The artistic style of late classicism. in the art of classicism. Classicism in the architecture of Western Europe

Classicism became the first full-fledged literary movement, and its influence practically did not affect prose: all theories of classicism were partly devoted to poetry, but mainly to drama. This trend emerged in France in the 16th century and flourished about a century later.

The history of classicism

The emergence of classicism was due to the era of absolutism in Europe, when a person was considered just a servant of his state. The main idea of ​​classicism is civil service; the key concept of classicism is the concept of duty. Accordingly, the key conflict of all classic works is the conflict of passion and reason, feelings and duty: negative heroes live, obeying their emotions, and positive ones live only by reason, and therefore always turn out to be winners. This triumph of reason was due philosophical theory rationalism, which was proposed by Rene Descartes: I think, therefore I exist. He wrote that not only man is reasonable, but also all living things in general: reason was given to us by God.

Features of classicism in literature

The founders of classicism carefully studied the history of world literature and decided for themselves that the literary process was most intelligently organized in Ancient Greece. It was the ancient rules that they decided to imitate. In particular, it was borrowed from the ancient theater rule of three unities: unity of time (more than a day cannot pass from the beginning to the end of the play), unity of place (everything happens in one place) and unity of action (there should be only one storyline).

Another technique borrowed from the ancient tradition was the use masked heroes- stable roles that move from play to play. In typical classic comedies, we are always talking about giving away a girl, so the masks there are as follows: the mistress (the bride herself), the soubrette (her servant-girlfriend, confidante), a stupid father, at least three suitors (one of them is necessarily positive, i.e. e. hero-lover) and hero-reasoner (main positive character, usually appears at the end). At the end of the comedy, some kind of intrigue is required, as a result of which the girl will marry a positive groom.

Composition of a comedy of classicism must be very clear must contain five acts: exposition, plot, plot development, climax and resolution.

There was a reception unexpected ending(or deus ex machina) - the appearance of a god from the machine who puts everything in its place. IN Russian tradition The state often turned out to be such heroes. Also used taking catharsis- purification through compassion, when sympathizing with those caught in difficult situation negative heroes, the reader had to cleanse himself spiritually.

Classicism in Russian literature

The principles of classicism were brought to Russia by A.P. Sumarokov. In 1747, he published two treatises - Epistola on poetry and Epistola on the Russian language, where he sets out his views on poetry. In fact, these epistles were translated from French, prephrasing for Russia Nicolas Boileau's treatise on Poetic Art. Sumarokov predetermines that main theme Russian classicism will become a social theme, dedicated to the interaction of people with society.

Later, a circle of aspiring playwrights appeared, led by I. Elagin and theater theorist V. Lukin, who proposed a new literary idea- so-called declination theory. Its meaning is that you just need to clearly translate Western comedy into Russian, replacing all the names there. Many similar plays appeared, but in general the idea was not very implemented. The main significance of Elagin’s circle was that it was there that D.I.’s dramatic talent first manifested itself. Fonvizin, who wrote the comedy

Classicism (from Latin classicus - “exemplary”) is an artistic direction (current) in art and literature XVII - early XIX century, which is characterized by high civic themes and strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules. In the West, classicism was formed in the struggle against the magnificent Baroque. The influence of classicism on the artistic life of Europe in the 17th - 18th centuries. was widespread and long-lasting, and in architecture continued into the 19th century. Classicism as defined artistic direction It is common to reflect life in ideal images that gravitate toward the universal “norm” and model. Hence the cult of antiquity in classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of perfect and harmonious art.

Writers and artists often turn to images ancient myths(see Ancient literature).

Classicism flourished in France in XVII century: in drama (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. B. Moliere), in poetry (J. Lafontaine), in painting (N. Poussin), in architecture. At the end of the 17th century. N. Boileau (in the poem “Poetic Art”, 1674) created a detailed aesthetic theory of classicism, which had a huge impact on the formation of classicism in other countries.

The clash of personal interests and civic duty underlies the French classic tragedy, which reached ideological and artistic heights in the works of Corneille and Racine. Corneille's characters (Sid, Horace, Cinna) are courageous, stern people, driven by duty, completely subordinating themselves to serving the interests of the state. Showing contradictory mental movements in their heroes, Corneille and Racine made outstanding discoveries in the field of depicting the inner world of man. Imbued with the pathos of research human soul, the tragedy contained a minimum of external action and easily fit into the famous rules of the “three unities” - time, place and action.

According to the rules of the aesthetics of classicism, which strictly adheres to the so-called hierarchy of genres, tragedy (along with ode and epic) belonged to the “high genres” and was supposed to develop especially important social problems, resorting to ancient and historical subjects, and reflect only the sublime heroic aspects. " High genres“were opposed to “low” ones: comedy, fable, satire, etc., designed to reflect modern reality. La Fontaine became famous in the fable genre in France, and Moliere in the comedy genre.

In the 17th century, permeated with the advanced ideas of the Enlightenment, classicism was imbued with passionate criticism of the orders of the feudal world, protection of natural human rights, and freedom-loving motives. It is also distinguished great attention to national historical subjects. The largest representatives educational classicism are Voltaire in France, J.W. Goethe and J.F. Schiller (in the 90s) in Germany.

Russian classicism originated in the second quarter of the 18th century, in the works of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, and reached development in the second half of the century, in the works of A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizina, M. M. Kheraskova, V. A. Ozerova, Ya. B. Knyazhnina, G. R. Derzhavina. It presents everything the most important genres- from ode and epic to fable and comedy. A remarkable comedian was D.I. Fonvizin, the author of the famous satirical comedies “The Brigadier” and “The Minor.” Russian classicist tragedy showed a keen interest in national history (“Dimitri the Pretender” by A.P. Sumarokov, “Vadim Novgorodsky” by Ya.B. Knyazhnin, etc.).

At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. classicism both in Russia and throughout Europe is experiencing a crisis. He increasingly loses touch with life and withdraws into a narrow circle of conventions. At this time, classicism was subjected to sharp criticism, especially from the romantics.

In music, like in no other art form, the concept of “classic” has an ambiguous content. Everything is relative, and any yesterday's hits that have stood the test of time - be it masterpieces of Bach, Mozart, Chopin, Prokofiev or, say, The Beatles - can be attributed to classical works.

May lovers of ancient music forgive me for the frivolous word “hit,” but great composers once wrote popular music for their contemporaries, without aiming at eternity.

What's all this for? To the one, that it's important to share broad concept classical music and classicism as a direction in musical art.

The era of classicism

Classicism, which replaced the Renaissance through several stages, took shape in France at the end of the 17th century, reflecting in its art partly a serious rise absolute monarchy, partly a change in worldview from religious to secular.

In the 18th century, a new round of development of social consciousness began - the Age of Enlightenment began. The pomp and pomp of Baroque, the immediate predecessor of classicism, was replaced by a style based on simplicity and naturalness.

Aesthetic principles of classicism

The art of classicism is based on cult of reason – rationalism, harmony and logic . The name “classicism” is associated in origin with the word from the Latin language – classicus, which means “exemplary”. The ideal model for artists of this trend was ancient aesthetics with its harmonious logic and harmony. In classicism, reason prevails over feelings, individualism is not welcomed, and in any phenomenon, general, typological features acquire paramount importance. Each work of art must be built according to strict canons. The requirement of the era of classicism is the balance of proportions, excluding everything superfluous and secondary.

Classicism is characterized by a strict division into "high" and "low" genres . “High” works are works that refer to ancient and religious subjects, written in solemn language (tragedy, hymn, ode). And “low” genres are those works that are presented in vernacular language and reflect folk life (fable, comedy). Mixing genres was unacceptable.

Classicism in music - Viennese classics

The development of a new musical culture in the middle of the 18th century gave rise to the emergence of many private salons, musical societies and orchestras, holding open concerts and opera performances.

Capital musical world in those days there was Vienna. Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven are three great names who went down in history as.

The composers of the Viennese school were masters of the most different genres music - from everyday songs to symphonies. A high style of music in which rich figurative content is embodied in a simple but perfect artistic form, - this is the main feature of the work of the Viennese classics.

Musical culture Classicism, like literature, as well as fine art, glorifies human actions, his emotions and feelings, over which reason reigns. Creative artists in their works are characterized by logical thinking, harmony and clarity. The simplicity and ease of the statements of classical composers might seem banal to the modern ear (in some cases, of course), if their music were not so brilliant.

Each of the Viennese classics had a bright, unique personality. Haydn and Beethoven gravitated more towards instrumental music - sonatas, concertos and symphonies. Mozart was universal in everything - he created everything with ease. He had a huge influence on the development of opera, creating and improving its various types - from opera buffa to musical drama.

In terms of composers’ preferences for certain figurative spheres, Haydn is more typical of objective folk-genre sketches, pastoralism, gallantry; Beethoven is close to heroism and drama, as well as philosophy, and, of course, nature, and to a small extent, refined lyricism. Mozart covered, perhaps, all existing figurative spheres.

Genres of musical classicism

The musical culture of classicism is associated with the creation of many genres instrumental music– such as a sonata, symphony, concerto. A multi-part sonata-symphonic form (a 4-part cycle) was formed, which is still the basis of many instrumental works.

In the era of classicism, the main types of chamber ensembles emerged - trios and string quartets. System developed Viennese school forms is still relevant today - modern “bells and whistles” are layered on it as a basis.

Let us briefly dwell on the innovations characteristic of classicism.

Sonata form

The sonata genre existed at the beginning of the 17th century, but the sonata form was finally formed in the works of Haydn and Mozart, and Beethoven brought it to perfection and even began to break the strict canons of the genre.

The classical sonata form is based on the opposition of two themes (often contrasting, sometimes conflicting) - the main and secondary - and their development.

The sonata form includes 3 main sections:

1. first section – exposition(carrying out the main topics),
2. second - development(development and comparison of themes)
3. and the third - reprise(a modified repetition of an exposition, in which there is usually a tonal convergence of previously opposed themes).

As a rule, the first, fast parts of a sonata or symphonic cycle were written in sonata form, which is why the name sonata allegro was assigned to them.

Sonata-symphonic cycle

In structure, the logic of the sequence of movements, symphonies and sonatas are very similar, hence common name their whole musical form– sonata-symphonic cycle.

A classical symphony almost always consists of 4 movements:

• I – fast active part in its traditional sonata allegro form;
• II – slow movement (its form, as a rule, is not strictly regulated - variations are possible here, and three-part complex or simple forms, and rondo sonatas, and slow sonata form);
• III - minuet (sometimes scherzo), the so-called genre movement - almost always complex three-part in form;
• IV is the final and final fast movement, for which the sonata form was also often chosen, sometimes the rondo or rondo sonata form.

Concert

The name of the concert as a genre comes from the Latin word concertare - “competition”. This is a piece for orchestra and solo instrument. Instrumental concert, created during the Renaissance and which received a simply grandiose development in the work of the Viennese classics, acquired a sonata-symphonic form.

String Quartet

The composition of a string quartet usually includes two violins, a viola and a cello. The form of the quartet, similar to the sonata-symphonic cycle, was already determined by Haydn. Mozart and Beethoven also made great contributions and paved the way for further development this genre.

The musical culture of classicism became a kind of “cradle” for the string quartet; in subsequent times and to this day, composers do not stop writing more and more new works in the concert genre - this type of work turned out to be so in demand.

The music of classicism amazingly combines external simplicity and clarity with deep internal content, which is not alien to strong feelings and drama. Classicism, in addition, is the style of a certain historical era, and this style is not forgotten, but has serious connections with the music of our time (neoclassicism, polystylistics).

The main features of Russian classicism

Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.

The characters are clearly divided into positive and negative, and have meaningful names.

The plot is usually based on love triangle: heroine – hero-lover, second lover (unlucky).

At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.

The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place (the action takes place in one place), action (1 storyline).

Start

The first classicist writer in Russia was Antioch Cantemir. He was the first to write works of the classic genre (namely satires, epigrams and others).

The history of the emergence of Russian classicism according to V.I. Fedorov:

1st period: literature of Peter's time; it is of a transitional nature; the main feature is the intensive process of “secularization” (that is, the replacement of religious literature with secular literature - 1689-1725) - the prerequisites for the emergence of classicism.

2nd period: 1730-1750 - these years are characterized by the formation of classicism, the creation of a new genre system, in-depth development of the Russian language.

3rd period: 1760-1770 - further evolution classicism, the flowering of satire, the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of sentimentalism.

4th period: the last quarter of a century - the beginning of the crisis of classicism, the formation of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies (1. Direction, development, inclination, aspiration; 2. Concept, idea of ​​presentation, image).

Trediakovsky and Lomonosov

Classicism received the next round of development in Russia under Trediakovsky and Lomonosov. They created the Russian syllabic-tonic system of versification and introduced many Western genres (such as madrigal, sonnet, etc.) The syllabic-tonic system of versification is a system of syllabic-stressed versification. It includes two rhythm-forming factors - syllable and stress - and implies a regular alternation of text fragments with an equal number of syllables, among which stressed syllables alternate with unstressed ones in a certain regular way. It is within the framework of this system that most Russian poetry is written.

Derzhavin

Derzhavin develops the traditions of Russian classicism, being a successor to the traditions of Lomonosov and Sumarokov.

For him, the purpose of a poet is to glorify great deeds and censure bad ones. In the ode “Felitsa” he glorifies the enlightened monarchy, which is personified by the reign of Catherine II. The intelligent, fair empress is contrasted with the greedy and selfish court nobles: You are the only one who does not offend, You do not offend anyone, You see through foolishness, Only you do not tolerate evil...

The main object of Derzhavin’s poetics is man as a unique individual in all the wealth of personal tastes and preferences. Many of his odes have philosophical character, they discuss the place and purpose of man on earth, the problems of life and death: I am the connection of worlds existing everywhere, I am the extreme degree of matter; I am the center of the living, the initial feature of the deity; I decay with my body in dust, I command thunder with my mind, I am a king - I am a slave - I am a worm - I am a god! But, being so wonderful, when did I come from? - unknown: But I couldn’t be myself. Ode "God", (1784)

Derzhavin creates a number of examples of lyrical poems in which the philosophical tension of his odes is combined with an emotional attitude to the events described. In the poem “The Snigir” (1800), Derzhavin mourns the death of Suvorov: Why are you starting a war song like a flute, dear bullfinch? With whom will we go to war against Hyena? Who is our leader now? Who is the hero? Where is the strong, brave, fast Suvorov? Severn thunder lies in the grave.

Before his death, Derzhavin begins to write an ode to THE RUIN OF HONOR, from which only the beginning has reached us: The river of times in its rush carries away all the affairs of people and drowns peoples, kingdoms and kings into the abyss of oblivion. And if anything remains Through the sounds of the lyre and trumpet, It will be devoured by the mouth of eternity And the common fate will not leave!

The Fall of Classicism

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A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself.

Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Directions of classicism in architecture: Palladianism, Empire style, Neo-Greek, “Regency style”.

The main feature The architecture of classicism was an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity volumetric shape. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.

The emergence of the classicism style

In 1755, Johann Joachim Winckelmann wrote in Dresden: “The only way for us to become great, and if possible inimitable, is to imitate the ancients.” This call to update modern Art, taking advantage of the beauty of antiquity, perceived as an ideal, found active support in European society. The progressive public saw in classicism a necessary contrast to court baroque. But the enlightened feudal lords did not reject imitation of ancient forms. The era of classicism coincided with the era bourgeois revolutions- English in 1688, French - 101 years later.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

Historical characteristics of the classicism style

By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe.

Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban planning ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.

From Rococo forms, initially marked by Roman influence, after the completion of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin in 1791, a sharp turn was made towards Greek forms. After the wars of liberation against Napoleon, this “Hellenism” found its masters in K.F. Schinkel and L. von Klenze. Facades, columns and triangular pediments became the architectural alphabet.

The desire to transform into modern construction the noble simplicity and calm grandeur of ancient art led to the desire to completely copy the ancient building. What F. Gilly left as a project for a monument to Frederick II, by order of Ludwig I of Bavaria, was carried out on the slopes of the Danube in Regensburg and received the name Walhalla (Walhalla “Chamber of the Dead”).

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.

Architects Napoleonic France took inspiration from majestic images military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form triumphal arch Carrousel and Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style.

In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities.

In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were redesigned in accordance with the principles of classical rationalism. To authentic museums of classicism under open air cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have become. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.

In the period following Napoleonic wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up Munich and Berlin, respectively, with grandiose museums and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon.

In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaux-Arts).

The centers of construction in the classicist style were princely palaces- residences, particularly famous were the Marktplatz (marketplace) in Karlsruhe, Maximilianstadt and Ludwigstrasse in Munich, as well as construction in Darmstadt. The Prussian kings in Berlin and Potsdam built primarily in the classical style.

But palaces were no longer the main object of construction. Villas and country houses could no longer be distinguished from them. The scope of state construction included public buildings - theaters, museums, universities and libraries. To these were added buildings for social purposes - hospitals, homes for the blind and deaf-mute, as well as prisons and barracks. The picture was complemented by country estates of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie, town halls and residential buildings in cities and villages.

The construction of churches no longer played a primary role, but remarkable buildings were created in Karlsruhe, Darmstadt and Potsdam, although there was a debate about whether pagan architectural forms were suitable for a Christian monastery.

Construction features of the classicism style

After the collapse of the great historical styles that had survived centuries, in the 19th century. There is a clear acceleration in the process of architecture development. This becomes especially obvious if we compare the last century with the entire previous thousand-year development. If early medieval architecture and Gothic cover about five centuries, Renaissance and Baroque together - already only half of this period, then classicism took less than a century to take possession of Europe and penetrate overseas.

Characteristic features of the classicism style

With a change in the point of view on architecture, with the development of construction technology, and the emergence of new types of structures in the 19th century. There was also a significant shift in the center of the world development of architecture. In the foreground are countries that did not experience the highest stage of Baroque development. Classicism reaches its peak in France, Germany, England and Russia.

Classicism was an expression of philosophical rationalism. The concept of classicism was the use of ancient form-formation systems in architecture, which, however, were filled with new content. The aesthetics of simple ancient forms and a strict order were put in contrast to the randomness and laxity of architectural and artistic manifestations of the worldview.

Classicism stimulated archaeological research, which led to discoveries about advanced ancient civilizations. The results of archaeological expeditions, summarized in extensive scientific research, laid theoretical basis movement, whose participants believed ancient culture the pinnacle of perfection in the art of construction, an example of absolute and eternal beauty. The popularization of ancient forms was facilitated by numerous albums containing images of architectural monuments.

Types of classicism style buildings

The character of architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls outside and inside are divided by small pilasters and cornices. In the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans, symmetry prevails.

The color scheme is characterized by light pastel colors. White color, as a rule, serves to identify architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.

The most significant urban planning concepts and their implementation in nature at the end of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism. During this period, new cities, parks, and resorts were founded.