those that were authoritative in the previous era. At the same time, the places of leaders are occupied by genre formations that have free, open structures: the subject of canonization, paradoxically, turns out to be non-canonical genres, preference is given to everything in literature that is not part of ready-made, established, stable forms.
Novel- leadinggenreliterature.
The novel has been recognized as the leading genre of literature in recent centuries.
In contrast to the classical epic, the novel is focused on depicting the historical present and the destinies of individuals, ordinary people searching for themselves and their purpose in a “prosaic” world that has lost its pristine stability, integrity and sacredness (poetry). Even if in a novel the action is transferred to the past, this past is always assessed and perceived as immediately preceding the present and correlated with the present.
The novel (according to Bakhtin) is capable of revealing in a person not only the properties determined in behavior, but also unrealized possibilities, a certain personal potential: “One of the main internal themes of the novel is precisely the theme of the inadequacy of the hero’s fate and his position,” a person here can be “or more of your destiny, or less of your humanity.”
The ground for the formation and consolidation of a novel arises where there is interest in a person who has at least relative independence from institutions social environment with its imperatives, rites, rituals, which is not characterized by “herd” inclusion in society. The alienation of a person from society and the world order was interpreted by M.M. Bakhtin as necessarily dominant in the novel.
In classical novelism of the 19th century. The hero's reliance on himself was most often presented in a dual light: on the one hand, as a “self-worth” worthy of a person, sublime, attractive, enchanting, on the other hand, as a source of delusions and defeats in life. At the same time, many novel characters strive to overcome their solitude and alienation.
In the centuries-old history of the novel, two types of it are clearly visible, more or less corresponding to two stages of literary development. These are, firstly, works of acute events, based on external action, the heroes of which strive to achieve some local goals. These are adventurous novels, in particular picaresque, knightly, “career novels,” as well as adventure and detective stories.
Secondly, these are novels that have prevailed in the literature of the last two or three centuries, when one of the central problems of social thought, artistic creativity and culture in general became the spiritual independence of man. Here the internal action successfully competes with the external action: the eventfulness is noticeably weakened, and the consciousness of the hero in its diversity and complexity, with its endless dynamics and psychological nuances, comes to the fore.
One of the most important features of the novel and related stories (especially in the 19th–20th centuries) is the authors’ close attention to the microenvironment surrounding the heroes . Outside of recreating the microenvironment, it is very difficult for a novelist to show the inner world of a person.
Novels, focused on a person's connections with a reality close to him and, as a rule, giving preference to internal action, have become a kind of center of literature. They seriously influenced all other genres, even transformed them.
In the 20th century in Russian literature, despite all aesthetic revaluations, the novel remains a “genre of genres”, although the so-called “postmodern era” weakens the position of the novel - like all fiction, “fine literature”. “Objective reality”, “living life”, former subject The images of the novel began to be perceived differently: not so integral and self-identical.
Conclusion.
Genres form the most important link between writers different eras, without which the development of literature is unimaginable. According to S.S. Averintsev, “the background against which one can view the silhouette of a writer is always two-part: any writer is a contemporary of his contemporaries, comrades in the era, but also a successor of his predecessors, comrades in the genre.”
Genre as a reality exists in literature as an obligatory quality creative process and the process of perception. Even if the author is declaratively opposed to the genre, this does not negate the genre dimension in his work. O. E. Mandelstam expressively spoke about the problem of the genre as the inevitability of inheritance in the poem “I have not heard the stories of Ossian” (1914):
And more than one treasure, perhaps,
Bypassing the grandchildren, he will go to his great-grandchildren,
And again the skald will compose someone else's song
And how he will pronounce his own.
References:
1. Pospelov G.N. TO question O poetic genres. 1948
2. Bakhtin M.M. Epic And novel. M. 1975
3. Likhachev D.S. Poetics Old Russian literature. M.1979
4. Tomashevsky B.V. Theory literature. Poetics. M. 1999
5. Khalizev V.E. Theory literature. M.1999
Genre is the division of any type of art according to thematic, structural or functional principles. In each art form, the system of genres develops in its own way. For example, in literature, genres are determined on the basis of the work’s belonging to a literary genus, the leading aesthetic quality and ideological and evaluative mood (satirical, pathetic, tragic, etc.), as well as the volume of the work and the method of constructing the image (symbolism, allegory, documentary, etc. .p.). In music, genres differ: by the method of performance (vocal or instrumental, solo, ensemble, orchestral, choral genres), by purpose (march, lullaby, ritual song, etc.) by place and conditions of production (chamber, symphonic music, film music, etc.). d.). In painting, genres are determined by the subject of the image (portrait, still life, landscape, historical, etc.), as well as by the nature of the image (easel, monumental, decorative painting, miniature, etc.). Cinema, theater and other arts also have their own genre systems. Let's consider the genre systems of some arts. More details in detail.
In painting, according to structural and functional characteristics, the following types or genres are distinguished, such as easel painting, monumental painting, decorative painting, icon painting, theatrical decorative painting
Name easel. Painting comes from the fact that the artist often paints such works on a canvas stretched on a stretcher and mounted on a special machine - an easel. However, to the easel. Painting can include works written not only on canvas, but also on cardboard, wooden board, etc. Easel. Painting is distinguished mainly by the independence of an individual work, its relevance to the interior and the flexibility of its free movement without consequences for the overall design and idea. It is to easel painting that the term “painting” is more often applied.
Iconography is easel in form. Painting for religious purposes (in Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Lamaism and some other religions). The nature of icon painting is determined by iconography - a clearly defined theme and rules for depicting events and persons. Sacred. Scripturea.
Monumental. Painting is a pictorial image on internal or external surfaces architectural structures of monumental painting cannot be separated from their base (walls, supports, ceilings, etc.) and transferred. The technique and materials used are monumental. Painting is often fresco or mosaic; monumental painting is usually classified as... Windage.
A miniature is a small-sized work, distinguished by decorative forms, ornamentation, and subtlety of writing. There are the following types of miniatures book miniature(image in a handwritten book) lacquer miniature (Painting on small lacquered items - boxes, jewelry, etc.); portrait miniature (portrait image made on medallions, snuff boxes, watches, rings, etc.).
Theatrical and decorative. Painting - used in stage design, creating theatrical scenery and sketches theatrical costumes. It is also characteristic of cinematography (pavilion design, large-scale venues, etc.).
Decorative. Painting stands out on the verge of monumental, applied, and design art
Genres are distinguished by sections in painting and other types of fine art (graphics, sculpture): portrait, landscape, still life, historical, mythological, battle, everyday, animalistic.
Portrait is one of the main genres of fine art, an image of a person or group of people who really exist or existed in the past. Based on the nature of the image, there are ceremonial, official and intimate portraits. A portrait of a person in the form of any allegorical, mythological, historical, theatrical or literary character is called a costumed one. A separate type of portrait is a self-portrait - the artist depicts himself. Among the varieties. Picturesque portrait: half-length, full-length, side-length portraits, portrait in full height, group portrait, portrait in the interior, portrait against the background of a landscape, etc.. In sculpture, a portrait image can be made in the form of a statue (full-length image), bust (bust-length image), torso (human figure without legs or from the waist up).
Landscape is a genre in which the main object of the image is natural landscapes, letters, architectural (including industrial) structures, seascapes and other real or fictitious terrain. The landscape can have a historical, heroic, fantastic, lyrical, epic character. Landscape also often serves as a background in works of other genres (portrait, historical, mythological, battle, animalistic).
Still life is a genre dedicated to depicting the world of things, everyday objects. The object of the image in a still life can also be picked flowers, vegetables, fruits, seafood, dead game, birds. As an addition to the main motif, images of people and living animals, insects, and birds are sometimes included in the composition of a still life.
reproduced in the historical genre. Outstanding events of the past or contemporary events that have historical significance. Historical. The genre is often intertwined with other genres: everyday (forming a synthetic, so-called historical-everyday genre), portrait ( historical portrait), landscape (historical landscape), battle.
Battle. The genre reproduces the theme. Wars, battles, campaigns and other military events and episodes. Life of the Army and Navy
Mythological. Genre is a depiction of events and heroes of myths, legends, tales
Domestic. A genre dedicated to the reproduction of private and everyday public. Human life. Everyday compositions are sometimes called "genre"
animalistic genre - a type of art in which the leading motif is the image of animals
Among the main genres drama theater- comedy, tragedy, drama. It should be noted that the name “theater” refers to the art of stage acting, performance as such; theatrical drama can be realized in the genre of not only drama, but also comedy and tragedy.
Comedy is a genre of dramatic work, the development of the action of which evokes in the audience of different nature friendly, ironic, sarcastic laughter. The comic effect, as a rule, is associated with situations in the plot of an action comedy, the behavior of characters whose actions conflict with reality and the norms accepted in it.
Tragedy -. A genre of dramatic work, the plot of which develops on the basis of a tragic conflict, which creates the risk of death of a positive hero or heroes
Drama is a type of dramatic play in which the conflict does not reach a tragic, fatal outcome, but the action does not take on a purely comic character. A kind of intermediate between tragedy and comedy. Genre
Cinematography is functionally divided into newsreel-documentary, popular science, educational and artistic cinema. Feature films are divided by theme into the following genres: adventure (including western), detective, thriller, science fiction, horror, melodrama, action, historical, etc.
Western is a special type of adventure film about the development of Western lands. USA 19th century (most often we are talking about the life of cowboys)
An action film is a film that focuses on unpredictable events. This. The genre is full of unexpected plot twists; it widely uses so-called “attraction” scenes and stuntmen’s tricks.
A thriller is a film with significant plot tension, which differs from a detective story in the temporal direction of the development of events. In a detective story, the action moves, relatively speaking, backwards “backward” in time, i.e. from an existing crime to unraveling the circumstances of its commission. In a thriller. The development of events is carried out in direct temporal movement - from the normal and usual course. Life before one kind of tragic event or another. In a detective story, the main thing is a mystery, a mystery, in a thriller. The important thing is to create anxiety and an atmosphere of fear. However, in many modern films elements of thriller and detective are intertwined, creating their own combination of genres. Genres
Movie. Horror is a film with elements of phantasmagoria, with the obligatory presence of horror fiction. Precisely the elements of a fantasy film. Horror is different from thriller
Depending on how it is performed, music is divided into vocal (including vocal-instrumental) and instrumental. Vocal is music created for a voice or many voices. The genres of vocal music include song, romance, aria, works for ensemble and choral performance, cantata, oratorio, etc. A vocal work performed without words is called a vocalise. Vocal performance without instrumental accompaniment is called a cappella singing.
The peculiarity of the song as a genre is the verse form with a chorus. A song can be, for example, folk or original and is divided into the following functional genres: lullaby, marching, children's, ritual, etc.
Romance differs from song in its greater dynamics of development artistic image(i.e., wider emotional amplitude of the work), a significant role of instrumental accompaniment and a tighter connection between words and music.
Cantata is a large vocal-instrumental work for soloists, choir, and orchestra. A cantata often begins with an orchestral introduction and then consists of individual arias (a vocal work, which is a kind of analogue of a character’s monologue in a dramatic performance), recitatives (a method of singing close to melodic recitation, based on linguistic intonations, accents, pauses), ensembles (musical number, which is represented by a small group of singers - usually from 2 to 10-12 people) and choirs, united by a single theme.
An oratorio is a work for soloists, choir and orchestra, which differs from a cantata in its larger scale and the presence of a detailed dramatic plot, but, unlike an opera, it is intended for concert performance (i.e. it is performed without scenery and without stage acting and theatrical costumes.
Instrumental music is intended to be performed on musical instruments. Musical instruments are divided into winds (brass and wood), strings (bowed and plucked strings) and percussion. Depending on the principle of sound production, keyboards and instruments belong to different corresponding groups or are separated into a separate group according to the purely formal principle of the presence of a keyboard.
Modern musical electric instruments also form a separate group.
Classical instrumental music is divided into symphonic and chamber symphonic music, called music intended for performance by a symphony orchestra. The main genres of symphonic music: symphony, overture, concert, suite, as well as symphonic poem, symphonic fantasy, divertissement, etc.
Symphony (with gr "consonance") - a work of significant duration for performance for symphony orchestra from several (3-4) parts of contrasting nature. The main composition of a symphony orchestra includes: woodwind instruments (flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon), brass instruments (horns, trumpets, tubas, trombones), string instruments (violins, violas, cellos, double basses), percussion instruments(timpani, drums, cymbals, tom-toms, triangles, trikutnik).
Concert (from the Latin "competition") is a term that is widely known in the sense of a public performance of music by a specific performer or group of performers according to a pre-announced program and in a specially equipped room (in classical tradition- in the concert hall). However, there is also. The genre of instrumental music called “concert” is a work based on the contrasting opposition of musical parts. Solis and (or several soloists, a minority of performers) to the entire group of performers (or most of it). The most common are concertos for one or more instruments with an orchestra (maybe, for example, a concerto for violin (or trumpet, viola, flute, etc.) with an orchestra, a concerto for violin and flute with an orchestra, a concerto for two (three) violins with orchestra, etc.). A concert is a fairly significant work, which consists of three or four different parts of different parts.
Suite (with fr "row", "sequence") is a multi-part musical work, consisting of a number of independent pieces, contrasting in nature, united by a common artistic idea. Classic is the suite, which consists of various dances (Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Gigue, as well as minuet, pasacaglia, polonaise, chaconne, rigaudon, etc.). Later, suites composed of music for theatrical plays, ballets, operas, and films gained popularity. It should be noted that sometimes a suite is called both vocal cycles and vocal cycles.
Chamber instrumental music is intended for a small group of performers. In the past, this was the name for a fly that was done at home. Chamber instrumental music includes the sonata, trio, quartet, and also a large number of “small chamber genres” - small instrumental pieces, including nocturne, prelude, cantilena, barcarolle, caprice, allegro, andante, etc. It should be noted that There are also special and “chamber” orchestras, the basis of which is string instruments (violins, violas, cellos, double basses), to which, if necessary, some woodwind instruments are also added. Among other pieces, a chamber orchestra can also perform concerts (for example, concerts by Antonio and Vivaldi “The Seasons” were written for a chamber orchestra and also for a chamber orchestra).
Sonata is a multi-part (usually three-part) instrumental piece for a solo instrument (for example, piano) or for an instrumental ensemble (for example, for violin with piano, for violin with harp, for flute with piano, etc.
Trio is a piece written specifically for an ensemble of three musicians-instrumentalists. Trio composition options: violin, viola, cello; violin, cello, piano (sometimes harp) violin, clarinet, piano and in.
Quartet is a piece for an ensemble of four instrumentalists. The classic composition of a string quartet is two violins, a viola and a cello, but there may be other options
With the development of art, its type-genre system undergoes constant changes: some genres become obsolete and fall out of use, but new genres appear. Thus, in the 20th century, new types and genres of musical art were spreading, primarily associated with jazz and rock. Instead of thematic genres, into which the traditional for. New time fine art, in modern visual art the genre division is carried out on the principle of a purely technical representation of the work: painting, ready-made, photography, installation, video, etc. The specifics of the types of modern art will be discussed in a separate topic.
Each exam question may have multiple answers from different authors. The answer may contain text, formulas, pictures. The author of the exam or the author of the answer to the exam can delete or edit a question.
Concepts of “system”, genre. Genre structures. Genre as a system. Main genres in newspapers, radio and television. The problem of choosing a genre. Mutual influence and interpenetration of genres.
System(from the Greek sysntema - a whole made up of parts; connection) - a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, forming a certain integrity, unity.
Genre(French genre) (historical) - a historically established internal division in all types of art; the type of a work of art in the unity of the specific properties of its form and content. The concept of “Genre” summarizes the features characteristic of a vast group of works of any era, nation or world art in general. The genres of journalism differ from literary genres in the reliability and targeting of facts.
Journalistic genre- a relatively stable structural and content organization of the text, due to the unique reflection of reality and the nature of the creator’s relationship to it.
Genre- a special form of organization of life material, which is a set of specific structural and compositional features.
Genre groups:
Informational (note, report, interview, report) - necessary signs - information occasion, efficiency;
Analytical (correspondence, article, review, review, press review, commentary) - study of a system of facts, analyses, conclusions;
Artistic and journalistic (essay, sketch, essay, feuilleton, pamphlet)
Historically specific (developing over time);
A special form of life
Typological (having a number of stable characteristics;
Epistemological (in different genres - different goals, means, level of knowledge)
Morphological (features of the structure of the narrative, the place of the fact in it, the figurative structure, the specifics of the development of the problem);
Axiological (contains a certain assessment of reality by the publicist);
Creative and edifying (the text is created by the publicist as a certain model of the world);
Possessing a level of determinism, its conditionality:
.) objective properties of the fact being described;
.) worldview and individual psychological characteristics of the author
A strict division into genres exists only in theory and, to a certain extent, in information materials. In general, genres tend to interpenetrate, and in practice the boundaries between them are often blurred (especially in the so-called “tabloid” publications).
Newspaper genres differ from each other in the method of literary presentation, style of presentation, composition, and even just the number of lines. Conventionally, they can be divided into three large groups: informational, analytical and artistic and journalistic. The main purpose of information material, be it newspaper, radio or television, is to report a fact (in daily publications and issues, the “fresh” fact - news) is put at the forefront. Fact for journalism Without facts, journalism is unthinkable.
Different ways of reporting facts lead to the creation of different genres
INFORMATION GENRES OF JOURNALISM
Information genres are distinguished by special methods and techniques for transmitting information consisting of narration, in the so-called “telegraphic style” of real facts in the context of real time. Information genres include: chronicle, extended information, note, remark, report, epistolary genres, interview And reportage.
Chronicle - answers the questions: What? Where? When? and has a volume of 2 - 15 lines. Published on the first and second pages of official and unofficial newspapers. The language of newsreel information is bookish, the style is dry, distant, official.
Information - short information, or note. Contains the fact itself and some details. Consists of 10-30 lines, has its own heading. More often published in the collection. Extended information involves a broader and more detailed account of events. Possible: historical information, comparison, characteristics of heroes, etc. Includes introduction and ending. Contains 40-150 lines, header. Also, the extended information may contain additional details, heroes, etc.
Interview - a statement of facts on behalf of the person with whom the conversation is being conducted. It involves joint creativity: the journalist anticipates readers’ questions, carefully prepares for the interview, and is sure to be in control of the situation. It is necessary to indicate with whom the conversation is being conducted (last name, first name, patronymic, official or social position), the topic of the conversation, how the interview was received (in a personal conversation, by telephone, by fax, etc.). Types of interviews: monologue interview, dialogue interview (classic interview), exclusive interview, message interview, sketch interview, etc.; also small forms of interviews - express interviews, blitz interviews. There are also types of mass interviews: press conferences, briefings. The interview genre includes: questionnaires, conversations for " round table"etc.
Report - concentrated presentation of any past event or event. The report differs from other genres in its dryness and consistency of presentation. Types of reports: General report contains a statement of facts in chronological order, thematic- covers 1-2 most important issues, report with comments- presentation of the main events and expression of one’s point of view; communiqué report - a story about a past political meeting;
Reportage - a visual representation of a particular event through the direct perception of an eyewitness journalist or character. The report combines elements of all information genres (narration, direct speech, colorful digression, characterization, historical digression, etc.). It is advisable to illustrate the report with photographs. The report happens: event-based- the event is transmitted chronologically (pre-event and post-event reports are also distinguished) , thematic - the event can be transmitted starting from any place, extended and detailed comments are allowed here , staged(situational) - when a report is broadcast from an unplanned event. . The language and style of reporting can have two linguistic principles: documentary and artistic, they must be in perfect balance.
Survey - a symbiosis of journalism and sociology. Presenting a collective opinion on one or more specially selected problems, topics, issues.
Obituary - not to be confused with death notice. An obituary is a story about the stages of the life of the deceased with words of farewell and grief.
Replica - this is a short emotional response to any performance. The main feature of a replica is mood.
Epistolary genres - These are letters from readers, the basis of journalism. Letters at all times and eras, from the first days of the emergence of journalism, formed the basis of all materials. Types of epistolary genres: proposal letter, response letter, complaint letter, question letter, response letter.
ANALYTICAL GENRES OF JOURNALISM
This is a wide canvas of facts that are interpreted, generalized, and serve as material for posing a specific problem and its comprehensive consideration and interpretation. Analytical genres are based on the method of induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis. Induction, or analysis, is when a problem is considered by decomposing it into parts, from the general to the specific. Deduction, or synthesis, is when parts of a problem are first considered individually, and then in general terms.
Compared to information genres, analytical genres are broader in factual material, larger in thought, and in the study of vital phenomena.
Analytical genres include: article, correspondence, review, review.
Article - this is a local display of vital phenomena, problems or current situations. The article examines events from general to specific. The article takes facts on a global scale, analyzes them, raising them to scientifically based conclusions. The facts in the article play an illustrative role; the problem and phenomenon are important here. The article makes full use of argumentation, motivation of actions, and uses all types of texts: narration, description and reflection. Types of articles:
1) advanced - it is based on directiveness;
2) propaganda - an important method in it is propaganda;
3) scientific and popular science article;
A special subtype of article includes journalistic commentary, which allows you to quickly respond to various events, comment on and evaluate them.
Correspondence - display of a “slice of life”, a genre built on specific material, in which a current topic is developed analytically and a specific problem is solved. In correspondence, unlike an article, the method of deduction - synthesis is used, that is, the problem is solved from the particular to the general.
Types of correspondence:
1) informational - distinguished by the breadth of material coverage and thorough development of the topic.
2) analytical correspondence reveals the causes of the described phenomenon. She is critical.
3) staged correspondence - this type reflects a topical, current situation based on the analysis and synthesis of facts.
4) correspondence-reflection - the journalist, together with the reader, analyzes, compares, compares, and evaluates a number of facts.
If the structure in the article is arbitrary, then in the correspondence it is specific. It has: a heading, a title, head lines, a beginning, a main part and an ending. The rubric can be used to determine the nature of the correspondence. Beginnings different types There are different genres of this genre: plot, information, problem. The endings also have different characteristics.
Review - a genre in which an artistic or scientific work, socio-political or technical literature, theatrical productions, films, television programs is criticized, assessed, art exhibitions, music concerts and even everyday situations. Review is also defined as criticism of “reflected reality.” The reviewer usually operates with secondary facts. The review also contains factoid material and abstracts. The addressees addressed by the reviewer are the recipient, that is, the reader, listener and viewer, as well as the author of the work being evaluated or criticized. The immediate objectives of the review follow from this - they are educational and aesthetic. A characteristic feature of the review is the reviewer's position - modernity. When reviewing, therefore, retrospective problems can also be solved.
Types of reviews:
1) literary
2) scientific
3) theatrical
4) film review, etc.
Review or review - a genre that introduces the audience to certain events using analytical commentary. Otherwise, the review can be called a “panorama of events.”
Types of views:
1) internal - about life events within the country.
2) international - about international life; They are distinguished by time: daily, weekly, monthly, annual, also there are: informational, problem.
By topic:
1) political,
2) economic,
3) sports,
4) agricultural,
5) cultural, etc.
A special subtype of review is a review of the press and a review of letters.
Comment - this is a broad explanation of a fact, an interpretation of its incomprehensible or unspecified aspects. It is called upon not so much to sort out a complex texture, but also to fully publicly express one’s opinion in relation to an event, fact, phenomenon. Types of comment:
1) extended comment- a lengthy explanation of the fact.
2) specialist comment- the fact is commented on by a professional, more competent person.
3) polar comment- interpretation, clarification of the fact by various specialists competent in this field.
4) synchronous comment- explanation of the text by the journalist during the statement.
5) detailed comment- explanation of facts down to the smallest detail.
Journalistic investigation - a story about the process of finding answers to pressing questions, analyzing scandalous events, crime stories, when a journalist collects and analyzes facts independently from the relevant services and bodies or together with other specialists. Version - modeling one’s own judgment regarding the existing course of events or phenomena, an assumption based on their detailed study (sometimes supported by extraordinary arguments).
Over the past decade, analytical genres, along with information genres, have begun to occupy the main niche of journalistic speeches in the information space.
FICTION AND PUBLICIST GENRES OF JOURNALISM
Artistic and journalistic genres differ from others in that they contain artistry and journalisticism. Artistry is a figurative representation of reality, modeling a situation or events that actually happened or were invented. Journalism is expressed primarily in the presence of documentation, in the pathos and tendentiousness of the narrative, in the admissibility of only speculation, but not fiction.
A specific, documentary fact in these genres seems to fade into the background, giving way to the author’s impression of the fact, its assessment, and the author’s thoughts. Artistic and journalistic genres include: sketch, sketch, essay, political portrait. A documentary story can also be considered within this genre.
Essay is a short story about a real event, person or phenomenon. A journalistic essay differs from a literary essay in the reliability and targeting of facts. In journalism, the essay is the largest genre, while in literature it is the smallest.
Essays are divided into:
1) descriptive:
a) travel;
b) event-related.
2) plot:
a) portraits;
b) problematic.
Descriptive essays are distinguished mainly by the linearity of the narrative, the subordination of the chronology of the event, and the plot essays - by the formulation of the problem requiring solution, and the complexity of depicting life conflicts. The essay can be narrated in first, third, or plural person. The author of the essay may himself be a direct participant in the event, a hero; he can be “behind the scenes”, his narration can simply be a “background” against which events develop; the author may be an observer - the main "evaluator".
The essay uses two types of prose: communicative-classical and aesthetic. Logical presentation and adherence to classical language norms are inherent in communicative classical prose. Such prose is present mainly in the essays of V. Peskov. Aesthetic prose is distinguished by high emotionality of presentation and the presence of vivid descriptions in the text. This is the prose of Alimzhanov’s essays. The essay also uses three types of plots:
1. A simple plot - corresponding to the natural course of the event.
2. A spatio-temporal plot is when events can occur in the same space, but in different time dimensions.
Sketch - a small genre, it differs from an essay in that it lacks a plot. Types of sketches:
1) landscape.
2) associative - built on associations.
3) portrait - a portrait of a person, or location, phenomenon.
There is no problem in the sketch. This is basically a chain of pictures and associations. There are famous sketches about nature and animals by V. Peskov, which are published in every Friday issue of the Komsomolskaya Pravda newspaper.
Essay - a genre that is written in one breath; it contains a high emotional intensity, along with philosophical reflections.
Types of essays by topic:
1) political,
2) economic,
3) literary,
4) journalistic, etc.
Essays usually lack a plot. This is a kind of free “flow of information”. Essay topics are topical and relevant. The essay as a genre appeared in the Middle Ages. Stefan Zweig's essays are famous. Modern essays are distinguished by the severity of the problem and the rise of philosophical understanding.
Political portrait - genre in which it is mainly displayed psychological portrait, actions and image of real personalities. A political portrait differs from other genres in that it must contain equal amounts of journalism and artistry. The task of a journalist in writing this genre is to guess the real personality behind the image and give his true psychological characteristics, predict the possible actions of this personality in the future, predict the social significance and role of this personality in social development.
Artistic and journalistic genres in modern times have faded into the background, giving way to informational and analytical ones, since the latter have great efficiency and information has now acquired unprecedented relevance. Such a voluminous genre as the essay has completely disappeared from the pages of print.
SATIRICAL GENRES OF JOURNALISM
Satire - translated from Greek as “mixture”, is a criticism of reality with the aim of improving it, perfecting it. Satire appeared in ancient times, with the advent of the social system in human society, and is therefore considered a social phenomenon. Satirical genres of journalism differ from literary genres in the authenticity of the description and the targeting of facts.
Journalism theory researchers distinguish the following types of satirical genres: feuilleton, pamphlet, parody, epigram, fable, cartoon, caricature, anecdote. Satirical genres differ from other genres of journalism by criticism, satire, humor, and the use of techniques such as irony, sarcasm, grotesque, hyperbole and others.
Feuilleton - this is a voluminous satirical genre, a synthesis of three principles: journalistic (the fact is not only specific, topical, relevant, but also operational), satirical (the comic content of the fact is revealed, the assessment of which involves satirical analysis) and artistic (the creation of a satirical image, which is what distinguishes the feuilleton from a satirical note). The word feuilleton - translated from French means "leaf" - in 1800, on January 27, the magazine "De Paris" included a sheet of theater posters and small advertisements. The feuilleton genre got its name from this sheet, since later on such sheets satirical works were published, ridiculing the funny and absurd phenomena of life that impede normal development.
Types of feuilletons: feuilleton-article, feuilleton correspondence, feuilleton-essay, feuilleton-sketch; feuilleton in the style of business papers: feuilleton-complaint, feuilleton-statement; dramatic feuilletons: feuilleton-play, feuilleton-sketch, etc.
The main task of the feuilleton is to ridicule. But it doesn't have to make you laugh. In this case, the satirist seeks to arouse contempt for people of a certain moral category, in others - to arouse anger, hatred, and thirdly - to show the insignificance of the bearers of evil, the doom and worthlessness of their methods of action. One of the main conditions for the success of a feuilleton is the correct definition of the social essence of the facts under consideration, the correct position of the author.
Pamphlet - comes from the Greek "pan" - everything, "pflego" - burn, a work of accusatory nature, in which satirical beginning consists of sarcasm, pathos and angry expressiveness, and journalistic - topicality, efficiency, documentation and a large-scale object of exposure (large social phenomenon, government or public figures). A pamphlet is a rare event in literature and journalism. He traces his family tree back to Erasmus of Rotterdam (Letters of Dark People, 1515), Francois Rabelais (Gargantua and Pantagruel, 1534). Daniel Defoe for the pamphlet " Shortest path reprisals against dissertators" withstood pillory. "Philosophical Thoughts" by Denis Diderot were condemned to be burned. Currently, pamphlets have almost disappeared from the pages of publications.
Parody - genre-imitation. The purpose of parody is to exaggerate, to emphasize the features of the phenomenon being criticized, its content, and form. There are parodies of literary works, theatrical productions, films, and even songs, music, and everyday situations.
Epigram - translated from Greek as “inscription on a stone” - this is a satirical miniature, characterized by extreme brevity of characterization, volume of criticism, and ridicule. It targets a specific object, in other cases it is aimed at a negative phenomenon. Often an epigram is given as a text for a caricature.
Fable - satirical work of an edifying nature, the heroes of which are animals. A fable, as a literary and journalistic work, consists of three parts that have different styles and language features. The first part or beginning has a medium style that introduces the reader to the action. The second part is the main one - it describes the main actions of the heroes, the third contains edification, written in a high style. The fables of the ancient Greek fabulist Aesop have survived to this day and at present the problems raised in them are relevant. The French fabulist La Fontaine continued their traditions, which were later supported by the Russian fabulist I. A. Krylov.
Caricature - This is a grotesque image of a criticized phenomenon, event, person. Caricatures can be verbal or visual. For example, on Russian television the program “Dolls” can be classified as a caricature.
Cartoon - from the French word “gravity”, a critical image of a person, event, phenomenon. Caricature differs from caricature by an exaggerated, grotesque depiction of any part of the body or part of a phenomenon. There are friendly and satirical cartoons.
Joke - a small satirical work of an edifying nature, containing topical sharp criticism. The text of the joke is built on the principle of an “inverted pyramid” - the edification is at the very end, at the “top”.
§ 5. Genre systems. Canonization of genres
In each historical period, genres relate to each other differently. They, according to D.S. Likhachev, “they interact, support each other’s existence and at the same time compete with each other”; therefore, it is necessary to study not only individual genres and their history, but also “ system genres of each given era."
At the same time, genres are assessed in a certain way by the reading public, critics, creators of “poetics” and manifestos, writers and scientists. They are interpreted as worthy or, on the contrary, not worthy of the attention of artistically enlightened people; both high and low; as truly modern or outdated, exhausted; as main or marginal (peripheral). These assessments and interpretations create genre hierarchy, which change over time. Some of the genres, a kind of favorites, happy chosen ones, receive the highest possible assessment from some authoritative authorities - an assessment that becomes generally recognized or at least acquires literary and social weight. Genres of this kind, based on the terminology of the formal school, are called canonized.(Note that this word has a different meaning than the term “canonical,” which characterizes the genre structure.) According to V. B. Shklovsky, a certain part of the literary era “represents its canonized crest,” while its other links exist “dumbly,” on periphery, without becoming authoritative and without attracting attention. Canonized (again, following Shklovsky) is also called (see pp. 125–126, 135) that part of the literature of the past that is recognized as the best, pinnacle, exemplary, i.e., classic. The origins of this terminological tradition are the idea of sacred texts that have received official church sanction (canonized) as indisputably true.
The canonization of literary genres was carried out by normative poets from Aristotle and Horace to Boileau, Lomonosov and Sumarokov. Aristotle's treatise gave the highest status to tragedy and epic. The aesthetics of classicism also canonized “ high comedy”, sharply separating it from folk farcical comedy as a low and inferior genre.
The hierarchy of genres also took place in the minds of the so-called mass reader (see pp. 120–123). Thus, Russian peasants at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. gave unconditional preference to “divine books” and those works of secular literature that resonated with them. The lives of the saints (most often reaching the people in the form of books written illiterately, in “barbaric language”) were listened to and read “with reverence, with enthusiastic love, with wide-open eyes and with an equally wide-open soul.” Works of an entertaining nature, called “fairy tales,” were regarded as a low genre. They were very widespread, but they evoked a disdainful attitude and were awarded unflattering epithets (“fables”, “little tales”, “nonsense”, etc.).
The canonization of genres also takes place in the “upper” layer of literature. Thus, during the period of romanticism, marked by a radical restructuring of genres, a fragment, a fairy tale, and also a novel (in the spirit and manner of “Wilhelm Meister” by J.V. Goethe) were elevated to the pinnacle of literature. Literary life of the 19th century. (especially in Russia) is marked by the canonization of socio-psychological novels and stories prone to life-likeness, psychologism, and everyday authenticity. In the 20th century experiments were undertaken (to varying degrees successful) in the canonization of mystery drama (the concept of symbolism), parody (formal school), epic novel (aesthetics socialist realism 1930–1940s), as well as novels by F.M. Dostoevsky as polyphonic (1960–1970s); in Western European literary life- a “stream of consciousness” novel and absurdist dramaturgy with a tragicomic sound. The authority of the mythological principle in the composition of novel prose is now very high.
If in the era of normative aesthetics were canonized high genres, then in times close to us, those genre principles that were previously outside the framework of “strict” literature rise hierarchically. As noted by V.B. Shklovsky, there is a canonization of new themes and genres that had hitherto been secondary, marginal, and low: “Blok canonizes the themes and tempos of the “gypsy romance,” and Chekhov introduces “The Alarm Clock” into Russian literature. Dostoevsky raises to literary norm techniques of the pulp novel." At the same time, traditional high genres evoke an aloof critical attitude towards themselves and are thought of as exhausted. “What is curious about the change of genres is the constant displacement of high genres by low ones,” noted B.V. Tomashevsky, stating the process of “canonization of low genres” in literary modernity. According to the scientist, followers of high genres usually become epigones. M.M. spoke in the same spirit a little later. Bakhtin. Traditional high genres, according to him, are prone to “stilted heroization”; they are characterized by conventionality, “constant poetry,” “monotoneness and abstractness.”
In the 20th century, as can be seen, predominantly genres rise hierarchically new(or fundamentally updated) as opposed to those that were authoritative in the previous era. At the same time, the places of leaders are occupied by genre formations that have free, open structures: the subject of canonization, paradoxically, turns out to be non-canonical genres, preference is given to everything in literature that is not part of ready-made, established, stable forms.
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Russian classicism: personalities, poetics. Analysis of the work of one author of your choice.
Genre system of Russian classicism. Analysis of one work of your choice.
Classicism- a special type of figurative construction of art. models of the world, reflecting a specific concept of man and the world.
Any thin The method is characterized by general principles of art. selection and thin. generalizations, aesthetic assessment of reality and art. incarnations.
K (from Latin classicus - exemplary) in European literature took shape by the 17th century (Cornel, Moliere, Racine).
The classicists recognized ancient art as the highest example, ideal, and as the norm - works of antiquity (hence the reworking of plots).
The plots are based on principles of life imitation and rationalism. Hence the didactic guidelines of K. The cult of reason (for example, building a conflict: between feeling and duty, you need to choose duty), an appeal to the reader’s mind. The purpose of art was seen as a moral influence on the education of noble feelings. They achieved harmony of content and form, while thinning. the work was organized as an artificial whole, based on rigid logic. This was expressed in the fact that the authors followed strict logic and tried to transform life phenomena in such a way as to, avoiding nuances, identify and capture generic, essential features of reality and character. Therefore, the narrowness of K can be considered a straightforward depiction of characters, a depiction of the conflict not as internal, but as arising from the opposition of characters. Heroes, as a rule, are carriers of one trait: they are unipolar, devoid of contradictions (–> the ability to be called by speaking surnames). There is an idealization of heroes, an absolutization of ideas.
Classicists actively turn to civil social issues, trying to emphasize the objectivity of the narrative, striving for canonicity, simplicity and rigor. Classicists introduce strict structural rules. (in dramaturgy - trinity). Fonvizin's innovation: he managed to show the characters. In pure K there is no principle of determinism. K is the language of formulas.
In K there is a strict hierarchy of styles into high and low. In high places, social life and history are mastered; heroes, generals, monarchs act (epic poem, ode). In the low - daily life ordinary people (comedy, satire, fable). Satire is sometimes classified as a “middle” genre, as is didactic poetry. On the basis of Russian K, it is not entirely correct to say that mixing high and low is not allowed.
The appearance and development of K in Russia is associated with the 30s. 18th century Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov.
Features of Russian K:
active development of low genres associated with a satirical orientation;
predominance of national historical themes (tragedies of Sumarokov, Knyazhnin)
predominant development at the first stage of the ode genre.
RK declared itself in all literary births. Epic : epic poems (Kheraskov “Chesme Battle”, Trediakovsky “Feoktia”), fable - short story in poetry/prose with a directly formed moral (Kheraskov, Sumarokov, Dmitriev). Lyrics: ode (Lomonosov, Derzhavin), satire (accusatory genre) (Derzhavin “To Rulers and Judges”), epigram (Derzhavin). Dramaturgy: tragedies (Sumarokov “Dmitry the Pretender”, V. Knyazhnin), comedies (Fonvizin “Brigadier”, “Minor”)
The formation of the K artistic system in the West coincided with the era of the dominance of metaphysics. And it was the metaphysical way of thinking that determined the features of the artistic thinking of classic writers. The phenomena of nature and social life were depicted separately from each other, without connections, development and movement. This led to the division of “nature” (in a broad sense) in K into sublime and base phenomena, virtuous and vicious, tragic and funny. Hence the strict system of genres based on opposition: tragedy and comedy, ode and satire, poem and fable etc. Each genre was assigned a certain circle of phenomena from which it was impossible to escape: “high” and “low” were never combined in one work.
K gave preference to poetic genres over prose ones, because prose speech is practically oriented speech, in which much depends on the accidental, not foreseen by reason. Prose occupied a limited and subordinate place: considered a means of journalism and scientific speech, it, in fact, fell out of the literary series.
Classicists strove to create monumental works, with problems of great social resonance, to depict heroes who are effective, energetic and capable of resolving complex, tragic conflicts.
The genre division is hierarchical for one more reason. epic poem has the greatest value because turning to the distant past, the poet in this type of creativity could recreate the most abstract situations, which made it possible to give the fiction the most plausible form. In the epic form, compared to the tragedy, there is more opportunity to achieve the perfect ideal - the heroic character. Since the basis of an epic poem is, as a rule, a legendary truth, which has the most high degree poetic truth, then to achieve verisimilitude, only the internal consistency of the actions of the heroes and the events depicted is sufficient. Region tragedy - historical era, which has a lower degree of truth, because it may contain an unintentional, random event that violates the harmony of poetic fiction and the requirement of verisimilitude. That is why the truth of the tragedy turns out to be less solid than in the epic poem. Comedy turns out to be even lower ep. poems and tragedies, because it is even more difficult to achieve verisimilitude. The simple experience of the public, a good knowledge of modern mores, can reveal the unreasonableness of the plot of a comedy from the standpoint of plausibility.
The decisive place in the literary system of K was occupied by "high" and "low" genres. They set and solved the same tasks - the establishment of the ideal of a human citizen and patriot, but the methods of its establishment were different: in high genres - direct glorification of the ideal, in low genres - ridicule of unworthy people. "Medium" genres found themselves on the periphery of the literary system of Kazakhstan. Here it should be said about such genres as elegy, message, song. Addressed to the depiction of the inner world of an individual, entirely appealing to the imagination and individual experience, they did not occupy a leading position in the literature of the period of its heyday. But in the last third of the century, due to changes in the general situation in literature, interest in these genres is growing.
There are two periods in the development of Russian genre theory K. The first period, associated with the names of Lomonosov, Trediakovsky, Sumarokov, is the time of the creation of a clear and organized system of genres, taking into account both the achievements of French genre theory and the state of national Russian literature. The second period is associated with the activities of Derzhavin, Kheraskov, Lukin and Plavilshchikov. It was marked by the beginning of the destruction of strict genre-typological characteristics, the formation of genres born at the junction of traditional ones, which created the preconditions for entering another literary era.
Russian writers turned out to be faithful to the basic principle of K - to depict the events of distant eras, but, in contrast to European, in particular, French K, they turned mainly to domestic history. It is there that they find images of people whose activities were animated by love for the fatherland, concern for liberating it from its age-old enemies, and strengthening the power of the Russian state: Vadim Novgorod, Rurik, Svyatoslav, Vladimir Monomakh, Alexander Nevsky, Dimitri Donskoy, Peter I, etc.
The connections of Russian classic writers with the ancient Russian and oral poetic traditions were quite wide and varied. In line with the heroic tradition, the image of a positive hero was created, embodying the ideal of civic service to the Motherland. The basis for most Russian tragedies was chronicle material. Folk sources (songs) were used by Kheraskov when writing the heroic poem “Rossiada”. The influence of folk satire and Russian literature of the second half of the 17th century. affected such genres as poetic satire, comedy, and fable. Based on the combination of folk and book traditions, the famous reforms of Trediakovsky-Lomonosov's verse and Lomonosov's language were carried out. In low genres, writers widely used Russian proverbs and sayings.
The regulation of the genre system was carried out by A. P. Sumarokov(“Two epistles (The first is about the Russian language, and the second is about poetry)”, 1748). He relied on the traditions of Horace’s aesthetic message “To the Piso (On the Art of Poetry)” and N. Boileau’s didactic poem “Poetic Art”.
The genre system of literature seemed to Sumarokov to be clearly hierarchically organized: in theoretical aspect he put forward a general classicist position about the inadmissibility of mixing high and low styles, but in practice his own high and low genre models were in constant interaction.
Most of all, Sumarokov’s orientation towards national trends in literary development is noticeable in the composition of the genres that he characterizes in his epistles. So, for example, yourself high genre He devoted practically no space to European classicism - the epic poem - and briefly mentioned the very fact of the existence of a literary epic. The genres that in Russian literature have taken on the charge of satirical exposure and didactics are characterized in exceptional detail and fully - satire as such, the heroic-comic poem (a parody of the epic), fable and comedy, and the description of comedy itself is also very original. If Boileau, describing a comedy, fluently lists the comedic types of characters and focuses mainly on the plot, intrigue, witty and brilliant style, then Sumarokov’s entire description of the genre comes down to characterology: Russian comedy, which has yet to appear in literature, differs from Western European comedy precisely for this reason: French comedy is mainly a comedy of intrigue, Russian is a comedy of character.
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