Formation of literary language norms. Language norm, its nature and role in the formation and functioning of language

23.09.2019

The most important feature literary language its normativity is considered, which manifests itself in written and oral form.

Language norm- this is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences); rules of use speech means literary language.

Features norms of a literary language: relative stability, prevalence, common usage, universally binding, compliance with use, custom, capabilities of the language system.

The main sources of language norms include the works of classical writers and modern writers, analysis of the language of means mass media, generally accepted modern usage, data from living and questionnaire surveys, scientific research by linguists.

Literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech occurs. Linguistic means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be absurd in another (official business communication).

For example, in Russian you cannot use such forms as “my last name”, “they ran away”; need to talk “my last name”, “they ran.” The norms are described in textbooks, special reference books, as well as in dictionaries (spelling, explanatory, phraseological, synonyms). The norm is approved and supported by speech practice cultured people. Norm in colloquial speech is the result of a speech tradition determined by the appropriateness of using an expression in a particular situation. Depending on how clearly the words are pronounced, there are three styles of pronunciation: full, neutral, conversational.

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. Changes in literary norms are due to the constant development of language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15–70 years ago may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 1930-1940s. words were used "graduate" And "diplomat" to express the same concept: "student performing thesis». In the literary norm of the 1950-1960s. there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial "graduate" now denotes a student, a student during the period of defending his thesis, receiving a diploma. In a word "diplomat" began to name mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of shows, awarded with a diploma (diploma winner of the All-Union Piano Competition).

The indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:

1st degree – strict, tough, not allowing options;

2nd degree – neutral, allows equivalent options;

3rd degree – more flexible, allows the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.

The historical change in the norms of a literary language is a natural phenomenon and does not depend on the will and desire of people. The development of society and the emergence of new traditions lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.

Dynamic nature of norms. Options

The most important quality of speech culture is its correctness, i.e., its compliance with linguistic norms.

Language norm ( literary norm) are the rules for the use of linguistic means, the uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of elements of a literary language in a certain period of its development.

The main sources of language norms are works classical literature, exemplary speech of highly educated native speakers, common, widespread modern usage, and scientific research. However, recognizing the importance literary tradition and the authority of sources, one should also remember about the author’s individuality, which can violate norms, which is justified in certain communication situations.

A literary norm is objective: it is not invented by scientists, but reflects natural processes and phenomena occurring in language. Language standards are mandatory for both oral and written speech. It is necessary to understand that the norm does not divide linguistic means into “good” and “bad”. It indicates the appropriateness of their use in a specific communicative situation.

Changes in language norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants (doublets), which actually already exist in speech and are used by native speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in special dictionaries, such as the “Spelling Dictionary”, “Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language”, “Dictionary of Word Compatibility”, etc.

Language norms reflect natural processes and phenomena occurring in language and are supported by speech practice. Norms are dynamic and fluid. A new norm does not replace the old one overnight; it is a long process, so for some time the old and new norms can coexist in the language, forming variants. Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants , which exist in a language at a certain stage of its development, are actively used by its speakers.

Variants of norms are presented at all language levels in Table 2.

Options for standards by language level

Level	Options
Phonetic	To - so, fern - fern, empower - empower
Derivational	Comprehension - comprehension, plumbing - metalworking, heroic - heroic, reading room - reading room, she-wolf - she-wolf
Morphological	This roofing felt - this roofing felt, the coffee has cooled - the coffee has cooled, towels - towels, in the workshop - in the workshop, go - go, the most important - the most important - the most important, a hundred meters away - a hundred meters away - a hundred meters away
Syntactic	Wait for the train – wait for the train, buy bread – buy bread, ride the train – ride the train – ride the train, recommend as a trainer – recommend as a trainer, recommend as a trainer
Phraseological	The tongue is stuck / dried to the larynx, the tongue will not turn / does not turn to speak /, the tongue will flutter / scratch / chat / grind, as if / as if / as if a cow had licked its tongue

Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Linguistic means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be absurd in another (official business communication). The historical change in the norms of a literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual language speakers. The development of society, changes in social living conditions, the emergence of new traditions, relationships between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.

Compliance with language norms is characteristic of oral and written speech for a native speaker of a literary language, since this is the only codified, standardized variety of the Russian national language. The speaker of a dialect, vernacular or jargon does not follow the language norm due to its absence in the specified varieties of language. A modern specialist, due to his social and professional status, must be a native speaker of the literary language, must know, use in speech and preserve a system of norms.

Language varieties form different literary styles, differing not only in terms of vocabulary and phraseology, but also pronunciation. Pronunciation styles are related to language styles. There are 3 styles: basic, high (book) and colloquial. Basic style norms have no correspondence in high style or colloquial style. A large group of words are pronounced the same in all styles. The conversational pronunciation style is characterized by carelessness, less articulatory clarity, and a fast pace. For high style – slowness, increased clarity of pronunciation of sounds, intonation of speech. The vernacular manner of pronunciation is beyond the norm.

“This Russian language is difficult, dear citizens! I heard a conversation the other day. It happened at the meeting. My neighbor leaned over and politely asked:

And what, comrade, will this be a plenary meeting or what?

“Plenary,” the neighbor answered casually.

“Look,” the first one was surprised, “that’s why I’m looking, what is it?” As if it were plenary.

“Yes, be calm,” the second one answered sternly. - Today it is very plenary and the quorum has reached such a level - just hang in there.

But it’s somehow closer to me. Everything somehow comes out in them minimally on the essence of the day... Although I will say frankly that I have a rather permanent attitude towards these meetings. So, you know, the industry is going from empty to empty.

It’s difficult, comrades, to speak Russian!” - concludes the author of the story M. Zoshchenko.

Indeed, it is difficult if you do not know the rules and norms that exist in each language.

The most important quality of speech culture is its correctness. The correctness of speech is its compliance with the norms of the literary language. It is based on a solid foundation of norms, quite fully and consistently reflected in grammars, reference books, dictionaries, textbooks. Literary correct speech is constructed in accordance with language norms.

The norm of a language (literary norm) is the rules for the use of speech means, the uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of elements of a literary language in a certain period of its development. Characteristic features of the norm Russian literary language :

relative stability,
prevalence,
common usage,
universality,
conformity with usage and custom.

In order to recognize a particular phenomenon as normative, the following conditions are necessary (at least!): 1) regular use (reproducibility) of a given method of expression, 2) compliance of this method of expression with the capabilities of the literary language system (taking into account its historical restructuring), 3 ) public approval of a regularly reproduced method of expression (and the role of a judge in this case falls to the lot of writers, scientists, and the educated part of society).

The literary norm is mandatory for oral and written speech and depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. The norm does not divide the means of language into good or bad. It indicates the appropriateness of using them in communication. Sources of language norms– works of classical literature, generally accepted modern use of language, scientific research.

The norm reflects the desire of language in a given period to stop, solidify, stability, continuity, universality, and at the same time the desire to go beyond the original, generating new possibilities.

Language norms - historical phenomenon, constantly changing. Changes in literary norms are associated with the development of language, social changes, the development of literature, etc. What was the norm in the last century and even 10 years ago may today be a deviation from it. If you look at dictionaries from 100 years ago, you can see how norms have changed, for example, pronunciation and stress.

So, in the 19th century. they said - trains, weather, nowadays only actors of the older generation pronounce the return particle xia - sya firmly - returned.

L.I. Skvortsov introduced the concept of a dynamic norm, including in it a sign of the potential possibilities of language implementation. He points out that there are two approaches to the concept of norm: taxonomic (classification, descriptive) and dynamic. A linguistic norm, understood in its dynamic aspect, is “a socio-historically determined result of speech activity that consolidates traditional implementations of the system or creates new linguistic facts in terms of their connection both with the potential capabilities of the language system, on the one hand, and with realized patterns, on the one hand.” another".

Understanding the dynamic nature of a norm includes both statics (a system of linguistic units) and dynamics (the functioning of a language), while the functional aspect of a norm is especially interesting, since it is associated with such a phenomenon as variation: “A norm cannot be specified by a finite set of facts, but inevitably appears in the form of two lists - mandatory and permissible (additional). This is a source of normative variation, i.e. options within the norm.

Sources of norm change The literary language is different: lively colloquial speech, dialects, borrowings, professionalisms. Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually already exist in the language and are used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in dictionaries of modern literary language. For example, in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” variants of words are given - thinking, thinking, etc.

A linguistic norm is not a dogma. Depending on the goals and objectives of communication, on the characteristics of a particular style, deviations from the norm are possible. But these deviations should reflect the existing norms in the language.

Variants (or doublets) are variations of the same linguistic unit that have the same meaning but differ in form. Some options are not differentiated either semantically or stylistically: And otherwise - in A what; stack - stack; workshops - workshops; With A zhen – soot e no. Such options are called equal, and in this case we can talk about variability. However, the vast majority of options are subject to stylistic differentiation: called A– sound A la, accountants - accountants, condition - condition, wave - wave (the second options, compared to the first, have a colloquial or colloquial connotation). Such options are unequal.

There are 3 degrees of normativity, which are reflected in various dictionaries:

1st degree norm– strict, tough, does not allow options (putting down, not laying down);
norm 2nd degree– neutral, allows equivalent options (decent (w));
norm 3rd degree- more mobile, allows colloquial, outdated forms (cottage cheese, cottage cheese).

The 1st degree norm is called imperative norm, norms of the 2nd and 3rd degrees - dispositive norms.

In linguistic literature recent years There are two types of norms: imperative and dispositive.

Imperative (i.e., strictly obligatory) are those norms, the violation of which is regarded as poor command of the Russian language (for example, violation of the norms of declension, conjugation, or belonging to grammatical gender). These norms do not allow options (non-variable), any other implementations of them are considered incorrect: met Vanya(Notwith Van), ringing I t (not sound O nit), quart A l (Notkv A rotal), my callus (Notmy callus), wash your hair with shampoo (Notshampoo).

Dispositive (optional, not strictly mandatory) norms allow stylistically different or neutral options: And otherwise - in A che, stack - stack, gr e nki – crouton And(colloquial), brown - brown, piece of cheese - piece of cheese, gradebook - gradebook, three students went - three students went. Evaluations of options in this case do not have a categorical (prohibitive) nature.

It should be remembered that along with the options allowed by the dispositive norms of the literary language, there are also many deviations from the norms, i.e. speech errors. Such deviations from language norms can be explained by several reasons:

poor knowledge of the rules themselves(We want to read; We went to the cinema with twenty-two guys; Put on your coat);
inconsistenciesand contradictions in the internal system of language(thus, the reason for the prevalence of incorrect accents like sound A la, rv A la, obviously, is the literary emphasis on the root in the forms called, called A lo, zv A whether; tore, tore A lo, rv A whether. The non-normative form of lecturer exists, probably, because in the language system there are normative forms of doctor, camp, etc.);
influence of external factors- territorial or social dialects, a different language system in conditions of bilingualism (We live under a peaceful sky, we can’t hear the boom of guns or volleys of shells).

Just a few years ago, all deviations from the norm of the literary language (except for spelling and punctuation) were considered “stylistic errors”, without any further differentiation. This practice is considered vicious. Errors must be differentiated depending on the speech level at which they were made. Although there is no single optimal classification of speech errors, most researchers identify speech errors

phonetically,
lexical,
grammatical levels

with their further differentiation, for example, “error in the pronunciation of consonants,” “mixing paronyms,” “contamination,” “errors in declension of numerals,” etc. Actually stylistic errors are considered to be those that are associated with a violation of the requirement of unity of style (single style), i.e. stylistic errors are considered as a type of speech errors: Tourists lived in tents and cooked food over a fire; Nastya went crazy, and the Actor hanged himself; At the beginning of the novel, we see Pavel as an ordinary working guy who is fond of partying; The responsibility for my little brother was entrusted to me.

Literature used

Russian language and culture of speech: Course of lectures/G.K. Trofimova – M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2004 – 160 p. (pp. 59 – 61)
L.A. Vvedenskaya et al. Russian language and speech culture: examination answers. Series “Passing the Exam.”/ L.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova, E.Yu. Kashaeva. – Rostov n/Don: “Phoenix”, 2003 – 288 p. (pp. 31 – 33)

A. NORS OF MODERN RUSSIAN

LITERARY LANGUAGE

(OPTIONS, TYPES OF STANDARDS)

Plan

1. The concept of language norms (literary norms).

2. Variants of norms.

3. Types of norms.

1. The most important quality of speech culture is its correctness, in other words, its compliance language standards.

What is meant by this concept? Let's offer a definition.

The norm of a language (literary norm) is the rules for the use of linguistic means, the uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of elements of a literary language in a certain period of its development.

A linguistic norm is a complex and rather contradictory phenomenon: it dialectically combines a number of opposing features. Let us list the most important of them and give the necessary comment.

1. Relative sustainability And stability linguistic norms are necessary conditions for ensuring the balance of the language system over a long period of time. At the same time, the norm is a historical phenomenon, which is explained by the social nature of language, which is constantly developing together with the creator and speaker of the language - society itself.

The historical nature of the norm is due to its dynamism, variability. What was the norm in the last century and even 10-15 years ago may become a deviation from it today. If you look at dictionaries and literary sources 100 years ago, you can see how the norms of stress, pronunciation, grammatical forms of words, their (words) meaning and use have changed. For example, in the 19th century they said: cabinet(instead of closet), fat(instead of heat), strict(instead of strict), quiet(instead of quiet), Alexandrinsky theater (instead of Alexandrinsky), returned(instead of returning); at the ball, weather, trains, this beautiful paleto(t) (coat); certainly(instead of Necessarily), necessary(instead of necessary) etc.

2. On the one hand, the norm is characterized by widespread And universality compliance with certain rules, without which it would be impossible to “control” the element of speech. On the other hand, we can talk about “linguistic pluralism” – the simultaneous existence of several options (doublets) that are recognized as normative. This is a consequence of the interaction of traditions and innovations, stability and variability, subjective (author of speech) and objective (language).

3. Basic sources of language norms- these are primarily works of classical literature, exemplary speech of highly educated native speakers, generally accepted, widespread modern usage, as well as scientific research. However, recognizing the importance literary tradition And authority of sources, you should also remember author's individuality, capable of violating norms, which is certainly justified in certain communication situations.

In conclusion, we emphasize that the literary norm is objective: it is not invented by scientists, but reflects the natural processes and phenomena occurring in the language. Language standards are mandatory for both oral and written speech. It is necessary to understand that the norm does not divide linguistic means into “good” and “bad”. It indicates the appropriateness of their use in a specific communicative situation.

In general, the literary norm enshrines all the best that has been created in the speech behavior of representatives of a given society. It is necessary because it helps preserve the integrity and general intelligibility of the literary language, protects it from colloquialisms, dialectisms, and jargon.

2. Changes in language norms are preceded by their appearance options(doublets), which actually already exist in speech and are used by native speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in special dictionaries, such as the “Spelling Dictionary”, “Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language”, “Dictionary of Word Compatibility”, etc.

There are 3 degrees of normativity:

– 1st degree norm– strict, tough, not allowing options (for example, put, not lay down; call and not rings; socks, and not sock);

– norm 2nd degree– less strict, allowing equal options, united in a dictionary entry by the conjunction “and” (for example, right And right, blinds(Wed And pl.), immoral And immoral);

– norm 3rd degree– the most flexible, where one option is the main (preferred), and the second, although acceptable, is less desirable. In such cases, the second option is preceded by the mark "additional"(permissible), sometimes in combination with stylistic marks or just a stylistic mark: "colloquial"(colloquial), "poetic"(poetic), "prof."(professional), etc. For example: bank sprat(add. sprats),cup tea(additional colloquial) tea), compass(prof. compass).

The 1st degree norm is called imperative norm, norms of the 2nd and 3rd degrees - dispositive norms.

Currently, the process of changing language norms has become especially active and noticeable against the backdrop of events of historical and political significance, economic reforms, changes in the social sphere, science, and technology. It should be remembered that a language norm is not a dogma: depending on the conditions, goals and objectives of communication, and on the characteristics of a particular style, deviations from the norm are possible. However, these deviations should reflect the variants of norms that exist in the literary language.

3. In accordance with the main levels of language and areas of use of linguistic means, the following are distinguished: types of norms.

1. Orthoepic norms(Greek correct speech) – norms for stress and pronunciation. Spelling errors make it difficult to perceive the speaker’s speech. Social role correct pronunciation is very important, since knowledge of orthoepic norms greatly facilitates the communication process.

In order not to make mistakes in speech, you need to use special dictionaries, such as “Dictionary of Stresses of the Russian Language”, “Spelling Dictionary”, “Dictionary of Difficulties” oral speech"etc.

Options that are outside the literary norm are accompanied by prohibitive notes: “ not rec."(not recommended) "wrong."(wrong), "rude."(rough), "bran."(expletive language), etc.

2. Lexical norms or norms of word usage, are: a) the use of a word in the meanings that it has in modern language; b) knowledge of its lexical and grammatical compatibility; c) the correct choice of a word from a synonymous series; d) the appropriateness of its use in a particular speech situation.

3. Morphological norms regulate the formation and use of grammatical forms of words. Let us note that morphological norms include, first of all: norms for determining the grammatical gender of some nouns, norms for the formation of the plural of nouns, norms for the formation and use of case forms of nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns; norms of comparative and superlatives adjectives and adverbs; norms for the formation and use of verb forms, etc.

4. Syntactic norms are associated with the rules for the construction and use of phrases and various sentence models. When constructing a phrase, you must first of all remember about management; When constructing a sentence, you should take into account the role of word order and follow the rules of use participial phrases, laws of construction complex sentence etc.

Morphological and syntactic norms often united under common name – grammatical norms.

5. Spelling norms (spelling norms) And punctuation norms do not allow distortion of the visual image of a word, sentence or text. To write correctly, you need to know the generally accepted rules of spelling (the spelling of a word or its grammatical form) and punctuation (the placement of punctuation marks).

Questions for self-control:

1. What is a language norm and what are its features?

2. How is the inconsistency of the norm manifested?

3. What differences exist in the degree of normativity?

4. What types of norms can be distinguished in accordance with the main levels of language and areas of use of linguistic means?

Let us move on to a detailed consideration of the types of norms indicated above.

These are the rules for using existing linguistic means in a specific historical period evolution of the literary language (set of rules of spelling, grammar, pronunciation, word usage).

The concept of a language norm is usually interpreted as an example of the generally accepted uniform use of such elements of language as phrases, words, sentences.

The norms under consideration are not the result of the invention of philologists. They reflect a certain stage in the evolution of the literary language of an entire people. Language norms cannot simply be introduced or abolished; they cannot be reformed even administratively. The activities of linguists who study these norms are their identification, description and codification, as well as explanation and promotion.

Literary language and language norm

According to the interpretation of B. N. Golovin, the norm is the choice of a single linguistic sign among various functional variations, historically accepted within a certain language community. In his opinion, she is the regulator of the speech behavior of many people.

The literary and linguistic norm is a contradictory and complex phenomenon. There are different interpretations of this concept in the linguistic literature of the modern era. The main difficulty of definition is the presence of mutually exclusive features.

Distinctive features of the concept under consideration

It is customary to identify the following features of language norms in the literature:

1.Resilience (stability), thanks to which the literary language unites generations due to the fact that language norms ensure the continuity of linguistic and cultural traditions. However, this feature is considered relative, because the literary language is constantly evolving, allowing for changes in existing norms.

2. The degree of occurrence of the phenomenon under consideration. Still, it is worth keeping in mind that a significant level of usage of the corresponding language variant (as a fundamental feature in determining the literary and linguistic norm), as a rule, also characterizes certain speech errors. For example, in colloquial speech the definition of a language norm comes down to the fact that it is “frequently occurring.”

3.Compliance with an authoritative source(works widely famous writers). But do not forget that in works of art both the literary language and dialects, vernaculars are reflected, therefore, when delineating norms, based on observation of texts mainly fiction, it is necessary to distinguish between the author’s speech and the language of the characters in the work.

The concept of a language norm (literary) is associated with the internal laws of the evolution of language, and on the other hand, it is determined purely cultural traditions society (what it approves and protects, and what it fights and condemns).

Variety of language norms

The literary and linguistic norm is codified (gains official recognition and is subsequently described in reference books and dictionaries that have authority in society).

There are the following types of language norms:

The types of language norms presented above are considered to be basic.

Typology of language norms

It is customary to distinguish the following standards:

oral and written forms of speech;
oral only;
only written.

The types of language norms that apply to both oral and written speech are as follows:

lexical;
stylistic;
grammatical.

Special norms for exclusively written speech are:

spelling standards;
punctuation.

The following types of language norms are also distinguished:

pronunciation;
intonation;
accents.

They apply only to oral speech.

Linguistic norms, which are common to both forms of speech, relate primarily to the construction of texts and linguistic content. Lexical (the set of norms of word use), on the contrary, are decisive in the issue of the correct choice of the appropriate word among linguistic units that are sufficiently close to it in form or meaning and its use in its literary meaning.

Lexical language norms are displayed in dictionaries (explanatory, foreign words, terminological), reference books. It is compliance with this kind of norms that is the key to accuracy and correctness of speech.

Violation of language norms leads to numerous lexical errors. Their number is constantly increasing. One can imagine following examples language norms that were violated:

Language options

They involve four stages:

1. The only form is dominant, and the alternative version is considered to be incorrect, since it is beyond the boundaries of the literary language (for example, in XVIII-XIX centuries the word "turner" is the only correct option).

2. An alternative option makes its way into the literary language as acceptable (marked “additional”) and acts either colloquially (marked “colloquial”) or equal to the original norm (marked “and”). Hesitation regarding the word "turner" began to appear in late XIX century and continued until the beginning of the 20th century.

3. The original norm is rapidly fading away and giving way to an alternative (competing) one; it acquires the status of obsolete (marked “obsolete.”). Thus, the above-mentioned word “turner,” according to Ushakov’s dictionary, is considered obsolete.

4. A competing norm as the only one within the literary language. In accordance with the Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language, the previously presented word “turner” is considered the only option (literary norm).

It is worth noting the fact that in announcer, teaching, stage, oratorical speech there are only possible strict language norms. In everyday speech, the literary norm is freer.

The relationship between speech culture and language norms

Firstly, speech culture is mastery of the literary norms of a language in written and oral form, as well as the ability to correctly select and organize certain linguistic means in such a way that in a specific communication situation or in the process of observing its ethics, the greatest effect is ensured in achieving the intended communication objectives .

And secondly, this is an area of linguistics that deals with the problems of speech normalization and develops recommendations regarding the skillful use of language.

Speech culture is divided into three components:

Linguistic norms are a distinctive feature of a literary language.

Standards of language in business style

They are the same as in the literary language, namely:

the word must be used according to its lexical meaning;
taking into account the stylistic coloring;
according to lexical compatibility.

These are lexical language norms of the Russian language within the framework of business style.

For of this style it is extremely important to comply with the qualities that determine the effectiveness parameter business communication(literacy). This quality also includes knowledge existing rules word usage, sentence patterns, grammatical compatibility, and the ability to distinguish between the areas of application of language.

Currently, the Russian language has many variant forms, some of which are used within the framework of book and written speech styles, and some - in everyday conversation. In business style, forms of special codified written speech are used due to the fact that their sole observance ensures the accuracy and correctness of the transmission of information.

This may include:

incorrect choice of word form;
a number of violations regarding the structure of phrases and sentences;
The most common mistake is the use in writing of incompatible colloquial forms of plural nouns that end in -а / -я, instead of the normative ones in -и/-ы. Examples are presented in the table below.

Literary norm	Spoken speech
Treaties	Agreements
Proofreaders	Proofreaders
Inspectors	Inspectors

It is worth remembering that the following nouns have a zero-ending form:

paired items (shoes, stockings, boots, but socks);
names of nationalities and territorial affiliations (Bashkirs, Bulgarians, Kyivans, Armenians, British, southerners);
military groups (cadets, partisans, soldiers);
units of measurement (volts, arshins, roentgens, amperes, watts, microns, but grams, kilograms).

These are the grammatical language norms of Russian speech.

Sources of language norms

There are at least five of them:

The role of the norms under consideration

They help preserve the literary language’s integrity and general intelligibility. Norms protect him from dialect speech, professional and social argot, and vernacular. This is what makes it possible for the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

The norm depends on the conditions within which speech is realized. Language means that are appropriate in everyday communication may turn out to be unacceptable in official business. The norm does not differentiate linguistic means according to the criteria “good - bad”, but clarifies their expediency (communicative).

The norms under consideration are a so-called historical phenomenon. Their change is due to the continuous development of language. The norms of the last century may now be deviations. For example, in the 30-40s. Words such as diploma student and diploma student (a student who completes a thesis work) were considered identical. At that time, the word "diplomatnik" was a colloquial version of the word "diplomat". Within the literary norm of the 50-60s. there was a division of the meaning of the presented words: the diploma holder is a student during the period of defending his diploma, and the diploma holder is the winner of competitions, competitions, shows marked with a diploma (for example, a diploma holder of the International Vocal Show).

Also in the 30-40s. the word “applicant” was used to describe individuals who graduated from school or entered a university. Currently graduating high school began to be called graduates, but applicant is no longer used in this meaning. They call people who take entrance exams to technical schools and universities.

Such norms as pronunciation are characteristic exclusively of oral speech. But not everything that is characteristic of oral speech can be attributed to pronunciation. Intonation is a fairly important means of expressiveness, giving emotional coloring to speech, and diction is not pronunciation.

As for stress, it relates to oral speech, however, despite the fact that it is a sign of a word or grammatical form, it still belongs to grammar and vocabulary, and is not a characteristic of pronunciation in its essence.

So, orthoepy indicates the proper pronunciation of certain sounds in appropriate phonetic positions and in combination with other sounds, and even in certain grammatical groups of words and forms, or in individual words, provided that they have their own pronunciation features.

Due to the fact that language is a means human communication, it needs unification of oral and written format. Just like spelling errors, incorrect pronunciation draws attention to speech from its external side, which acts as an obstacle in the course of linguistic communication. Since orthoepy is one of the aspects of speech culture, it has the task of helping to raise the pronunciation culture of our language.

The conscious cultivation of literary pronunciation on the radio, in cinema, theater, and school is very significant in relation to the mastery of the literary language by the masses of millions.

Vocabulary norms are those norms that determine the correct choice of a suitable word, the appropriateness of its use within the framework of a generally known meaning and in combinations considered generally accepted. The exceptional importance of their observance is determined by both cultural factors and the need for mutual understanding between people.

An essential factor determining the significance of the concept of norms for linguistics is the assessment of the possibilities of its application in various types of linguistic research work.

Today, the following aspects and areas of research are identified within the framework of which the concept under consideration can become productive:

Study of the nature of the functioning and implementation of various kinds of language structures (including the establishment of their productivity, distribution across various functional areas of the language).
The study of the historical aspect of language changes over relatively short periods of time (“microhistory”), when minor shifts in the structure of the language and significant changes in its functioning and implementation are revealed.

Degrees of normativity

A rigid, strict degree that does not allow alternative options.
Neutral, allowing equivalent options.
A more flexible degree that allows the use of colloquial or outdated forms.

3.1.1. Features of the language norm. 3.1.2. Three degrees of normativity. 3.1.3. Types of language norms. 3.1.4. Types of dictionaries.

3.1.1. FEATURES OF LANGUAGE NORM

The most important feature of a literary language is considered to be its normativity, which manifests itself in both written and oral form.

Literary language is opposed to vernacular, jargon and dialects due to its normativity. The norm of a literary language is a set of rules developed by social practice for the use of words, phrases, the formation of grammatical forms and constructions, a set of rules for pronunciation and spelling of words. The basis of the norm is always the choice of one option from several. The norm is the result of socio-historical selection

linguistic and speech units.

The characteristic features of the language norm are:

Relative stability;

Prevalence;

Common usage;

Mandatory for everyone;

Objectivity;

Historicity;

Conformity to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.

Relative stability and stability provide the necessary balance of the language system for a long time. Stable, stable norms help the literary language maintain its integrity in any period of time.

The prevalence of the norm is manifested in the fact that it applies throughout the entire territory where Russian is spoken. A linguistic norm is necessary so that people understand each other correctly, so that it is possible to distinguish an educated person from an uneducated one, so that the educated part of people with the most developed linguistic taste can influence the education of this taste in the rest. The norm, finally, contributes to the preservation of linguistic traditions. This requirement for a standard is becoming particularly relevant nowadays in the territory of the former Soviet Union.

Norms protect the literary language from dialectisms, jargon, argotisms, and vernacular, which allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

Norms (pronunciation, lexical, grammatical) are an objective phenomenon. They are supported by speech practice, which is constantly analyzed by scientists, and are enshrined in the relevant reference books and dictionaries of the Russian language. In the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language S.I. Ozhegova, 95% is represented by the vocabulary of a literary language and only 5% by the vocabulary of a non-literary language. If in Ozhegov’s dictionary you come across the marks simple, obsolete, it means that these lexical units are not literary.

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The constant development of language determines the change and dynamism of language norms. What was the norm 15-20 years ago may be a deviation from the norm today. Dictionaries and literature of the past give an idea of the variability of the norms of stress, pronunciation, grammatical forms of words and their meaning: cabinet, strict, quiet, returned, weather, trains, beautiful pallet, black coffee, hall, hall. The word quarter, meaning the fourth part of the year and part of the city, bounded by streets on four sides, is pronounced the same way in both meanings today, with the emphasis on the last syllable, in contrast to recent times, when each meaning had its own accentological embodiment.

The normativity of a literary language also presupposes the correct use of etiquette formulas speech etiquette: a set of linguistic formulas, rules used in various communication systems with various intentions. For example: How are you? How are you doing? Thank you very much. Do not mention it. Nothing.

Thus, the norm reflects the natural processes occurring in the language. It does not divide linguistic means into “good” and “bad”, but indicates the appropriateness of using various linguistic means in a specific communicative situation.

In general, the literary norm reinforces the best of the speech behavior of representatives of society.

3.1.2. THREE DEGREES OF REGULATION

There are three degrees of normativity:

1) the norm of the first degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options: put, call, put, socks, stockings;

2) the norm of the second degree - less strict, allowing equal options; in the dictionary they are given with the mark and: penalty, average and male; blinds, neuter and plural; immoral and immoral;

3) the norm of the third degree, in which one option is the main (preferable), and the second, although acceptable, is less desirable; in these cases, the second option is preceded by additional. (acceptable): can of sprat, extra. sprats; cup of tea, extra decomposition tea.

The norm of the first degree is usually called imperative; norms of the second and third degrees are called dispositive. Currently, the process of changing language norms has become especially active and noticeable due to events of historical and political significance, economic reforms, changes in the social sphere, science and technology.

In textbooks on the Russian language and speech culture, you can also find the terms senior and junior language norm. The older norm is understood as a norm that exists and is often already passing away, and the younger norm is a norm that is emerging and being consolidated at the present time.

3.1.3. TYPES OF LANGUAGE NORMS

In accordance with the main levels of language and areas of use of linguistic means, various types of norms are distinguished.

1. Orthoepic (Greek correct speech) norms regulate the choice of phoneme variants (at[e]lye, D[e]kan), otherwise they can be called pronunciation norms.

2. Accentological norms regulate the choice of stress placement option (prettier, beetroot, call).

3. Word-formation norms regulate the choice of morphemes, their placement and combination in the word (na-bluder-a-tel, igr-ok, izbir-a-tel).

4. Lexical norms regulate: a) the use of words in the meanings that they have in modern Russian; b) choosing a variant of their lexical compatibility; c) choosing an option from a synonymous series; d) the appropriateness of their use in a particular speech situation (speech defects can be said, speech defects cannot be said).

5. Morphological norms regulate the choice of variant of the grammatical form of a word. First of all, these are the norms for determining the grammatical gender of individual nouns (strong coffee, excellent penalty and excellent penalty); norms for the formation and use of case forms of plural nouns (engineers, rectors, stockings, socks, shoulders). Morphological are the norms for the formation of case forms of adjectives, numerals and pronouns; norms for the formation of comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs; norms of formation and use of verb forms (more beautiful, not more beautiful; clearer, no more clear; five hundred, not five hundred; put, don’t lie, etc.).

6. Syntactic norms regulate the choice of construction and use of phrases and sentences. Syntactic norms when creating a phrase include management norms (thanks to common efforts, take care of children); When constructing a sentence, you should pay attention to the word order, follow the rules for using participial phrases, the laws of constructing a complex sentence, etc.

Morphological and syntactic norms are often combined into single grammatical norms.

7. Stylistic norms regulate the correspondence of linguistic units to the style of presentation. So, in poetic work inappropriate use of clichés formal business style. The phrase is erroneous: For lack of a red rose, my life will be ruined; or Due to the absence of a red rose.

8. Spelling standards regulate the choice of spelling option (color, programmer, program, abstract).

9. Punctuation norms regulate the choice of punctuation option: The cuckoo crowed - this barley. The absence of a dash gives the phrase a different meaning.

The existence of options and changes in literary norms depend on external, social factors and internal reasons.

3.1.4. TYPES OF DICTIONARIES

Dictionaries are divided into two main types: encyclopedic and linguistic. Encyclopedic dictionaries describe concepts (things, realities, processes, phenomena), provide information about various events, for example: Nature - in in a broad sense- everything that exists, the whole world in the diversity of its forms; the concept of nature in this meaning is on a par with the concepts of matter, the universe, the universe.

Among encyclopedic dictionaries can be called the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Literary encyclopedia, Children's Encyclopedia, Political Dictionary, Philosophical Dictionary.

Linguistic dictionaries are divided into bilingual (multilingual) used in the study foreign languages, and monolingual.

IN linguistic dictionaries words and grammatical forms of words are described. IN this type dictionaries use the corresponding marking system. Options that are outside the literary norm are accompanied by prohibitive marks: “not recommended.” (not recommended), "wrong." (incorrect), “rude.” (rudely), “brain.” (expletive language), etc.

Please note that when accessing dictionaries, you must use the latest editions.

Types of monolingual linguistic dictionaries

1. Explanatory dictionaries contain words with an explanation of their meanings; they also provide grammatical and stylistic characteristics of the words: four-volume “ Dictionary Russian language" edited by D.N. Ushakova; one-volume “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I.

Ozhegova; the seventeen-volume academic “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language”; “School Etymological Dictionary” edited by F.P. Owl.

Example: Nature, s, f. - everything that exists in the universe, the organic and inorganic world.

It should be recalled that the well-known four-volume “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dahl includes vocabulary that was in use in the Russian language before 1863, therefore, despite the presence of more than 200,000 words in the dictionary, it lacks many words that appeared later.

2. Phraseological dictionaries systematize phraseological units of the Russian language, explain their meaning, and give their synonyms: “Winged words. Literary quotations. Figurative expressions" N.S. Ashukin and M.G. Ashukina; two-volume “Phraseological Dictionary of Literary Language” by A.I. Fedorov; “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by A.I. Molotkov; "Brief phrasebook Russian language" E.A. Bystrovoy, A.P. Okuneva and N.M. Shansky; “School phraseological dictionary of the Russian language” V.P. Zhukova and others.

Example: In no time. Razg. Unism. Very quickly, instantly, without delay. ~ In the blink of an eye, in one count, in one instant, in one minute, in one second, by one (single) Spirit.

Most often with verb. owls type: decide, do, catch up, agree.

Well, that's a no-brainer. When you need it, tell me, I’ll explain everything to you in two counts (N. Nosov)...

3. Dictionaries of synonyms record words with the same meaning: “ Brief dictionary synonyms of the Russian language" V.N. Klyuevoy; “Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language” Z.E. Alexandrova; two-volume “Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” under the main editorship of A.P. Evgenieva; one-volume “Dictionary of synonyms. Reference publication" under the same editorship and other dictionaries.

Example: Find - find, dig up, open, find, fish out. These words are united by the meaning - to discover something unknown. The most common of them is to find. The word find indicates the result of an intentional search. Obtain belongs to the book style and is usually used in an abstract meaning. Open - usually find something new or forgotten. Dig up is a colloquial-familiar word, used in the meaning - to find with difficulty. To catch up has the same meaning, but is ironic in nature.

4. Dictionaries of antonyms record words with opposite meanings: “Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language” by L.A. Vvedenskaya; “Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language” N.P. Kolesnikov, edited by N.M. Shansky; “Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language” M.R. Lvov, edited by L.A. Novikova; “School dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language”, etc.

Example: Natural - artificial: Now, having slept off and putting full shine on her radiant face, full of natural and artificial blush, the girl began the game (N. Tikhonov).

Natural - artificial; natural (obsolete) - artificial; natural - unnatural.

5. Homonym dictionaries record words that have the same sound (spelling), but have different meaning: “Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language” O.S. Akhmanova; “Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language” N.P. Kolesnikov, edited by N.M. Shansky and others.

Example: Ambassador I soul. English ambassador, fr. ambassador, German Botschafter. Send, send, embassy, embassy. Ambassador II inanimate, English salting, French. salage, facon de saler; German Einzalzen. Salt, salting. Good, tasty ~ cucumbers. Spicy sprat ~a.

6. Dictionaries of paronyms record words that are close, but not identical in sound, and have different meaning: “Difficult cases of using cognate words in the Russian language” Yu.A. Belchikova and M.S. Panyusheva; “Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language” N.P. Kolesnikova; “Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language” O.V. Vishnyakova and others.

Example: Secretive, adj. 1. Avoiding frankness, hiding his thoughts, feelings, intentions. Secretive person / Wonderful you. Secretive. I’m sad, but to say why, it’s not there (I. Ehrenburg). 2. Undetectable or hidden. Secretive character. Secretive life / This pink bird lives in wooded mountainous places and leads a secretive lifestyle (V. Arsenyev). Hidden, adj. 1. Not clearly detected, hidden, secret. Hidden threat. The hidden machinations of enemies / She talked about Russian emigrants, and in her words I always felt a hidden smile of condescension towards people. 2. Inherent in someone or something, but outwardly invisible or not yet manifested. Hidden possibilities. Hidden illness / Green was ugly, but full of hidden charm (K. Paustovsky).

7. Word-formation dictionaries showing how, with the help of suffixes and prefixes, new words are formed from one stem: “Big word-formation dictionary of the Russian language,” compiled by N.A. Artemyeva.

Example: Faith - 1) faith - to believe - to believe - to assure - to believe - confidence - confident - self-confident - confidence - confident - about - confident - to assure - to be confident - to trust - trust-n-th; 2) ver-ova-t - belief-ni/-e - believer;

3) easy-to-verify; 4) without faith; 5) faith-confession; 6) faith-apostate.

8. Grammar dictionaries that comprehensively reflect Russian inflection (declension and conjugation): “ Grammar dictionary Russian language" A.A. Zaliznyak; “Dictionary of inflexible words” N.P. Kolesnikova; Dictionary-reference book “Management in the Russian language” D.E. Rosenthal.

Example: Happen, pr. incident and additional happened; gerundish happened and is outdated. happened. It was difficult for Andrey to understand everything that happened (Nikolaeva, Harvest). He could not understand the change that had happened to her. (Kalashnikov, The Last Retreat).

9. Dictionaries of difficulties containing accentological, pronunciation, word and formative difficulties: “Difficulties of word usage and variants of the norms of the Russian literary language. Dictionary-reference book" edited by K.S. Gorbachevich; “A brief dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language. For press workers" and dictionary-reference book for journalists “Difficulties of the Russian language” edited by L.I. Rakhmanova; “Dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language” by D.E. Rosenthal and M.A. Telenkova.

10. Syntactic dictionaries that give an idea of the elementary units (syntaxemes) from which phrases and sentences are built in the Russian language: “Training dictionary of combinability of words in the Russian language,” edited by P.N. Denisov and V.V. Morkovkina; “Syntactic Dictionary: Repertoire of elementary units of Russian syntax”, which gives nominal, verbal and adverbial phrases.

Example: verbs of “sorrowful feeling” with object-causative syntax by + Sentence: sigh, cry (for mother), yearn (for work), grieve (for bride).

11. Etymological dictionaries contain an etymological interpretation of commonly used words in the Russian language: “A Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by N.M. Shansky, V.V. Ivanova and T.V. Shanskaya, edited by S.G. Barkhudarov; " Etymological dictionary Russian language" G.P. Tsygaenko; four-volume “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by M.R. Vasmer translated from German.

Example: Amazement, from be amazed, dial. "to lose one's mind." In the XVII-XVIII centuries. astonishment = fainting. Out of my mind.

12. Spelling dictionaries record the norms of spelling words: “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language”, edited by S.G. Barkhudarova, I.F. Protchenko and L.I. Skvortsova.

Example: background, privilege,

13. Orthoepic dictionaries containing not only detailed information about pronunciation and stress, but also fixing grammatical forms: “Spelling dictionary of the Russian language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms” edited. R.I. Avanesova; “Dictionary of accents for radio and television workers,” compiled by F.L. Ageenko and M.V. Zarva.

Example: Circle 1, -a, sentence. in, on a circle, pl. circles, -s. Get back to square one. Circle; part of a plane bounded by a circle, something having such a shape, a round object; closed chain of events. In a circle of moonlight; on a lifeline, in a vicious circle, in a vicious circle, in a vicious circle.

Circle 2, -a, sentence. in a circle, plural circles, -s. Sleeping in a circle (finally sinking). A collection of people; sphere, area of something. In the circle of friends; in aristocratic circles; in the usual circle of ideas; within the scope of responsibilities.

14. Onomastic dictionaries containing information about proper names: “Dictionary of Russian personal names” by N.A. Petrovsky.

Example: Elizabeth, -ы, f.; decomposition Lizaveta, s. Derivatives: Elizavetka, Veta, Lisa, Lilya, Lizunya, Lizukha, Lizusha, Lizura. [From Dr. - Heb. "ElTseba" - God is my oath, I swear to God].

“A short toponymic dictionary” by V.A. Nikonova.

Example: Arctic - northern. polar area of the globe. Ancient Greek arctikos "northern" from arctos "bear", i.e. constellation Ursa Major - this is how the countries lying under this constellation began to be called. With the development of high latitudes, the name began to refer to the Far North.

15. Dictionaries of abbreviations: “Let’s speak correctly!” G.N. Sklyarevskaya and I.O. Tkacheva, where new and most common abbreviations in modern Russian are presented.

Example: VTEC [vtek], uncl., g. and (colloquial) VTEK, m. Medical and Labor Expert Commission. Conclusion of VTEC. I was at VTEK.

In addition to those listed, there are also dialect, frequency, reverse dictionaries, dictionaries of the language of writers and dictionaries of epithets.