Folklore element in traditional Russian icon painting. The concept of folklore, types and classification

27.04.2019

Bogatyreva Irina Sergeevna

writer, member of the Moscow Writers' Union and Pen Club, master's student at the Center for Typology and Semiotics of Folklore of the Russian State University for the Humanities

Annotation:

This article talks about the folklore elements present in modern Russian short stories, namely: fairy-tale motifs and architectonics in modern children's literature, motifs of urban legends, children's horror stories, fairy tales, etc., folk songs, mythology of different nations, which can be shown either from the outside or from the inside. The article provides examples of analysis of some novels by modern Russian authors, published in 2008-2015.

This article is a summary of a report given at the International Round Table "Modern Literature: Points of Intersection" at the Institute art education and culturologists of the Russian Academy of Education, and is an introduction to the topic, which in itself requires not only more detailed development, but also constant monitoring. For “modern literature” is a stream in which changes occur constantly, so that even those texts that were published in the previous decade are a reflection of processes other than those occurring now. Therefore, in my opinion, for a truly passionate researcher, the analysis of any processes in the current literature can never be completed and risks turning into constant monitoring and recording of certain changes. So this article does not claim any completeness or objectivity of the picture, but can be called a digest of those motifs and elements of folklore that appear in texts familiar to the author of this study from publications in recent years.

Of course, the enrichment of literature with folklore elements always occurs; there is nothing unusual or fundamentally new in this: in fact, literature largely grew out of folklore and does not interrupt this contact to this day. Borrowings can be direct or indirect, sometimes manifested in the form of quotes or captured only at the level of inspiring motives. The purposes for which authors turn to the folklore heritage are different, but the main one, as I see it, is the subconscious desire of writers to find support in material tested by time and confirmed by tradition. In addition, this simplifies the process of entering a new text and getting to know a new artistic world for the reader: seeing familiar characters, recognizing plots, even just intuitively anticipating genre laws, he overcomes the first threshold of acquaintance, which guarantees loyalty to the text in the future.

Therefore - and for a number of other reasons - modern authors like to draw inspiration from folklore, but, as I emphasized above, this in itself cannot be called a trend. In my opinion, something else deserves analysis: what exactly from folklore gets into literature (plots, characters, motive and typological composition, etc.), how these elements are introduced into the text, for what purpose and result, and is it possible to this captures something in common. It seems to me that here it is already possible to trace certain trends that characterize modern literature, and their own for different genres.

Of course, when we talk about folklore origins, children's literature and especially fairy tales come to mind first. This genre has been especially well studied in folklore, but it is also very popular in fiction to this day. However, if we try to conduct a cursory analysis of the texts written in this genre in recent years, we will unexpectedly discover that there is a direct coincidence with the folk tale in the modern literary fairy tale not so much. What can be considered the main, genre-forming beginning for a folk tale? First of all, it's functionality plot construction. As is known from the famous postulates of V. Propp, a folk tale is constructed in such a way that we are not interested in the characters as such with their characteristic features and individual traits, but what is much more important is what they do and how they behave. The composition of the characters and their roles in the classic folk tale is also well studied, as is the motive composition assigned to each of them. Moreover, if we think about it, we will find that in our perception it is the motive composition that turns into the characteristics of the character: nowhere in fairy tales will you find indications of what Koschey the Immortal looked like, whether he was evil or good, but we perceive him as negative character in accordance with the actions and role of the protagonist in relation to the main character. The formal structure of fairy tale narration has also been well studied: traditional speech beginnings, endings and medial formulas, rhythmic insertions and other elements that help the oral transmission, memorization and narration of the text.

Of course, a typical folk tale existed orally, and this explains all the listed features, and in addition, its extreme fixation on the plot: it is the plot that makes the fairy tale, firstly, interesting, and secondly, dynamic and easy to understand. Imagine for yourself: if you retell the content of a film, what will you focus on - on the psychological rationale for the actions of the characters or on the events that took place on the screen? A fairy tale is also a kind of retelling of events: it was its extreme effectiveness that provided the genre long life, while the psychology of the characters, as well as the ornate language of the narrative, always remained on the conscience of the narrator, more or less talented in his field.

However, if you read a sufficient number of modern literary fairy tales, it is easy to notice the following trend: the plot as the basis is not prevalent, it is replaced by descriptions, the invention of unusual characters or worlds, as well as the psychology and rationale for the behavior of the heroes. In fact, modern fairy tale is just as difficult to retell as a text of any other genre, regardless of the age of the reader it is intended for. We can say that it is drifting towards psychological prose, and this is the main thing that distinguishes a modern literary fairy tale from a folklore one. Strange as it may seem, the functionality of the plot - this basis of the fairy tale as such - is almost never included in the modern literary fairy tale. However, all the external, formal markers of the genre are borrowed with pleasure: typical characters (the same Koschey the Immortal, Baba Yaga, Ivan Tsarevich, etc.), verbal formulas, the fairy-tale setting itself and stylistics. In addition, cases are not uncommon when the author, vaguely understanding that different folklore material different nature, and therefore a different sphere of existence, adds to the fairy tale characters of such genres that in tradition under no circumstances could be found within the framework of one text: for example, goblins, pagan gods, otherworldly creatures of other nationalities... Needless to say, that the result in such cases is more than doubtful.

While preparing for this report, I realized that finding an example of a good literary fairy tale is very difficult. And yet, as an illustration, I can cite A. Oleinikov’s text “The History of the Knight Eltart, or Tales of the Blue Forest” (2015). In itself, the material on which the narrative is built cannot be called traditional: the characters in this tale are either fictional or taken from various European mythological traditions. The same applies to the artistic world of the text in general. However, a good knowledge of folklore laws allows the author to create an original, but tightly stitched text: there are bright characters with their own motive composition, whose actions are determined by plot necessity, and not psychologism, and a well-thought-out functional plot (the grief that befalls the hero at the very beginning requires resolution and becomes the driving motive of his journey), along the way he is accompanied by both assistants and antagonists - in a word, a classic set of roles. All this brings the text closer to folklore prototypes.

However, not only children's literature is enriched with folklore elements. And not only fairy tales become their sources. Other genres of folklore that are gaining popularity in our time, feeding literature, are fables, children's horror stories, urban legends - all those texts whose pragmatics can be defined as the deliberate creation of emotional tension, the desire to scare the listener (reader), as well as convey information about the characters to the actual mythology - brownies, goblins, mermaids, drummers, UFOs, etc., their habits, contacts with people and ways of communicating with them. If we talk about the elements that come from these texts into literature, it is, first of all, the named pragmatic feature - fear, emotional tension with different goals and different ways of resolution. The rest - the characters of current mythology themselves, motives, plots, etc. - also passes into literature, but not so often, and most importantly, not always with the same functions.

As can be seen from a quick review of borrowed elements, in in this case authors have a lot of freedom: while taking some elements, they can ignore others, and still let the reader understand with what folklore sources he's dealing. It is also not difficult to guess what genres of literature we are talking about: first of all, it is science fiction, fantasy, horror... At first glance, it seems that this material itself dictates strict genre laws to the authors who turn to it, however, how will it become as can be seen below, when skillfully working with it, authors can move away from rigid genre forms (so-called formulaic literature) and feel artistically liberated. Thus, these elements fall into texts that are transitional between commercial and non-commercial genres. So, for example, M. Galina feels very free in the novel “Autochthons” (2015), saturating her text with urban legends of a certain real Ukrainian city, sometimes with a very specific geographical reference (or stylizing the text to resemble similar oral examples), updating characters of European mythology, creating the necessary emotional environment - mystical, intense, mysterious - and at the same time, without falling into a rigid genre form. On the other hand, N. Izmailov writes a duology (positioned as novels for teenagers) “Ubyr” (2013) and “Nobody Dies” (2015) in a genre very close to classic horror, filling the text with national flavor not only due to language, but also due to current Tatar mythology and the very construction of the plot, close to a fairy tale in V. Propp’s interpretation as the story of the initiation rite of adolescents. As we can see, this folklore material gives the authors wide artistic opportunities.

A rare folk genre that finds its way into fiction is the folk song. Actually, I know of only one example of working with this material not as a source for quoting, but as a source of borrowing, but it is so vivid that it deserves special mention: this is A. Ivanov’s novel “Bad Weather” (2016). The author, who is no stranger to either formulaic narratives or folklore in general, in this novel found a non-trivial way to create something recognizable to the Russian reader. artistic reality: the entire text - both the body of the main characters, and the plot, and even the chronotope - is compiled based on Russian folk songs of various genres (ballads, romances, historical, lyrical, bandit, etc. songs), on their motivic composition and imagery. I will not delve into the analysis of the novel from this point of view; my separate article is devoted to it; I just want to say that such work with folklore material, even if it was not done intentionally by the author, but was the result of his attempt to find something archetypal in the Russian character, achieved the goal: the world of the novel is recognizable, and the necessary emotional relationship is immediately established towards the characters.

Finally, the most extensive - and perhaps the most non-literary genre of folklore that penetrates modern literature is mythology. Why, in fact, unliterary? Because mythology itself is based not only and not so much on texts. In culture, it can also be manifested non-verbally, in the form of patterns on clothing, everyday behavior, cultural codes; beliefs and mythological ideas may not be formalized textually, but represent a baggage of general knowledge available to representatives of a particular culture. Therefore, an author who draws inspiration from this or that mythology can act in two ways: on the one hand, to recreate with the help of artistic means the tradition, social structure and general worldview of people, knowing their mythology; on the other hand, to recreate mythology based on cultural material. In addition, such basic phenomena as worldview or social structure may not necessarily become the subject of interest of modern authors. Sometimes individual mythological elements appear in the text in the form of constructs, images, basic ideas or systems; they do not form the basis of the text, but represent an important artistic detail, symbol, allusion, etc., opening a dialogue with other texts and expanding the boundaries text as such.

Such cases are not rare; many are probably familiar with them. As an example of such work with mythological material in a purely realistic (with historical references) text, I would like to name L. Yuzefovich’s novel “Cranes and Dwarfs” (2008). Two typical mythological motifs can be found in it. The first is duality and the associated motive of imposture, known from world folklore in different genres, from fairy tales to byliches (if an impostor is called a devil posing as a person). The second, a little less obvious, but which became the basis of the artistic series of the novel, is the image of the trickster, basic for world folklore and mythology of different nations, his behavior, which unbalances other characters, his life itself with risks, adventures, contact with another world so much so that even death eventually becomes inaccessible to him. Thus, main character novel, Zhokhov, continues the line of other literary tricksters, from Till Eulenspiegel to Ostap Bender.

If we turn to mythology itself and texts written based on this material, we will find that the author’s gaze can be directed at it in two ways: placed inside the tradition, and also located outside, outside the described world. A significant difference will be in the light in which this or that mythology and the culture generated by it will appear: as one’s own, understandable and attractive, or alien, unpleasant and repulsive. This difference in approaches is known from anthropological research, in which initially there are two tendencies in describing cultures: with attempts to understand it or with comparison with a known one, i.e. own (in this case, the foreign culture always loses).

This “look from the outside” is translated into literature when the author wants to create an image of a “backward” people. Even if the text is not biased, the “look from the outside” will not add the reader’s understanding and empathy to the characters. As an example, we can recall the already mentioned A. Ivanov with his early novels “The Heart of Parma” (2003) and “The Gold of Rebellion” (2005), where traditional Ural cultures are presented from the point of view of an outside observer, and only their external ones are shown elements and attributes of the sacred - shamanic rituals, ritualized behavior, fetish figures, etc., which does not bring the reader closer to understanding these cultures and does not create an idea of their mythology.

Another option, “a view from the inside,” allows the author to show the mythology of a particular people in its entirety, even with a minimum of knowledge about its external manifestations, rituals and the system of relationships within society. The technique of immersion itself allows the author to enter himself and let the reader into the world of people whose culture is distant and incomprehensible, but thanks to this approach does not require translation - it becomes intuitively accessible. Among the texts where such a threshold of immersion in alien mythology was passed, I can name A. Grigorenko’s novel “Mabet” (2011), based on Nenets mythology, as well as my novel “Kadyn” (2015) about the Scythians of Altai. Both texts are written on different materials: ethnographic and archaeological, therefore the degree of artistic permission in them is different. However, both of them are written with immersion in a foreign culture and allow you not only to learn about the way of life, life and social structure of society, but most importantly - to penetrate into their mythological representation, to feel a different way of thinking, different from the thinking of a modern urban person, and to understand that in people’s lives could become the basis for certain mythological motives, and vice versa - gave rise to behavioral patterns based on mythological ideas.

Of course, the presented analysis is quite cursory and does not pretend to cover the situation completely - this requires more extensive work. However, I hope that I was able to show trends in modern literature that are obvious to me not only as a folklorist, but also as a professional reader, and the article will help everyone who wants to adjust their reading optics in a new way and more clearly distinguish elements of folklore in modern Russian literature.

1. V. Propp. Morphology of a fairy tale. M., 1969

2. V. Propp. Historical roots fairy tale. L., 1986.

3. J. Cavelti. "Adventure, mystery and love story: Formulaic Narratives as Art and Popular Culture", 1976.

4. I. Bogatyreva. "Folklore motifs as constructs of recognizable reality." – “October”, 2017, 4.

5. A. Oleinikov. "The Story of the Knight Eltart, or Tales of the Blue Forest." M., 2015

6. M. Galina “Autochthons”. M., 2015

7. N. Izmailov. "Ubyr." St. Petersburg, 2013

8. N. Izmailov. "No one will die." St. Petersburg, 2015

9. A. Ivanov. "Bad weather". M., 2016

10. L. Yuzefovich. "Cranes and dwarfs." M., 2008

11. A. Ivanov. "The Heart of Parma" M., 2003

12. A. Ivanov. "Gold of Rebellion" M., 2005

13. A. Grigorenko. "Mabeth." M., 2011

14. I. Bogatyreva. "Kadyn". M., 2015

Nekrasov’s poem is a treasure trove of folk wisdom.
The first lines of the “Prologue” resemble a fairy-tale beginning. The beginning is the traditional beginning of a fairy tale: In what year - count...
Almost all the characters are named by name, but surnames are not indicated: Roman, Demyan, Luka,
Ivan and Mitrodor, Pakhom, Prov.
Folklore flavor is enhanced by sacred numbers: 7.
on the sidewalk
Seven men came together:
Seven temporarily obliged...

Seven eagle owls flew together,
Admiring the carnage
From seven big trees,

The plot seems fabulous when Pakhom picks up a chick and talks with it, and then with a warbler, who, as a ransom for the chick, gives a self-assembled tablecloth, a secret place with a “magic box”:
It contains a self-assembled tablecloth,
Whenever you wish,
He will feed you and give you something to drink!
Just say quietly:
"Hey! self-assembled tablecloth!
Treat the men! “
According to your wishes,
At my command
conventional form of address to the tablecloth
“Look, mind you, one thing!
How much food can he bear?
Womb - then ask,
And you can ask for vodka
Exactly a bucket a day.
If you ask more,
And once and twice - it will come true
At your request,
And the third time there will be trouble! »
- the basis of many Russians folk tales
This sparkling stream of words captivates and captivates... The secret of the eternal strength and youth of Nekrasov’s muse lies in introducing her to the inexhaustible source of Russian folk poetry. And could Nekrasov have written a book differently, in his words “useful, understandable to the people and truthful”? A lively, sweeping folk word, apt and witty, “which you can’t come up with even if you swallow a pen,” is the basis of all Nekrasov’s poetry.
In addition to fairy tale motifs, in the “Prologue” great amount signs, sayings, riddles that not only reflect the intelligence, beauty, and wisdom of the speech of the Russian people, but also give the poem extreme folklore richness. Proverbs. “A man, what a bull...” The proverb characterizes the character quality of a simple man, his stubbornness, perseverance, and perseverance. In modern speech, stubborn as a bull. “The bird is small, but its claw is long” - (“Small, but distant”), etc.
Riddles - only you, black shadows,
You can't catch - hug! -shadows
Without a body - but it lives,
Without a tongue - screams! -echo
Belief is a belief that comes from antiquity and lives among the people, belief in a sign. A sign is a phenomenon, an incident, which among the people is a harbinger of something.
“Well, the goblin played a nice joke on us.”
Nowadays you can hear the following expressions: the devil has confused you, go to the devil (go away), what devil? (expression of annoyance), the devil knows him (who knows) - they are all used in a colloquial style.
“Cuckoo, cuckoo, cuckoo!
The bread will begin to spike,
You'll choke on an ear of corn -
You won't cuckoo. »

Komarova A.

ON LITERATURE

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Introduction.

The better we know the past, the easier it will be
the more deeply and joyfully
let's understand the great meaning
the present we create.
A. M. Gorky

“Tell me how the people lived, and I will tell you how they wrote” - these wonderful words of the great Russian scientist academician L.N. Veslovsky can also be attributed to oral creativity: as the people lived, so they sang and told stories. Therefore, folklore reveals folk philosophy, ethics and aesthetics. M. Gorky could say with full good humor that “ true story you cannot know the working people without knowing oral folk art.” The song serves as a source for studying the history, life and customs of the people, their spiritual make-up and character. The texts of songs from each era contain regional, historical, cultural, everyday, spiritual, value, and political information. The song reflects the lexical-semantic, morphological, word-formation and syntactic features of language development.

Everyone knows the captivating power of Russian folk songs. They have the ability not only to penetrate deeply into the soul, but also to evoke empathy.

This wonderful genre of folklore has become an integral part of our lives; it has confirmed its right to exist, having passed the long test of time. Sociocultural changes taking place in Russia in last decades, have a significant impact on speech and language processes and cannot but affect the song creativity of domestic authors, since song is one of the most dynamic genres of mass culture.

Topic: folklore elements in modern art songs.

Relevance of the topic: Russian art song as a phenomenon that combines poetry, music and performance, and as a unique social movement of the Russian intelligentsia, belongs primarily to the world of folk culture.

Purpose of the study: to identify folk elements in modern art songs.

Object of study - modern art song.

Subject of study– text of a modern art song.

The practical significance of the work lies in the fact that this research can be used in further study of the phenomenon of the author's song, in the practice of school and university teaching of folklore and other disciplines studying ethnicity and folk culture.

In accordance with the purpose and hypothesis of the study, the following tasks were set:

Analyze the poetics of the texts of Russian folk songs;

Establish the degree of influence of folklore on modern art song.

Research materialThe texts of popular art songs from the last 20 years and Russian folk songs were used. The main criteria for selecting material were the presence of song lyrics in modern collections and periodicals of the last 20 years, repeated playing of songs in music radio and television programs, publication of song texts on Internet sites.

Material selection made subject to certain restrictions. The objects of study were not: 1) songs, the verbal part of which represents exemplary texts of classical and modern literature (songs based on poems by S. Yesenin, M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, E. Evtushenko, A. Voznesensky, B. Akhmadullina and other poets ); 2) “secondary works”, i.e. songs written and performed earlier and now presented in a new musical arrangement, in a new performance; 3) texts of thieves, half-thieves, and yard songs; 4) lyrics of songs of modern informal groups containing profanity.

Main part.

Poetics of the texts of Russian folk songs.

Fairy tales, songs, epics, street performances - all these are different genres of folklore, folk oral and poetic creativity. You can’t confuse them, they differ in their specific characteristics, their role in people’s life is different, they live differently in modern times. No people in Europe have such a wealth of songs and tunes, beautiful and original, as the Russian people. As far back as the 18th century, we have evidence of how our songs surprised foreign musicians with their freshness and musical beauty. For example, composer Paisiello, having heard Russian songs, could not believe “that they were a random creation ordinary people, but believed them to be the work of skilled musical composers"

Folk song- a musical and poetic work, the most common type of vocal folk music. Folk song is one of the oldest forms of musical and verbal creativity. In some ancient and partly modern types of folk music, it exists in unity with dance, playing, instrumental music, verbal and visual folklore. Its isolation is the result of the long historical development of folklore.

The famous expert and collector of Russian songs P. V. Shein divided his multi-volume collection of Great Russian songs (up to 3 thousand) into two main categories, on two sides of the life of a peasant - personal and public: a) songs reflecting the main moments of a person’s life - birth , marriage, death - but within one’s family, one’s own volost, and b) songs that express the transition to social, state life. Lopatin, excluding epics from them, divides all Russian songs into two categories: 1) lyrical songs, including most historical songs, and 2) ritual songs - weddings, round dances and games. This classification holds up less to criticism because the lyrical and personal element is to a certain extent inherent in ritual songs.

Folk song is distinguished by a wealth of genres, different in origin, character and function in folk life. An essential feature of most traditional genres is the direct connection of folk songs with everyday life and work activities (for example, labor songs accompanying different kinds labor - barge hauling, mowing, weeding, reaping, threshing and others, rituals accompanying agricultural and family rites and celebrations - carols, Maslenitsa, vesnyanka, Kupala, wedding, funeral, game calendar, etc.). Historical folk songs are valuable because they reflect real events of past years. Passed from generation to generation without significant changes, they preserved their plots and characters, forms and means of expression for many centuries.

The themes of historical songs are varied and multifaceted: wars, campaigns, popular uprisings, incidents from the lives of kings, statesmen, and riot leaders. From them one can judge the people’s attitude to what is happening, their priorities and moral values.

Dance folk songs are inseparable from various folk dances. Lyrical songs received the greatest musical development in the folklore of all nations. They are sung solo, ensemble, choir. It was in this genre that the highest forms of polyphony, complex melodic and musical-poetic compositional structures appeared. The diversity of the content of lyrical folk songs is primarily due to the diversity of social groups that create and perform them (farmers, artisans, workers and others). Each social group society has its own song lyrics.

In folk songs, the strophic and verse form predominates, often with a compositionally distinguished chorus. The poetic stanzas (verses) of each folk song, which differ in content, usually correspond to one tune, which varies with repeated repetition (throughout the entire song).

“WE SOWED MILLET”

And we hired the land, hired it.

Oh did-lado hired, hired.

And we sowed millet, sowed,

Oh dil-lado, they sowed, they sowed.

And we will trample down the millet, trample it down.

Oh dil-lado, let's trample, trample.

What should you use to trample, trample?

Oh dil-lado, trample, trample?

And we are her horses, horses,

Oh dil-lado, horses, horses,

And we will take the horses captive, we will take them captive,

Oh dil-lado, we’ll take you prisoner, we’ll take you prisoner.

1. Genre – work, round dance, dance.

3. Verse form: strophic with repetition of one of the syllabic groups.

And we millet / sowed, sowed.

Oh, dil-ladoo, / sowed, sowed.

4. The key of the song is G major.

5. Rhythm – smooth, with a chant of each syllable.

6. A tune consists of a musical phrase repeated many times. Each syllable in the song is sung, this gives it a playful, dance-like character.

Features of the author's song.

The author's song is a multifaceted, living, constantly evolving phenomenon. In the beginning, original songs were not called that way. It was called amateur until such famous literary artists as B. Okudzhava, V. Vysotsky, A. Galich, N. Matveeva - true professionals - became involved in the process of understanding their role in culture.

The author's (bardic) song is an original cultural phenomenon of our country. Its origins lie in oral folk art. The author's song is modern folklore, a mirror of the life of Russia at different historical stages. Author's song- modern genre oral poetry (“singing poetry”), formed at the turn of the 50s - 60s. in the informal culture of students and young intellectuals. In itself, “sung poetry” - oldest species creativity, known to the cultures of almost all nations, and it is no coincidence that representatives of art song are often called “bards”, compared with ancient Greek lyricists, Russian guslars, Ukrainian kobzars, etc., based primarily on the fact that the modern “bard”, like the ancient poet, he usually sings his poems himself to his own accompaniment on a string instrument (most often a guitar). However, these are still external, and, moreover, not always obligatory, signs of the genre. The term “author’s song” was introduced (according to legend, by V.S. Vysotsky) in order to emphasize its personal character, in order to separate it, on the one hand, from the songs supplied by the professional stage, and on the other, from the urban folklore that gave birth to it and unpretentious “homemade” songs, composed, on occasion, for “your company”, “your institute”, and of little interest to anyone outside this narrow circle.The soil on which the author's song grew is, first of all, our Russian folklore: a ditty, laconic, metaphorical, witty; urban romance, soldiers' songs.

Author's song as part modern folklore in our country developed rapidly during the Khrushchev “thaw”. But against the backdrop of the general confusion, young people noticed and picked up the first songs of Yuri Vizbor, Ada Yakusheva, Mikhail Ancharov, Alexander Gorodnitsky, Yuli Kim...

With the traditional transmission of an author's song in oral form, an important feature characteristic of oral colloquial speech, – the ability of a person, within one text, to manifest himself as a subject of speech, action, to realize evaluative and emotional plans, which psychologically enriches the text. However, the absence of important components characteristic of oral conversational speech - unpreparedness, spontaneity, dependence on the situation - does not allow us to identify it with an original song. Consequently, these texts are at the junction of oral (in form) and book (in content) speech.

The personal element permeates the author's song and determines everything in it - from the content to the manner of presentation, from the stage appearance of the author to the character lyrical hero. And in this sense, modern “sung poetry” is a deeply intimate, even confessional art. The level of trust and openness here significantly exceeds the norms acceptable in professional creativity.

It goes without saying that such a song, unlike mass pop production, is not addressed to everyone. It is addressed only to those whom the author trusts, who are in tune with him, are ready to share his thoughts and feelings, or, at least, are mentally disposed towards him. Therefore, the audience, its composition, its mood, even its size are an important component of the art song genre.

Musically, the author's song was based on that layer of common, easily recognizable and beloved intonations that existed in her environment and was formed from a wide variety of sources. Among them are everyday romance, student and courtyard folklore (including the criminal song), folk song, popular dance music, songs of Soviet composers, etc. Wartime lyrics played a special role in preparing the intonation ground for the author’s song.
The favorite heroes of their songs are climbers, geologists, sailors, pilots, soldiers, athletes, circus performers, troubled “kings” of city yards and their girlfriends - people are not just courageous and risky, but, above all, individuals.
Several stages can be distinguished in the development of an author's song. The first, the undisputed leader of which was the singer of the “Children of Arbat” B. Okudzhava, lasted until approximately the mid-60s. and was colored with genuine romanticism, in tune not only with the age of the audience, but also with the prevailing mood in society. Its content has not yet bothered the authorities, and they paid almost no attention to it, considering it a harmless manifestation of amateur creativity, an element of intellectual life. Nostalgia for the past, the bitterness of losses and betrayals, the desire to preserve oneself, one’s ideals, and a thinning circle of friends sounded more and more clearly in her. This lyrical-romantic line was continued in the works of S. Nikitin, A. Rosenbaum, V. Dolina, A. Dolsky, bard rockers (A. Makarevich, B. Grebenshchikov) and many others, but it did not determine the face of the author's song of her period heyday And if at the previous stage the leading role was played by the “song of wanderings,” then here the “song of protest” became such, the undisputed leader of which was V.S. Vysotsky, behind whom can be seen figures of varying importance: A. Galich, Y. Aleshkovsky, A. Bashlachev, V. Tsoi, Y. Shevchuk, K. Kinchev and many others. The aesthetics of a “protest song” - a protest against the absurdity of “Soviet” existence, against this sick society itself.

In the work of V. Vysotsky, the author's song has reached a level that remains the standard today. Since the mid-80s, after a short surge of general interest in the original song as everything that had recently been prohibited, its development has moved into a calm, now legal, professional direction. The number of “singing poets” and their performing skills are growing, the number of their organizations, concerts, and festivals is multiplying, numerous collections, cassettes and CDs are being published, but nothing fundamentally new is happening creatively. Both “veterans” and younger “bards”, among whom A. Sukhanov, K. Tarasov, G. Khomchik, L. Sergeev, duets of A. Ivashchenko and G. Vasiliev, Vadim and Valeria Mishukov, etc., gained popularity, exploit in their work, they once found techniques, increasingly turning into ordinary pop performers. The creative crisis of the author's song has become a fait accompli today.

The influence of folklore on modern art song

The author's song is an independent direction in art, which arose at the junction of two of its movements: folklore and the song direction of modern pop. Distinctive features author's song as a genre: a) a special trusting attitude towards the listener, b) personal coloring of the songs, c) the presence of social and civic motives. Folk poetic traditions are very strong in the original song.

In this work, we tried to analyze the songs of A. Rosenbaum and I. Talkov, from the point of view of the use of folk poetic means.

Creativity of A. Rosembaum

Rosenbaum actively invades life with his creativity, acting boldly, talentedly, and brightly. He helps people. He strives to educate them, appeals to their hearts, to the best that no system can kill. As an interpreter, he can be said to create an image of a song that penetrates the soul - and in this he is Vysotsky’s associate and heir.

The very names of the songs speak for themselves: “Kuban Cossack”, “Shackled”, “Oh, Dudari, Dudari” (“Scene at the Fair”), “On the Don, on the Don” and others. It should be noted

The girl went crazy and went into the chest:

He's dragging a white dress - maybe suddenly?

If we don't wash, we'll ride

She'll be lucky with the soldier.

Maybe he's wooing

Dear friend…

Elements corresponding to folk poetry:

1) doubled words (these elements are characteristic of skaz):

Far, far away, they go and go, they run and run;

2) connected words:

She screamed and began to fight, with fences and tines, mockingbirds, ladies and nobles;

3) epithets:

Black thought, good horses, daring riders, evil sadness, mind-mind, path-path, dog-soldier, girls-maidens.

However, the opposite is often observedword order (inversion), for example, the song “0y, dudari, dudari” full It was built using folk elements:

Oh dudari, dudari, lapotniks, guslars.

Mockingbirds!

Blessed heads, ring the Tsar Bell,

Have fun, ladies and gentlemen!...

4) The use of the conjunction “yes” in the meaning of “and” is typical:

Rus' is baggy, barefoot,

With towers and forts.

And in the steppe there is freedom...

5) Using magic numbers:

- “thirty-three fulfilled wishes”, “far away lands”;

6) use of folk signs. For example, in the same song “Oh, dudari, dudari” there are a number of signs indicating that there is trouble:

...If you don’t give birth in winter, they will take you away.

The turtledove screamed and started screaming

Yes, the horseshoe fell in the upper room.

An owl flew into a clearing and sat down,

Voronoi crashed down from the cliff.

3.2. Creativity of I. Talkov.

Igor Talkoy occupies a special place among representatives of the art song, because. he is the author of social, journalistic, civil songs that are distinguished by their genre diversity; These are songs-screams, songs-protests, songs-confession, songs-ballads.

It should be noteda large number of elements characteristic of colloquial speech:

I don't dare to prophesy
But I know for sure that I will return
Even after a hundred centuries
To a country not of fools, but of geniuses

In paragraph 1 of the work, we noted that historical folk songs reflected real events of past years. I. Talkov reacted very sharply to the events taking place in Russia and reflected this in his work (“Mr. President” (1991), related to the political realities of August 1991, “I’ll be back”, etc.).

3)Use of epithets, metaphors,comparisons and especially repetitions:

The memory no longer stings,
Thoughts don't hit hands
I'll see you off
To other shores.
You are a migratory bird,
You look for happiness on the way,
You come to say goodbye
And leave again.

Summer rain, summer rain
Started early today.

Conclusion.

Folk song is distinguished by a wealth of genres, different in origin, character and function in folk life.
The author's song, being a sociocultural phenomenon of the 50s -70s of the XX century, expressed ideas and images that were different from the official culture of the “Khrushchev era”. This movement of youth and urban intelligentsia was characterized by individual self-expression, freedom of speech
A modern art song combines elements of folklore.
Widespread use of traditional folklore folk poetic artistic and visual means in modern art song

1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………3

2. Poetics of the texts of Russian folk songs…………………………6

4. The influence of folklore on modern art song………..13

5. Conclusion………………………………………………………17

6. Literature……………………………………………………….18

MBOU secondary school in the village of Bolshoye Popovo

RESEARCH WORK

ON LITERATURE

“FOLK ELEMENTS IN A MODERN AUTHOR’S SONG”

Prepared

7th grade student

Komarova A.

Supervisor:

teacher of Russian language and literature

Konstantinova G.S.

2012

Literature

Literary encyclopedic dictionary. - M., Soviet encyclopedia, 1987..
N.I. Kravtsov. Poetics of Russian folk lyrical songs. - M., 1974.
S.G. Lazutin. Russian folk lyrical songs, ditties and proverbs. - M., 1990.
T.V. Popova. About the songs of our days. - M., 1969.
Anthology of original songs. // Russian speech. - No. 1-12. – 1990.

Internet resources:

1. grushin. samara. ru - all about the Grushinsky Art Song Festival

2. www. bards. ru - all about bards, biographies, lyrics, audio recordings.

3. lib. ru/KSP/ - lyrics with chords, audio recordings

6. bardz. by. ru – all about bards, biographies, lyrics, audio recordings.

7. http://www. bardic. ru/ - history, biographies, PCB and much more

8. www. mityaev. ru – Oleg Mityaev’s website.

Bogatyreva Irina Sergeevna

writer, member of the Moscow Writers' Union and Pen Club, master's student at the Center for Typology and Semiotics of Folklore of the Russian State University for the Humanities

This article is a summary of a report read at the International Round Table “Modern Literature: Points of Intersection” at the Institute of Art Education and Cultural Studies of the Russian Academy of Education, and is an introduction to a topic that in itself requires not only more detailed development, but also constant monitoring . For “modern literature” is a stream in which changes occur constantly, so that even those texts that were published in the previous decade are a reflection of processes other than those occurring now. Therefore, in my opinion, for a truly passionate researcher, the analysis of any processes in the current literature can never be completed and risks turning into constant monitoring and recording of certain changes. So this article does not claim any completeness or objectivity of the picture, but can be called a digest of those motifs and elements of folklore that appear in texts familiar to the author of this study from publications in recent years.

Of course, when we talk about folklore origins, children's literature and especially fairy tales come to mind first. This genre has been especially well studied in folklore, but it is also very popular in fiction to this day. However, if we try to conduct a quick analysis of the texts written in this genre in recent years, we will unexpectedly discover that there are not many direct matches with the folk tale in the modern literary fairy tale. What can be considered the main, genre-forming beginning for a folk tale? First of all, this is the functionality of the plot structure. As is known from the famous postulates of V. Propp, a folk tale is constructed in such a way that the characters as such with their characteristic features and individual traits are not important to us, but what they do and how they behave is much more important. The composition of the characters and their roles in the classic folk tale is also well studied, as is the motive composition assigned to each of them. Moreover, if we think about it, we will find that in our perception it is the motive composition that turns into the characteristics of the character: nowhere in fairy tales will you find indications of what Koschey the Immortal looked like, whether he was evil or good, but we perceive him as a negative character in in accordance with the actions and role of the protagonist in relation to the main character. The formal structure of fairy tale narration has also been well studied: traditional speech beginnings, endings and medial formulas, rhythmic insertions and other elements that help the oral transmission, memorization and narration of the text.

Of course, a typical folk tale existed orally, and this explains all the listed features, and in addition, its extreme fixation on the plot: it is the plot that makes the fairy tale, firstly, interesting, and secondly, dynamic and easy to understand. Imagine for yourself: if you retell the content of a film, what will you focus on - on the psychological rationale for the actions of the characters or on the events that took place on the screen? A fairy tale is also a kind of retelling of events: it was its extreme effectiveness that ensured the genre a long life, while the psychology of the characters, as well as the ornate language of the narrative, always remained on the conscience of the storyteller, more or less talented in his field.

However, if you read a sufficient number of modern literary fairy tales, it is easy to notice the following trend: the plot as the basis is not prevalent, it is replaced by descriptions, the invention of unusual characters or worlds, as well as the psychology and rationale for the behavior of the heroes. In fact, a modern fairy tale is as difficult to retell as a text of any other genre, regardless of the age of the reader it is intended for. We can say that it is drifting towards psychological prose, and this is the main thing that distinguishes a modern literary fairy tale from a folklore one. Strange as it may seem, the functionality of the plot - this basis of the fairy tale as such - is almost never included in the modern literary fairy tale. However, all the external, formal markers of the genre are borrowed with pleasure: typical characters (the same Koschey the Immortal, Baba Yaga, Ivan Tsarevich, etc.), verbal formulas, the fairy-tale setting itself and stylistics. In addition, it is not uncommon for an author, vaguely understanding that different folklore material has a different nature, and therefore a different sphere of existence, to add characters of such genres to a fairy tale that in tradition under no circumstances could be found within the same genre. text: for example, goblins, pagan gods, otherworldly creatures of other nationalities... Needless to say, the result in such cases is more than dubious.

As can be seen from a quick review of the borrowed elements, in this case the authors have great freedom: taking some elements, they can ignore others, and still let the reader understand what folklore sources he is dealing with. It is also not difficult to guess what genres of literature we are talking about: first of all, it is science fiction, fantasy, horror... At first glance, it seems that this material itself dictates strict genre laws to the authors who turn to it, however, how will it become as can be seen below, when skillfully working with it, authors can move away from rigid genre forms (so-called formulaic literature) and feel artistically liberated. Thus, these elements fall into texts that are transitional between commercial and non-commercial genres. So, for example, M. Galina feels very free in the novel “Autochthons” (2015), saturating her text with urban legends of a certain real Ukrainian city, sometimes with a very specific geographical reference (or stylizing the text to resemble similar oral examples), updating characters of European mythology, creating the necessary emotional environment - mystical, intense, mysterious - and at the same time, without falling into a rigid genre form. On the other hand, N. Izmailov writes a duology (positioned as novels for teenagers) “Ubyr” (2013) and “Nobody Dies” (2015) in a genre very close to classic horror, filling the text with national flavor not only due to language, but also due to current Tatar mythology and the very construction of the plot, close to a fairy tale in V. Propp’s interpretation as the story of the initiation rite of adolescents. As we can see, this folklore material gives the authors wide artistic opportunities.

A rare folk genre that finds its way into fiction is the folk song. Actually, I know of only one example of working with this material not as a source for quoting, but as a source of borrowing, but it is so vivid that it deserves special mention: this is A. Ivanov’s novel “Bad Weather” (2016). The author, who is no stranger to either formulaic narratives or folklore in general, in this novel found a non-trivial way to create an artistic reality recognizable to the Russian reader: the entire text - both the main characters, the plot, and even the chronotope - was compiled based on Russian folk songs of various genres (ballads, romances, historical, lyrical, bandit, etc. songs), on their motivic composition and imagery. I will not delve into the analysis of the novel from this point of view; my separate article is devoted to it; I just want to say that such work with folklore material, even if it was not done intentionally by the author, but was the result of his attempt to find something archetypal in the Russian character, achieved the goal: the world of the novel is recognizable, and the necessary emotional relationship is immediately established towards the characters.

Such cases are not rare; many are probably familiar with them. As an example of such work with mythological material in a purely realistic (with historical references) text, I would like to name L. Yuzefovich’s novel “Cranes and Dwarfs” (2008). Two typical mythological motifs can be found in it. The first is duality and the associated motive of impostor, known from world folklore in various genres, from fairy tales to epic tales (if an impostor is a devil posing as a person). The second, a little less obvious, but which became the basis of the artistic series of the novel, is the image of the trickster, basic for world folklore and mythology of different nations, his behavior, which unbalances other characters, his life itself with risks, adventures, contact with another world so much so that even death eventually becomes inaccessible to him. Thus, the main character of the novel, Zhokhov, continues the line of other literary tricksters, from Till Eulenspiegel to Ostap Bender.

1. V. Propp. Morphology of a fairy tale. M., 1969

2. V. Propp. Historical roots of fairy tales. L., 1986.

3. J. Cavelti. "Adventure, Mystery and Love Story: Formulaic Narratives as Art and Popular Culture", 1976.

4. I. Bogatyreva. "Folklore motifs as constructs of recognizable reality." – “October”, 2017, 4.

5. A. Oleinikov. "The Story of the Knight Eltart, or Tales of the Blue Forest." M., 2015

6. M. Galina “Autochthons”. M., 2015

7. N. Izmailov. "Ubyr." St. Petersburg, 2013

8. N. Izmailov. "No one will die." St. Petersburg, 2015

9. A. Ivanov. "Bad weather". M., 2016

10. L. Yuzefovich. "Cranes and dwarfs." M., 2008

11. A. Ivanov. "The Heart of Parma" M., 2003

12. A. Ivanov. "Gold of Rebellion" M., 2005

13. A. Grigorenko. "Mabeth." M., 2011

14. I. Bogatyreva. "Kadyn". M., 2015

The concept of the development of ancient Russian art over the past century did not remain unchanged, and the thesis about local roots was opposed to the position of consistent adaptation of the Byzantine artistic heritage. “Archaeological research by Soviet scientists has now made it possible, albeit sketchily for now and only in general outline, - to determine the origins of Russian art, dating back to the artistic culture of the Slavic tribes and to the art of the ancient and Scythian Black Sea region. The Byzantine contribution lay on the solid ground of strong Slavic artistic traditions, which determined the decisive creative processing of alien Greek forms and the originality of the most ancient monuments of Russian monumental art,” states the preface to the History of Russian Art, published since 1953. V.N. Lazarev took a more cautious position on this issue, writing: “Literally all countries tried to master the principles of Byzantine art, but not everyone was able to do this. Kievan Rus managed to brilliantly solve this problem. She not only made the Byzantine heritage her property, she gave it a deep creative implementation, completely subordinating it to the new tasks that faced her artists.” National and social factors constantly emphasized N.N. Voronin, to whom, in particular, the following lines belong: “The ruling feudal elites basically adhered to Byzantine traditions, to which they turned more than once later in the struggle for their dominance. Folk, national principles inevitably came into conflict with this tradition, processing and changing it in their own way, which determined the uniquely Russian character of the most ancient monuments.” Today there is no point in arguing with these voices from a bygone era; rather, they should be remembered as reflecting a certain position of researchers.

At the dawn of the formation of Christian art medieval Rus' What was relevant, first of all, was the demand for the Byzantine artistic heritage, established on Hellenistic foundations and incorporating all the best that distinguished ancient civilization. Having survived the struggle against the iconoclasts, this religious creativity turned out to be closely connected with Christological dogmatics, and its character was naturally consistent with church teaching on icon veneration. The Baptism of Rus' opened the way to the adoption of the Byzantine model as a standard, without any alternative. Therefore, it is permissible to talk about the exclusive role of Byzantium in the formation of artistic culture Ancient Rus'.

The literature especially noted the fact that the Baptism of Rus' took place in an era of political and economic power, and this provided it with access to the high achievements of Byzantine culture, attracting first-class masters, who predetermined the path of further development of art. In this context, it is easier to understand the amazingly rapid rise of icon painting, transferred to new soil, on which local Slavic artistic traditions, sharply different in their typology, had previously existed. In many ways, everything had to start literally “with clean slate" And the path of apprenticeship turned out to be difficult and uneven. If we recognize early artistically perfect works as belonging to local creative personnel, then we will have to talk about their consistent degradation, in which it is difficult to see natural progress. The icons of the 12th–13th centuries, originating from Russian churches, are not fundamentally different from the Byzantine ones. Taking this into account, we must recognize them as Greek works or conclude that Russian icon painters comprehended the classical foundations of Byzantine art: both are unlikely for completely objective reasons. The medieval West, which had long been in contact with the Byzantine tradition, was only able to approach it. What could medieval Rus' count on?

V.N. Lazarev was interested in the issue of transformation of the Byzantine heritage in Russian painting in the early period of its history, and the scientist could note that, say, the iconography of Novgorod in the 12th century. was almost entirely in the orbit of attraction of Byzantine art of the Comnenian time, and already at the beginning of the 13th century. “something appears that would be impossible for a purely Byzantine artist.” Comparing two icons of St. Nicholas, the Constantinople icon in the monastery of St. Catherine on Sinai and the Novgorod one from the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow (see color insert, ill. 1), the researcher writes: “In the Greek icon, very delicate in execution, the strict proportionality of the parts is striking faces, dating back to distant Hellenistic traditions. This proportionality deprives the image of expression and leaves a certain academic imprint on it. The Novgorod artist interprets Nikola’s face completely differently. His exorbitantly elongated head takes on a flattened shape, the main place is given to the huge forehead - the center of thought, whimsically curved eyebrows form sharp corners, the relationship between in separate parts The face loses the strict proportionality of the Byzantine icon, but the overall facial expression gains greater expressiveness.” This icon occupies a special position among Novgorod works, and the image of Nikola differs in manner from the contemporaneous images in the margins. Its exclusivity lies in its adherence to a very original Byzantine model and, most likely, in the deformation of the latter, caused by the icon painter’s lack of skills due to thorough professional training. Hence the lack of correct drawing and volumetric modeling, the strengthening of the role of the graphic line and local color spot. Similar disproportions with a tendency towards enlargement of the head and hand of the blessing hand subsequently become most noticeable in stone carvings following the iconographic originals.

One should not think that the popular understanding of iconographic images is most characteristic of the Russian iconographic tradition. It is preceded by early Eastern Christian icons, associated by their origin with the monastic environment, now kept in the monastery of St. Catherine in Sinai. They are distinguished by a similar deformation of classical forms and an increase in graphics, sometimes more reminiscent of tinted pen drawings decorating the pages of a handwritten book, again reflecting the aesthetic tastes of the same circles. From here you can do logical conclusion regarding the progressive democratization of icon painting. Certain historical factors must have contributed to this. Russian-Byzantine cultural ties were, if not completely interrupted, then greatly weakened due to the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204 and Tatar-Mongol invasion. The real development of sacred art was suspended for a long time, and the consequences of what happened had a painful impact in the future.

This future is a new era, starting from the end of the 13th century. and mainly determined by the Moscow princely policy, leading to the transformation of Moscow not only into the capital of the vast Russian state, but also into the religious center of North-Eastern Russia. The Church turned out to be the most active conductor of Byzantine influences in the spiritual culture of medieval Russian society. Byzantine icon painting XIII century very diverse in nature, especially the products of the Greek workshops that served the crusaders. Some of her samples, although with a certain delay, reached Russian lands, finding a response among local icon painters.

Events of the 13th century showed that generations of Russian icon painters, while mastering Christian iconography in its Byzantine version, did not go through the serious professional school that distinguished the art of Greek masters. Therefore, they were doomed to copy high standards, and exceptions were rare. This tragic situation was revealed every time ties with Byzantium weakened: the quality level of products sharply decreased towards the primitivization of artistic forms. Vivid evidence of this is the widely known Novgorod red-background icons originating from Kresttsy. Here you can pay attention to only one of them, more multi-figured, with the image of the Savior on the throne with selected saints (ill. 2). Byzantine image of the throned Christ in the iconographic version of the 12th–13th centuries. reproduced without significant deviations, except for the violation of proportions and the interpretation of individual details, in particular, the drapery of clothes with flowing folds gives way to a system of contour lines. The folklore interpretation is more definitely manifested in the large-headed figures of short proportions located on the margins of the icon. Their composition clearly reflects the veneration of these saints. Therefore, the typology is quite familiar to the icon painter. And although the iconography did not need to be simplified, the artist still discovered a weak idea of bishop's vestments. Dating from the first quarter of the 14th century c, the icon of St. Nicholas of Zaraisky with his life from the Ozerevo churchyard allows us to even more clearly trace the development of the same trends. The compositions of hagiographic stamps evoke the illusion of resemblance to Romanesque painting. However, Western iconographic motifs were sometimes subject to folklorization in Russian icon painting, as illustrated by, say, the Vologda icon of the 14th century. with the image of Our Lady enthroned with Saints Nicholas and Clement in attendance. In essence, based on the folklorization of the icon painting sample, icon painting of the vast northern lands along the shores of Lake Onega arose and developed over the course of centuries. Sometimes, as in the case of a group of royal doors from the Novgorod provinces, the local soil even managed to develop its own bright and stable iconographic tradition, marked by a unique interpretation of the elite original. We are talking about including in the scheme, along with the Annunciation and the Evangelists, a multi-figure composition of the Eucharist with features of everyday interpretation.

The Paleologian era in the history of Byzantine art, with the revival of Byzantine-Russian church and cultural ties, introduced a lot of new things into the icon painting of Novgorod and Moscow. First of all, the iconographic repertoire expanded and the artistic characteristics changed. However, at the same time, the tendency towards archaization remained practically unchanged, which sometimes left its mark on the perception of new, and, moreover, exquisite samples. It seems as if the local masters looked at them as if through the prism of traditional training, which gravitated towards firmly rooted folklorization. It is not surprising that the hagiographic marks of the Novgorod icon of the first half of the 14th century. with the image of Nikola from the Lyuboni churchyard rather resemble folk painting with all its characteristic features. In accordance with the tastes of the people, the artistic structure of the icon “The Miracle of George on the Dragon, with Life” from former meeting M. P. Pogodina. Such works of folklore type form a whole direction, reflecting the originality of folk ideas in an extremely intelligible form. It should be noted here that there is a simplification, but not a radical change in the iconographic scheme.

“Novgorod art marks one of highest points in the development of ancient Russian artistic culture. It is characterized by great simplicity and expressiveness, it stands out for its folk character, in it the numerous folklore motifs that have existed among the people for centuries and which have not been so widely used in any other school have found an organic embodiment. Hence the full-bloodedness of Novgorod art, hence its strength and soilness,” wrote V.N. Lazarev, assessing Novgorod’s contribution to Russian art. True, Novgorod icon painting of the 15th century, especially its second half, is noticeably evolving, approaching the Byzantinizing elitist direction, but the northern provinces of Novgorod still retain for a very long time that conspicuous folk coloring that usually distinguishes the products of the traditional direction. Sometimes this coloring seems to be naturally layered onto new, and even partly Europeanized models. The centuries-old artistic context takes its toll, and then the influence of the Old Believer environment. All this supported reverence for antiquity.

However, it cannot be said that the products of other icon painting centers, including Pskov and Rostov, remain free from the penetration of the folklore element. Pskov icons, especially the 14th–15th centuries, are perceived as the result of a radical reworking of examples brought from outside, both Byzantine itself and the Byzantine-Western circle, carried out on local soil. This is probably why sometimes you can feel echoes of the Romanesque artistic tradition. All this is partly leveled out by the folklore interpretation of the image, and here best example serves as an icon of the Savior Pantocrator from the Spaso-Eleazarovsky Monastery. The simplicity of the artistic solution is also present in other works, sometimes twilight-decorative, and only in the 16th century. the line that separated Pskov craftsmanship from Novgorod and Moscow. There is no certainty that the surviving icons adequately reflect the character of medieval Rostov icon painting as a whole. But even at the modern stage of studying the material, it is clear that along with elite works, examples of the folk movement were known, if not predominant. Particularly impressive is the temple icon of the Old Testament Trinity, which belongs to this circle, made in the 1360s–1380s. . It is distinguished precisely by the folklore interpretation of the plot, which is manifested both in the simplification of forms and insufficient consistency of figures, and in the introduction of everyday motifs (ill. 3).

The folklore element turns out to be an almost constant companion of the masters of various Russian icon-painting centers working on a professional basis. The widespread use of sketches made by experienced draftsmen did not exclude various deviations and errors. The icon of the Almighty Savior with the Apostles, late 14th – early 15th centuries, localized in Rostov, reproduces an exquisite Byzantine original from the second half of the 14th century. . At the same time, simplifications are noticeable in the contours of the images, and especially in the modeling of volumes, clearly reflecting the icon painter’s perception of the sample. The same phenomenon is reflected in the one dating back to the 1360s. double-sided icon with images of the Savior Pantocrator and the Mother of God Hodegetria from the Intercession Monastery in Suzdal. The temple icon of the Intercession, executed simultaneously with it and originating from the same place, is noteworthy not only as an example of the development of a multi-figure composition of the indicated plot, but also as evidence of the aesthetic tastes of the then Suzdal princes, who were alien to special sophistication. Only the work of such great masters as Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev could bring Russian icon painting out of this state.

Moscow icon painting was formed almost initially with the involvement of Byzantine masters invited by Metropolitan Theognostus (1338–1353). Her works as a whole stand out for their stronger manifestations of aristocracy than the products of other local artistic centers of medieval Russia. True, the features of folklorization sometimes still penetrated both into early works, and those created in monastery workshops near Moscow. The situation was completely different in the territory adjacent to Tver. The influence of folklorization has already been noted in works of the 14th–15th centuries, such as the icon of the Archangel Michael and the royal doors with the image of two saints, but it is even more intensified in the icons of the Deesis rank of the mid-15th century. from the collection of A.I. Anisimov. Icon of Hypatius of Gangra with his life, late 15th – first half of the 16th century. , reveals trends close to the work of masters of the Novgorod provinces of the Russian North. The latter, as is known, widely adapted the most elite iconographic samples in their usual way. Directly elite works of icon painting, of course, settled primarily only in the largest northern monasteries.

During last century the existence of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, as before, had a decisive influence on the nature of icon painting in Orthodox Slavic countries. Over the next few decades, its development continued rather by inertia, until the question arose of both the quality level and, most importantly, the correctness of the images. In Moscow, it was staged at the Council of the Stoglavy in 1551, which revealed serious concern about the state of icon painting and recommended the introduction of facial icon painting originals. All this can be understood, especially based on the experience of the existence of icon painting in the Belarusian-Ukrainian region in the post-Byzantine period in conditions of active Catholic expansion and a practically absent Orthodox aristocracy. Potential customers for icons represented the clergy, philistines and rural church communities. And in Moscow itself, it was difficult not to notice the penetration of Western themes into the iconography, which owed most of the products to Italo-Greek workshops. Later, this circumstance will significantly lull the vigilance of Russian Old Believers. Meanwhile, despite all the measures taken, the Europeanization and folklorization of traditional icon painting continued, especially with the spread of engraving, and their success clearly depended on the social environment. In this regard, what comes from the Florovskaya chapel in the village is indicative. Pasmurovo icon of the Miracle of Flora and Laurel, painted by Isaac Grigoriev in 1603 (ill. 4). This is an example of the creativity of the monastic peasant icon painters of Poshekhonye. The traditional iconographic scheme is complicated by the inclusion of an architectural background and an increase in the number of horses.

“The general character of the art of the 17th century,” wrote L. A. Uspensky, “marked by the loss of the basic properties of the great art of previous eras, was the result of that spiritual decline and those historical prerequisites that were determined in the 16th century. AND interest in Russian art in other Orthodox countries was caused not only by the fading of artistic life under Turkish rule, but also by a certain consonance in the understanding of church art in relation to it, which arose under the influence of the circumstances that developed in this era on the paths of Orthodoxy.” One of The noted circumstances, undoubtedly, was the Europeanization of sacred art of the Byzantine tradition, which took place gradually, gradually, and attracted attention in cases of the most radical innovations. It is worth at least recalling the views of archpriest Avvakum on contemporary Russian iconography. Folklorization remained, as it were, in the shadow of controversy, since it did not affect the iconographic foundations and only gave them a partially everyday interpretation, especially in northern works.

The situation in the nature of folklorization became noticeably more complicated in the second half of the 17th century. in interaction with Ukrainian and Belarusian iconographic traditions and the influx of foreign masters. Here the severity of the problem is rather transferred to the plane of international cultural relations. Traditional icon painting does not disappear, but in the public consciousness it seems to be relegated to the background, remaining primarily in the provincial monastic and Old Believer environment. This creativity becomes predominantly the lot of folk craftsmen, who thus found themselves called upon to keep the legacy of medieval Rus' for a long time to come.

Voronin N. N. Results of the development of ancient Russian art // History of Russian art. T. IV. M., 1959. P. 616.

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