Pathos
Pathos
PAPHOS - see Aesthetics.
Literary encyclopedia. - At 11 t.; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Fritsche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .
Pathos
(from Greek pathos - suffering, inspiration, passion), emotional content work of art, feelings and emotions that the author puts into the text, expecting the reader’s empathy. IN modern literary criticism the term is used in combination with “the pathos of a work” - for example, the pathos of “Dead Souls” and “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol(in the words of the author himself) - “laughter visible to the world through tears invisible to him.” In the history of literature, the term "pathos" had different meanings: in ancient theory, pathos is passion as a property of the soul, its ability to feel something. In German classical aesthetics, pathos is a set of passions that determines the content of human behavior. For the German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, pathos is the essential content of the human “I” (for example, the pathos of Romeo is his love for Juliet). V. G. Belinsky for the first time shifts the emphasis from the properties of a person to the properties of the text: pathos is characteristic not of the writer or his hero, but of the work or creativity as a whole. Modern literary criticism is close to Belinsky’s interpretation. Sometimes the word “pathetic” is used to mean “too emotional, too tragic.”
Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .
Pathos
PATHOS. The literal meaning of the word (Greek) is passion, suffering. Was originally introduced as special term into the theory of eloquence. From the field of oratory, the term P. and its derivative - pathetic - moved into the theory of literature or poetics. Moreover, the main misconception of all old theories of literature, with the exception of the newest ones, was that poetry was not sufficiently distinguished from oratory, and the concepts characterizing the latter were entirely transferred to the field of poetry theory. So, for example, “decorating epithet” belongs to rhetoric, not poetry, since in poetry the epithet has a significant, and not just a decorative, meaning. Pathos in rhetoric, i.e. in the theory of eloquence, it relates mainly to the final part of the speech, with which they want to especially influence the listeners, using a number of techniques directed in this direction. In relation to fiction Pathos generally means passionate inspiration that pervades a work or individual parts of it. At the same time, artistic inspiration can be distinguished from artistic mood as follows: in the first we note strength, tension, in the second - depth, sublimity, sophistication. But, of course, there cannot be a completely precise distinction here and the words: artistic pathos- often used in the sense of even artistic inspiration in general (see this word) with indifference to its shades. The derivative from the word P. - pathetic - always retains the meaning of passionate, ebullient excitement, which at the same time has a certain strength and concentration. Philosophers who wrote on issues of art loved to study in detail the signs and properties of pathetic, touching, sublime and other types of artistic experience. But it is unlikely that this classification has great value in the face of the basic and direct question of the philosophy of art or aesthetics about what artistry is—beauty or the beautiful in art, or—more broadly: artistic—beauty or the beautiful in general (i.e., outside of art).
Joseph Eiges. Literary Encyclopedia: Dictionary literary terms: In 2 volumes / Edited by N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925
Synonyms:
See what "Paphos" is in other dictionaries:
See Pathos. Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editor: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983. PAPHOS... Philosophical Encyclopedia
- (Greek pathos passion). Inspiration, passionate penetration of the idea. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. PAPHOS Greek. pathos, from pascho, to endure, to experience a feeling, passion. Inspiration;... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
PATHOS, pathos, many. no, husband (Greek pathos) (book). 1. Passionate inspiration, animation. “The unknown language sounded with harsh pathos.” Nekrasov. “Pathos is always a passion that is burned into a person’s soul by an idea and always strives for an idea... ... Dictionary Ushakova
Cm … Dictionary of synonyms
pathos - antique concept, meaning suffering caused by the person’s own actions, driven strong passion, that is, the resolution of passion through suffering. In the teachings of Aristotle, pathos is one of the basic concepts of aesthetics: death or other tragic... Great psychological encyclopedia
- (Greek πάθος feeling, emotion) a rhetorical category corresponding to a style, manner or way of expressing feelings that are characterized by emotional sublimity and inspiration. The category was first fully developed by Aristotle, who... ... Wikipedia
pathos- PAPHOS, PATOS a, m. pathos m. gr. pathos suffering. False pathos, pomposity. Ganshina. 1. Feeling of inspiration, elation. BAS 1. Pathos is always a passion kindled in a person’s soul by an idea and always striving for an idea. Belinsky op. A … Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language
- (Greek pathos suffering) an ancient concept denoting suffering, which was caused by a person’s own actions, driven by a strong passion, i.e. resolution of passion in suffering. In the teachings of Aristotle, pathos was considered one of the main... ... Psychological Dictionary
Pathos- PAPHOS. The literal meaning of the word (Greek) is passion, suffering. It was originally introduced as a special term in the theory of eloquence. From the field of oratory, the term P. and its derivative pathetic moved into theory... ... Dictionary of literary terms
pathos- PAPHOS, a, m. The right to perform at the end (or at other most advantageous time) of the concert, when the audience is already fully prepared to perceive the performance. Whom do we put into pathos? Put stars on pathos. I went to the beginning and sacrificed pathos. Poss. from the muses... Dictionary of Russian argot
Books
- Pathos of a work of art, E. G. Rudneva. The book examines the problems of the ideological orientation of a work of art, in methodological and theoretical aspect illuminated wide circle questions - about the specifics of artistic...
Pathos- this is the main emotional tone, the main emotional mood of the work, as well as the emotional-evaluative coverage of a particular character, event, phenomenon by the author.
Heroics, or heroic pathos, associated with the active, effective affirmation of lofty ideals, in the name of achieving which heroes have to overcome very serious obstacles, risk their own well-being, and often their lives. The ballad of M.Yu. is permeated with heroic pathos. Lermontov "Borodino".
Tragedy, or tragic pathos, expresses suffering, unbearable sorrow. As a rule, it is associated with situations in which any decision of the hero will inevitably lead him to misfortune, and his choice is a choice “of two evils.” Tragic pathos is based on a conflict that does not have a successful resolution (such is the conflict between Danila Burulbash and the Sorcerer in N.V. Gogol’s “Terrible Vengeance”). I. A. Bunin’s short story “Lapti” is characterized by tragic pathos.
Romance, or romantic pathos, in its manifestations it is very similar to heroic pathos, since it conveys a strong emotional experience, aspiration towards a sublime and significant ideal. But romantic pathos is based not on the active implementation of a set goal, but on the experience of a dream (often unattainable), on the search for means of translating this dream into reality. M. Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Mtsyri” is based on romantic pathos.
Sentimentality, or sentimental pathos, arises when in a work the author deliberately emphasizes his emotional attitude to what is depicted and persistently strives to evoke similar emotions in the reader. Example: poem by N. A. Nekrasov “Peasant Children”.
Drama, or dramatic pathos, manifests itself in works where the relationships of the characters or the character’s relationship with the outside world are characterized by particular tension and conflict, but, unlike tragic situations, a favorable outcome is possible here, although it requires the characters to make the right decisions and activity, decisive action. Example: V. G. Rasputin’s short story “French Lessons.”
Humor, or humorous pathos, we feel in works that present us with comic characters and situations. This pathos, as a rule, is accompanied by a good-natured smile from the reader. Example: vaudeville A.P. Chekhov's "Bear".
Satire, or satirical pathos, directed against the rocks that “lash” with laughter, causing not so much fun as indignation of the reader. Example: A.P. Chekhov’s short story “Chameleon”.
Invective as a type of pathos, it involves the frank expression of accusations against people or events. Example: A. S. Pushkin “The Desert Sower of Freedom,” where the poet clearly expresses his indignation towards people endowed with a slave psychology, deprived of the concept of honor.
Lyrical pathos involves the creation of a special atmosphere in the work, tuning the reader to display a subjectively interested attitude towards what is described by the author.
Finally, the last element included in the ideological the world of the work, is pathos, which can be defined as the leading emotional tone of a work, its emotional mood. A synonym for the term “pathos” is the expression “emotional- value orientation"*. To analyze pathos in a work of art means to establish its typological variety, the type of emotional-value orientation, attitude towards the world and man in the world. We now turn to a consideration of these typological varieties of pathos.
___________________
* Cm.; Esin A.B., Kasatkina, T.A. System of emotional-value orientations // Philological sciences. 1994., no. 5–6. pp. 10–18.
Epic-dramatic pathos represents a deep and undoubted acceptance of the world as a whole and oneself in it, which is the essence of the epic worldview. At the same time, this is not a thoughtless acceptance of a cloudlessly harmonious world: being is recognized in its original and unconditional conflict (drama), but this conflict itself is perceived as a necessary and fair side of the world, because conflicts arise and are resolved, they ensure the very existence and dialectical development of being . Epico-dramatic pathos is the maximum trust in the objective world in all its real versatility and inconsistency. Note that this type of pathos is rarely represented in literature, and even less often it appears in pure form. Examples of works based generally on epic-dramatic pathos include Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, Rabelais’s novel Gargantua and Pantagruel, Shakespeare’s play The Tempest, Pushkin’s poem “Do I wander along the noisy streets...” Tolstoy's epic novel "War and Peace", Tvardovsky's poem "Vasily Terkin".
The objective basis of the pathos of heroism is the struggle of individuals or groups for the implementation and defense of ideals, which are necessarily perceived as sublime. At the same time, people's actions are certainly associated with personal risk, personal danger, and are associated with the real possibility of a person losing some significant values - even life itself. Another condition for the manifestation of the heroic in reality is the free will and initiative of man: forced actions, as Hegel pointed out, cannot be heroic. The writer’s ideological and emotional awareness of the objectively heroic leads to the emergence of heroic pathos. "Heroic pathos in literature<...>affirms the greatness of the feat of an individual or an entire team, its value and necessity for the development of a nation, people, humanity”*. The desire to remake the world, the structure of which seems unjust, or the desire to defend an ideal world (as well as one close to the ideal and seemingly so) - this is the emotional basis of heroism.
___________________
* Rudneva EG. The pathos of a work of art. M., 1977. P. 160.
In literature it is not difficult to find works entirely or mainly built on heroic pathos, and specific situations, as well as the sublime ideals of heroism, can be very different. We encounter heroism in “The Song of Roland” and in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, in Gogol’s “Taras Bulba” and in Voynich’s “Gadfly”, in Gorky’s novel “Mother”, in Sholokhov’s stories and many other works.
With heroism as pathos based on the sublime, other types of pathos that have a sublime character come into contact - first of all, tragedy and romance. Romance is related to heroism by the desire for a sublime ideal. But if heroism is a sphere of active action, then romance is a region of emotional experience and aspiration that does not turn into action. The objective basis of romance is such situations in personal and public life, when the realization of a sublime ideal is either impossible in principle or impracticable at a given time historical moment. However, on such an objective basis, not only the pathos of romance can, in principle, arise, but also tragedy, irony, and satire, so that the decisive factor in romance is still the subjective moment, the moment of experiencing an irreparable gap between dream and reality.
One of the special (and very common) cases of romance is the dream of the heroic, an orientation towards the heroic ideal in the absence of the opportunity to translate it into reality. This kind of romance is characteristic, for example, of young people in “quiet” periods of history: young men and girls often feel that they were “too late to be born” in order to participate in revolutions and wars - an example of this type of romance is early work V. Vysotsky: “...And in the basements and semi-basements // The kids wanted to run under the tanks // They didn’t even get a bullet...” However, the sphere of romance is broader than this craving for heroism. This emotional-value orientation places all values in the realm of the fundamentally unattainable. The natural world of romance is a dream, a fantasy, a daydream, therefore romantic works so often they are turned either to the past (“Borodino” and “Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” by Lermontov, “Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich” by A.K. Tolstoy, “Shulamith” by Kuprin), or to outright exoticism (the southern poems of Pushkin, “Mtsyri” by Lermontov, “Giraffe” by Gumilyov), or to something fundamentally non-existent (“Double” by A. Pogorelsky, “Demon” by Lermontov, “Aelita” by A.N. Tolstoy).
In the history of literature, many works are marked by the pathos of romance. Romance should not be confused with romanticism as a literary movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries; it is found in a variety of historical eras, as Belinsky* also pointed out. Obviously, romantic pathos originated in ancient lyrics; Among the works that are closer to us, we point out “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by Gogol, “Mtsyri” by Lermontov, “First Love” by Turgenev, “Old Woman Izergil” by Gorky, the early works of Blok and Mayakovsky.
___________________
* Belinsky V.G. Full collection cit.: In 13 volumes. T. 7. pp. 144–183.
The pathos of romance can appear in literature in combination with other types of pathos, in particular, with irony (Blok), heroism (“Good!” Mayakovsky), satire (Nekrasov).
The pathos of tragedy is the awareness of loss, and irreparable loss, of some important life values – human life, social, national or personal freedom, the possibility of personal happiness, cultural values, etc. Literary scholars and aestheticians have long considered the insoluble nature of a particular life conflict to be the objective basis of the tragic. In principle, this is true, but not entirely accurate, because the insolubility of a conflict is, strictly speaking, a conditional thing and not necessarily tragic. The first condition of the tragic is the regularity of this conflict, a situation where its unresolved nature cannot be tolerated. Secondly, by the intractability of a conflict we mean the impossibility of its successful resolution - it is certainly associated with victims, with the death of certain indisputable humanistic values. This is, for example, the nature of the conflict in Pushkin’s “Little Tragedies,” Ostrovsky’s “The Thunderstorm,” Bulgakov’s “White Guard,” Tvardovsky’s poems “I was killed near Rzhev...”, “I know, it’s not my fault...”, etc. p.
___________________
* See, for example: Borev Yu. Aesthetics. M., 1981. P. 80; Literary encyclopedic dictionary. P. 442.
A tragic situation in life can also arise by chance, as a result of an unfavorable combination of circumstances, but such situations are not of much interest to literature. She is more interested in the tragic natural, arising from the essence of characters and situations. The most fruitful thing for art is this tragic conflict, when insoluble contradictions are in the soul of the hero, when the hero is in a situation of free choice between two equally necessary, but mutually exclusive values. In this case, the tragic acquires maximum depth; Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”, Lermontov’s “Hero of Our Time”, Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”, “ Quiet Don" Sholokhov, "The Fall" by Camus, "The Defiler of the Ashes" by Faulkner and many other works.
In sentimentality - another type of pathos - we, as in romance, observe the predominance of the subjective over the objective. Sentimentality literally translated from French means sensitivity; it represents one of the first manifestations of humanism, but a very peculiar one. In certain situations, almost every person happens to show sentimentality - for example, most normal people cannot pass indifferently past the suffering of a child, a helpless person or even an animal. Sentimentality as the ability to “pity” very often combines subject and object (a person feels sorry for himself; this feeling is apparently familiar to everyone from childhood and has found its ideal artistic embodiment in Tolstoy's Childhood). But even if sentimental pity is directed at the phenomena of the surrounding world, the person reacting to it always remains in the center - touching, compassionate. At the same time, sympathy for another in sentimentality is fundamentally ineffective; it acts as a kind of psychological substitute real help(such, for example, is the artistically expressed sympathy for the peasant in the works of Radishchev and Nekrasov).
In its developed form, sentimentality appeared in literature in the middle of the 18th century, giving its name literary direction sentimentalism. The pathos of sentimentality often played a dominant role in the works of Richardson, Rousseau, Karamzin, Radishchev, and partly Goethe and Stern. IN further development In literature we also encounter, although infrequently, the pathos of sentimentality, for example, in “Old World Landowners” and “The Overcoat” by Gogol, some stories from Turgenev’s “Notes of a Hunter” (“Singers”, “Bezhin Meadow”), and in his story “ Mumu”, in the works of Dickens, Dostoevsky (“Humiliated and Insulted”, “Poor People”), Nekrasov.
Moving on to consider the following typological varieties of pathos - humor and satire - we note that they are based on the general basis of the comic. Literary and aesthetic scholars have dealt extremely heavily with the problem of defining the comic and its essence, noting mainly that the comic is based on the internal contradictions of an object or phenomenon*. The essence of the comic conflict was perhaps most accurately defined by N.G. Chernyshevsky: “internal emptiness and insignificance, hiding behind an appearance that has a claim to content and real meaning”**. More broadly, the objective basis of the comic can be defined as the contradiction between ideal and reality, norm and reality. It should only be noted that the subjective understanding of such a contradiction will not always and not necessarily occur in a comic way.
___________________
* On various theories of the comic, see: Dzemidok B. On the comic. M, 1974. P. 560.
** Chernyshevsky N.G. Full collection cit.: In 15 vols. M, 1949. T. P. P. 31.
A satirical image appears in a work when the object of satire is recognized by the author as irreconcilably opposed to his ideal, being in an antagonistic relationship with him. F. Schiller wrote that “in satire, reality, as a kind of imperfection, is opposed to the ideal as supreme reality"*. Satire is aimed at those phenomena that actively interfere with the establishment or existence of the ideal, and sometimes are directly dangerous for its existence. Satirical pathos has been known in literature since ancient times (for example, ridiculing the enemy in folk tales and songs, satirical tales etc.), however, in its developed form, satire is brought to life primarily by social struggle, therefore we find widespread satirical pathos in the literature of antiquity. Renaissance and Enlightenment; such is the satire of Russian revolutionary democrats, the satire of Russian literature XX century
___________________
* Schiller F. Articles on aesthetics. M.; L., 1935. P. 344.
Sometimes the object of satire turns out to be so dangerous for the existence of the ideal, and its activities are so dramatic and even tragic in their consequences, that understanding it no longer causes laughter - this situation develops, for example, in Saltykov-Shchedrin’s novel “The Golovlevs.” At the same time, the connection between satire and the comic is broken, therefore such denying pathos, not associated with ridicule, should obviously be considered a special, independent type of ideological and emotional attitude to life, denoting this type with the term “invective.” We find such a solution, in particular, in the Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary: “there is, however, not a comic satire, inspired by indignation alone (see Invective)”*. Such a prominent specialist in this field as E.Ya. also spoke about the need to especially highlight a non-satirical, but denying attitude towards reality. Elsberg**.
___________________
* Literary encyclopedic dictionary. P. 162. Wed. also p. 121.
** Elsberg Ya.E. Questions of the theory of satire. M., 1957. P. 287 et seq.
For example, Lermontov’s poem “Farewell, unwashed Russia...” has the pathos of invective. It expresses a sharply negative attitude towards the autocratic police state, but there is no ridicule, comedy, or expectation of laughter. The work does not use a single element of satirical poetics itself, designed to create a comic effect: there is no hyperbolism, no grotesque, no absurd, illogical situations and speech structures. In form and content, this is a short lyrical monologue, expressing the poet’s very serious feeling - a feeling of hatred for “the country of slaves, the country of masters.” Pathos of the same type is also characteristic of Lermontov’s poem “On the Death of a Poet” (or rather, its second part), many of Horace’s “satires”, journalistic denunciations in Radishchev’s “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”, A. Platonov’s story “The Inanimate Enemy”, Simonov’s poem “If your home is dear to you...” (which, by the way, in the first edition in 1942 was called “Kill him!”) and many other works.
The distinction between satire and humor causes certain difficulties for the typology. In broad literary usage, these types of pathos are distinguished as “merciless ridicule” and “soft ridicule,” respectively. This is true to a certain extent, but not enough, since here quantitative rather than qualitative differences are recorded and it remains unclear why destructive laughter occurs in one case, and vice versa in another.
In order to determine the qualitative originality of humorous pathos, it should be taken into account that humor is an expression of a fundamentally different value orientation than satire and invective. In a certain sense, he is directly opposed to them in terms of initial attitudes.
“Uncompromising judgments about the subject of ridicule, outright tendentiousness is a way of expressing the author’s individuality inherent in satire, striving to establish an impassable boundary between one’s own world and the subject of denunciation”*. The same, and perhaps to an even greater extent, applies to invective. In humor, the relationship between object and subject is different; The attitude towards life’s contradictions and inconsistencies is different. Humor overcomes the objective comedy of reality (its inherent contradictions and inconsistencies) by accepting them as an inevitable and, moreover, a necessary part of life, as a source not of anger, but of joy and optimism. Humor, unlike satire and invective, first of all does not deny, but affirms pathos, although, of course, it may well reveal the inconsistency of certain phenomena, thereby performing a denying function. But in relation to being in its integrity, humor affirms.
___________________
* Literary encyclopedic dictionary. P. 370.
Unlike satire, the subject of a humorous worldview does not separate himself from the rest of the world, and therefore sees not only the shortcomings and contradictions of reality, but also his own. The ability and willingness to laugh at oneself is the most important subjective prerequisite for humor.
Thus, humor in its deepest basis is an expression of optimism, mental health, acceptance of life - it is no coincidence that they often talk about life-affirming humor. This is fully manifested in such works as “Gargantua and Pantagruel” by Rabelais, “The Legend of Till Eulenspiegel” by S. de Coster, “The Adventures of the Good Soldier Schweik” by Hasek, “Vasily Terkin” by Tvardovsky, etc. However, on that general ideological basis Based on the emotional basis that was just discussed, other variants of humorous pathos may arise. The range of humorous laughter is extremely wide, as is the range of situations that excite humorous pathos. Significant place humor occupies such works as “Don Quixote” by Cervantes, “Posthumous Notes” Pickwick Club"Dickens, "Old World Landowners" and "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka" by Gogol, in the comedies of Ostrovsky, Chekhov, Shaw, O. Wilde, in the stories and tales of Leskov, Chekhov, Sholokhov, Shukshin and others. Even in such, it would seem, In inappropriate genres, such as tragedy, humor sometimes plays an important role - let us remember, for example, Shakespeare's tragedies "Hamlet" and "King Lear": in the first, the bearers of a humorous attitude are gravediggers, in the second - the jester.
Humor usually concludes the consideration of the varieties of pathos, but it seems necessary to introduce another variety into this typology - irony. The concept of it is not sufficiently developed in modern literary criticism. Most often, irony is in one way or another identified with one of the varieties of humor or satire, differing from them only in the form of expression of ridicule*. In this form, isolating irony into an independent type is, of course, not justified. But meanwhile, irony also has its own “field of activity”, which does not coincide with the “field of activity” of humor and satire. The ironic vision of the world is deeply unique. The main subjective basis of irony is skepticism, which humor and satire usually lack.
___________________
* See: Ibid. P. 132; Dictionary literary terms. M., 1974. S. 109-110, 146.
In addition to the subjective, irony as pathos also has objective specificity. Unlike all other types of pathos, it is not aimed at objects and phenomena of reality as such, but at their ideological or emotional understanding in one or another philosophical, ethical, artistic system. The pathos of irony is that it “disagrees” with one or another assessment (usually a high one) of a character, or a situation, or life in general. So, for example, in Voltaire’s philosophical story “Candide”, Voltaire interprets the character of Pangloss humorously. But this is not the main pathos of the story, since in it the author’s focus is not on character as such, but on the philosophical system of “unbridled optimism” preached by Pangloss. And here the pathos of irony comes into its own. Voltaire does not agree with the absolute optimism of Pangloss, showing (in particular, using the example of his own fate) that far from “everything is for the best in this best of worlds.” But - even in this characteristic feature irony - the opposite opinion (“everything is for the worse in this worst of worlds”), which is held by Pangloss’s opponent, is also not accepted by Voltaire. The pathos of the story, therefore, lies in mocking skepticism towards extreme, absolutist philosophical systems. This is the pathos of irony.
Irony is based on the discrepancy between a phenomenon and a judgment about it, mockingly and skeptically debunking this judgment, but not in favor of a judgment of the opposite, which is the difference between irony and any other pathos that combines negation with the affirmation of the opposite. It is in this capacity - to mockingly debunk every statement about the world - that irony appeared in world literature as special kind pathos. The first time this happened was probably in Plato's Socratic dialogues. Socrates' irony in them is directed not at the subject of the dispute itself, but at its understanding by the opponent - hasty, inaccurate, contradictory, overestimated, etc. At the end of antiquity we encounter the same pathos in Lucian. For example, in his “Dialogues in the Kingdom of the Dead” the ironic depiction of the Olympian gods is directed not against the gods themselves as such (Lucian does not believe in them), and not against the human characters embodied in them (which are only schematically outlined), but against a certain philosophical and religious belief system, against the traditional concept of the world.
“Irony,” writes T. Mann, “is the pathos of the middle; she is an intellectual reservation that frolics between contrasts and is in no hurry to take sides and make a decision, for it is full of foreboding that in big questions where it comes to a person, any decision may turn out to be premature and untenable and that it is not the decision that is goal, but harmony, which, since we are talking about eternal contradictions, perhaps lies somewhere in eternity, but which already carries within itself a playful slip called irony.”*
___________________
* Mann T. Collection. cit.: In 10 volumes. M., 1954. T. 9. P. 603-604.
From what has been said, it is clear that irony occupies an exceptional place among other ideological and emotional orientations, since it is universally opposed to them - this is especially true for types of pathos based on the sublime. The pathos of romance and sentimentality is most often subject to ironic rethinking - let us point out, in particular, “ An ordinary story" Goncharova, " Cherry Orchard» Chekhov.
Until now, we have been talking about the pathos of the entire work, which reflects the author’s ideological and emotional orientation. But for analysis it is often important to determine the author’s ideological and emotional attitude towards a particular character, and often also this hero’s own ideological and emotional orientation. Let us explain what we mean. For example, the general pathos of Tolstoy’s epic novel “War and Peace” can well be defined as epic-dramatic. But at the same time, in the system of this general ideological and emotional orientation of the author, his attitude towards different characters various. Thus, in relation to Helen Kuragina or Napoleon, the pathos of invective prevails, in the image of Andrei Bolkonsky tragedy is accentuated, Tikhon Shcherbaty, Captain Tushin, capital Timokhin embody heroic pathos, etc. Even the same character at different moments in the narrative can express different ideological and emotional orientations. Thus, with the general epic-dramatic pathos in Tvardovsky’s poem “Vasily Terkin”, tragedy, humor, heroism, and invective come to the fore. This entire rather complex range of ideological and emotional orientations constitutes the uniqueness of the ideological world of the work and requires mandatory analysis.
It is equally important sometimes to determine the ideological and emotional orientation of the hero himself, that is, to establish his attitude to the world. So, for example, to analyze the content of the work, it is necessary to understand that Lensky in Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin” embodies the romantic world orientation; the ideological and emotional essence of Gogol’s Chichikov is a combination of sentimentality and cynicism; in Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov embodies an ideological and emotional conglomerate of tragedy, heroism and invective; Sonya is closest to the epic-dramatic orientation with a considerable addition of sentimentality; Svidrigaigov is a typical ironist, Luzhin is a cynic, etc. The process of determining the ideological and emotional orientation of characters, as a rule, is not only useful, but also interesting - this is one of the fruitful ways to a living comprehension of not only the ideological world, but also the problems of the writer.
Studying the types of pathos is a necessary condition for analyzing an individual work. Correctly determining the type of pathos in a particular work means understanding one of the most essential aspects of its content and opening the way for the subsequent understanding of artistic originality. In addition, determining the type of pathos turns out to be extremely important for selective analysis, which will be discussed below.
Having finished considering the various aspects of artistic content, we now move on to the analysis of the artistic form, which also has a complex composition and structure. In artistic form we will distinguish three structural level: depicted world, artistic speech and composition. In principle, it does not matter which side of the artistic form to start the analysis from, you just need to take into account that all three sides are interconnected and together they create the aesthetic unity of the artistic form - style.
TEST QUESTIONS:
1. What is the ideological world and what are its functions in the structure of the work?
2. What aspects does the ideological world contain?
3. What is the author's assessment? What to do if it is impossible to unambiguously determine the author’s assessment in relation to a particular hero?
4. What is the author’s ideal and how is it expressed in a work of art?
5. What is the idea of a work and what are the ways of expressing it artistically?
6. Is an idea the rational or emotional side of the ideological world?
7. How are the theme, problem and idea of the work fundamentally different from each other?
8. What is the pathos of a work of art?
9. What typological types of pathos do you know?
10. Briefly describe the main distinctive features every type of pathos.
11. What's the difference?
a) between heroics and romance, b) between satire and humor, c) between satire and invective?
12. What is unique about irony as a type of pathos?
Any literary work contains a certain emotional mood that is transmitted to the reader. Some works make the reader sad, others make him laugh, others make him feel proud, as if the reader, and not the hero of the work he read, had committed the deeds described in the book. The feelings that arise when reading force the reader to evaluate everything that happens in the artistic world of a literary work from a special angle, determine his interest, personal participation in the fate of the characters, and empathy. This feature of literary works is called the pathos of the work.
The term “pathos” covers the area of ideological and emotional assessments, the sphere of the writer’s evaluative relations to the objective reality reproduced and comprehended by him. Pathos embodies to the greatest extent the value orientation of the writer in a particular socio-cultural situation,” 1 emphasized A. B. Esin.
1 Esin A. B. “Literary work: typological analysis.” - M., 1992.
Pathos is the main emotional tone, the main emotional mood of the work, as well as the emotional and evaluative coverage of a particular character, event, phenomenon by the author. From this definition it immediately becomes clear that pathos is directly related to the author’s position and the ideological sound of the work. Pathos helps the writer to animate what he creates. art world, and sets the reader up for one or another emotional perception of the characters and events occurring in the artistic world of a literary work.
The general mood, the emotional “atmosphere” of the work organizes the reader’s perception, concentrates his attention on the accents placed by the author when describing his characters and events.
Pathos arises as a result of a complex combination of the author's assessment of the events described and the portrayal of the characters. To identify it, the author’s position and the system of ethical values affirmed in the work are very important, which means that pathos is formed not only by emotions, but also by the thoughts and rational constructions of the author. The rational and emotional in pathos are inextricably fused, determining and supporting each other. M. M. Bakhtin drew attention to this: “Non-evaluative understanding is impossible. It is impossible to separate understanding and assessment: they are simultaneous and constitute a single integral act” 1 .
1 Bakhtin M. M. Aesthetics verbal creativity. - M., 1979.
IN literary work pathos itself always plays an evaluative role, expresses approval or disapproval, compassion or ridicule, admiration or horror, therefore the feeling and understanding of pathos largely contributes to the understanding of the author’s position in relation to the artistic world created by the writer. Hidden in pathos is the creator’s biased and interested attitude towards his creation.
There are several main types of pathos: heroism, tragedy, romance, sentimentality, drama, humor, satire, invective. Before paying attention to the characteristics of each of these types, it should be noted that sometimes (this happens infrequently) the author consciously and diligently hides his personal attitude to what is being described and seeks to avoid emotional coloring, putting on the mask of a disinterested, outside observer. So, for example, I. A. Bunin’s short story “On the Way to Rome” was written. Nothing is accidental in art; such “neutrality” of the narrative is a special artistic device. Here we are not dealing with the absence of pathos, but with a special variety of it, which can be called zero pathos.
Heroics, or heroic pathos, is associated with the active, effective affirmation of lofty ideals, in order to achieve which heroes have to overcome very serious obstacles, risk their own well-being, and often their lives. M. Yu. Lermontov’s ballad “Borodino” is permeated with heroic pathos. This is the pathos of a feat, but it prerequisite is not a personal, but a socially significant goal and life affirmation.
Tragedy, or tragic pathos, expresses suffering, unbearable sorrow. As a rule, it is associated with situations in which any decision of the hero will inevitably lead him to misfortune, and his choice is a choice “of two evils.” Tragic pathos is based on a conflict that does not have a successful resolution (such is the conflict between Danila Burulbash and the Sorcerer in N.V. Gogol’s “Terrible Vengeance”). I. A. Bunin’s short story “Lapti” is characterized by tragic pathos.
Romance, or romantic pathos, in its manifestations is very similar to heroic pathos, since it conveys a strong emotional experience, aspiration towards a sublime and significant ideal. But romantic pathos is based not on the active implementation of a set goal, but on the experience of a dream (often unattainable), on the search for means of translating this dream into reality. M. Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Mtsyri” is based on romantic pathos.
Here we need to make an important clarification: romance (pathos) should in no case be confused with romanticism ( creative method), which sometimes leads to external resemblance two terms.
Sentimentality, or sentimental pathos, arises when in a work the author deliberately emphasizes his emotional attitude towards the depicted and persistently strives to evoke similar emotions in the reader. This type of pathos is present, for example, in the poem “Peasant Children” by N. A. Nekrasov.
Dramatism, or dramatic pathos, manifests itself in works where the relationships of characters or the character’s relationship with the outside world are characterized by particular tension and conflict, but unlike tragic situations, a favorable outcome is possible here, although it requires the characters to accept right decisions and activity, decisive action. Drama is clearly manifested in V. G. Rasputin’s short story “French Lessons.”
We feel humor, or humorous pathos, in works that present us with comic characters and situations. This pathos is usually accompanied by a good-natured smile from the reader. Remember the vaudeville by A.P. Chekhov “The Bear”, permeated with sparkling humor, and you can easily imagine the power of influence of this type of pathos on the reader.
But satire, or satirical pathos, is not at all harmless, although it is also based on the presence of comic elements in the work. Satire is directed against vices that are “scourged” with laughter, causing not so much fun as indignation of the reader. Let us turn once again to the work of A.P. Chekhov. His short story “Chameleon”, of course, amuses us, but it is unlikely that any of the readers will sympathize with Ochumelov, who evokes only contempt and obvious rejection.
Invective as a type of pathos involves the frank expression of accusations against people or events. Here is one of the poems by A. S. Pushkin:
Desert sower of freedom,
I left early, before the star;
With a clean and innocent hand
Into the enslaved reins
Threw a life-giving seed -
But I only lost time
Good thoughts and works...
Graze, peaceful peoples!
The cry of honor will not wake you up,
Why do the herds need the gifts of freedom?
They should be cut or trimmed.
Their inheritance from generation to generation
A yoke with rattles and a whip.
Here the poet clearly expresses his indignation towards people endowed with a slave psychology, deprived of the concept of honor.
Sometimes in literature there is a type of pathos that is called lyrical. Lyrical pathos involves the creation of a special atmosphere in a work, setting the reader up to display a subjectively interested attitude towards what is described by the author. You can achieve such an atmosphere with the help of lyrical landscapes, lyrical digressions and comments, lyrical portraits, etc. Its task is to create in the reader a mood that would help him feel (not understand, not realize, but just feel) state of mind the author at the time of creation of the work (A.S. Pushkin “K***” “I remember a wonderful moment...”).
It should be borne in mind that often several types of pathos can be combined in one work. For example, in A. S. Pushkin’s novel “Dubrovsky,” tragic pathos (the death of Andrei Dubrovsky), satirical pathos (the image of Shabashkin), romantic pathos (the theme of “noble robbery”), etc., etc., are manifested in certain episodes, but the main one that runs through everything the work, of course, is of dramatic pathos.
The ability to change the reader’s mood, to compare characters who evoke different attitudes towards themselves, is also effective remedy immersion in the artistic world of a work that writers willingly use. Changing pathos, its variation in the process of narration helps the reader to feel author's position, to penetrate deeper into his creative concept.
The most important
Pathos is the main emotional tone, the main mood of the work, as well as the emotional and evaluative coverage of a particular character, event, or phenomenon by the author. There are several main types of pathos: heroism, tragedy, romance, sentimentality, drama, invective, humor, satire, irony, lyricism.
IN everyday speech We often hear the word “pathos” and various expressions with this word. It’s possible to intuitively understand what this means, but let’s still figure out what pathos is.
Modern definition of the word "pathos"
Pathos is a way of behavior that is characterized by feigned pomposity, playing to the public. This definition is used by most young people when describing a pretentious person.
In fact, this word has a broader and deeper meaning. For example, what is pathos in literature?
Pathos in literature
Pathos (translated from Greek - passion, inspiration) is a rhetorical category that was developed by Aristotle. It is designed to convey sublime emotions, passionate, passionate and inspired. Pathos can safely be called the “soul of the work,” because it permeates it and accompanies it throughout the entire story. It influences the reader’s consciousness and shapes his attitude towards the main characters, forcing him to sympathize.
Types of pathos in literature
Works in literature are revealed differently thanks to different types pathos:
- Heroic pathos affirms the majesty of the main character or an entire team, whose actions are aimed at achieving humanistic goals. Most often this is a struggle for the independence of one’s people, for their rights, for peace. We meet in such works as “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Taras Bulba” by N. Gogol. Tragic pathos depicts the deep and contradictory experiences of the heroes, the desire for a high ideal and the impossibility of achieving it (A. Blok’s poem “The Twelve”).
- Dramatic pathos is distinguished by the absence of a person’s fundamental opposition to external circumstances; the characters’ experiences are individual and hidden within themselves (“Red and Black” by Stendhal, “Père Goriot” by Balzac).
- Romantic pathos affirms man's desire for an emotionally universal ideal. For example, “Borodino” by Lermontov or “Aelita” by Tolstoy.
- Sentimental pathos is close to romantic, but is limited to the family and everyday sphere of manifestation of the characters’ feelings (“The Sorrows of Young Werther” by Goethe, “Mu-mu” by Turgenev).
- Let us separately highlight what humanistic pathos is: it is the affirmation of the humanistic ideals of humanity, their elevation. We can meet it in such works as “The Iliad” by Homer, “The Knight in the Tiger’s Skin” by Rustaveli, “The Overcoat” by Gogol and many others. etc.