Sooner or later, the reader of any genre of literature thinks about what pathos is. This phenomenon occurs quite often, and therefore it is important for people to know about it. detailed information. An explanation of the terminology with the history of its occurrence and division into varieties can be found in the article.
Terminology in the past
If we translate what pathos is, literally from Greek language, then the term will denote passion, suffering or inspiration. Aristotle was the first to give the correct literary device. This is the transmission of feelings of fear or others strong emotions through the powerful act of the hero. Most often, these are tragic events that introduce the reader into a state of catharsis, where what happened can be rethought. The main character's suffering is caused by his own actions and the series of events that happen after them. The character is always driven to such actions by strong passion or inspiration, and therefore strong experiences for readers or viewers of the work are guaranteed. Modern writers they talk about pathos as the emotional tone of a work or mood, which is where the varieties come from.
First applications
What pathos is was unknown until speakers began to actively use this technique. The skill of speaking well was not given to everyone, because delivering speeches to a large crowd of people was difficult. That is why basic concepts were created that could be guided by. The term “logos” denoted all the knowledge and ideas of the speaker that he could use during the proclamation of the speech. "Ethos" is the totality personal qualities person and their use in front of a group of listeners to awaken moral ideals. In turn, the concept of “pathos” was the second term. These are conveyed emotions from the author’s lips that should ask certain tone the mood of the listeners. They may not always be positive, because everything depends on the goals pursued by the speaker. For example, for indignation, pathos must be used to point out certain vices, to spitefully ridicule something, to have a completely negative traits.
Sacrifice of heroes
Every reader of works where the main characters are great warriors, fighters for a just cause, and other types of the like knows what the pathos of the heroic style is. Central character strives to commit an important act, and therefore necessarily takes risks for himself or loved ones. Without this important trait, heroic pathos cannot exist. The same role can be played by some values or moral principles that are important to a person. Second prerequisite The use of the technique is the need to act freely. Taking risks with possible sacrifices under someone else's coercion will no longer be heroic. Only a powerful, free urge to change the world or create one’s own ideals can make the reader feel exactly what heroic pathos is. Vivid examples Most heroes are of this type Greek mythology. This list includes Hercules, Achilles, Hector, Perseus and others who are remembered for their risky exploits in order to achieve their goals.
Dramatic narration
The meaning of the word "pathos" can be understood from the example of the dramatic style, where the technique is used in most cases. In works with its presence, the author tries to convey as accurately and emotionally as possible all the emotional anxieties and suffering of the characters. In this case, there is no orientation towards the main character, because every person on the pages of the book can experience internal struggle, misunderstandings in personal life, general misunderstanding of innermost ideas. These issues are examined in detail so that the reader can gain a deeper understanding of the essence. Often, writers use this technique along with condemning the characters for their actions, incorrect thinking, or negative aspirations that led to such problems. There are times when drama arises under pressure external factors, which can even split the personality into parts. Then the drama already fully develops into tragedy, which Bulgakov perfectly showed in the novel “Running”.
Tragedy on the pages
Tragic pathos is far from uncommon in literature and is used in a wide variety of styles. It is determined by the full awareness of one’s losses, which can no longer be returned. This loss must be significant in order to show the tragedy of the events taking place. These could be life values, the disintegration of moral principles, demonstration of the falsity of ideology, the obsolescence of cultural trends, and most often simply death. This could be one of the central characters or someone close to you. Such losses must necessarily be natural during the outbreak of some kind of conflict. If this does not happen, then the meaning of the word “pathos” in its main form will be lost. Another important feature of the tragic style of using the technique is the obligatory resolution of the problem that happened, but with the losses described above. Vivid examples in this case are the stories “ White Guard"Bulgakov or "The Thunderstorm" by Ostrovsky.
ridicule
Understanding what pathos is in literature using the satirical style as an example can sometimes be difficult. This is because the author indignantly ridicules various vices of people, their existence in everyday life, various ideologies and other things. Most often, a certain type of character possessed by a character in the plot becomes a model for the use of satire. Such a person does not represent anything, but objectively tries to be incredibly important, smart, insightful. Endowing oneself with other properties that are not at all inherent to it is the main message for the emergence of satirical pathos. When a person begins to emotionally rethink such a character, he will most often be angry at such a contradiction or cause laughter. Gogol perfectly demonstrated the use of the technique in a deceitful tone of praise, which he used to describe the upper strata of society in the capital of his time. Irony and satire in this case are intended to show a paradox that makes an ordinary thinking person want to laugh. Often satire shows the absurdity of a person, which leads to disgust in readers.
Direct feelings
There are different types of pathos in literature, and sentimental has its place among them. This technique is used quite skillfully by the authors, because every person has sensitivity. This word translated into French and denotes the name of the style. The technique is often depicted to show sympathy for a person with his troubles, but no action is provided here. Sentimentality plays the role of a psychological substitute for reality physical assistance. Even a lonely character who is upset for certain reasons can experience similar experiences within himself. This can be seen in Goethe's work "The Sorrows of Young Werther", where the main character, a young man, sought to get into the society of the nobles. When he managed to do this, he was stunned by the principles by which they live. In order to somehow heal this wound, the guy looks for himself in the simplicity of rural life, helping poor people, admiring nature. Hopeless love was added to general sentimental emotions, which led to suicide.
Romance
The rise of civil freedom in one's actions for a romantic person is directly related to the style of pathos of the same name. Main character dreams of certain ideals in a characteristic manner, which causes a state of delight within himself. The characters who provide examples of romantic pathos are always spiritually rich, but they fail to demonstrate this trait. Life always puts a spoke in their wheels, does not allow them to fully open up, which introduces notes of tragedy. For society, romantic individuals with a characteristic manifestation of feelings are always outcasts and they are included in the ranks ordinary people do not accept. A conflict arises between a bright romantic personality and a society that does not want to understand the desire of a spiritually rich person for ideals.
Pathos (Greek) - suffering, passion, excitement, inspiration. According to Aristotle, death or another tragic event that occurs to the hero of a work, causing compassion or fear in the viewer, which is then resolved in a cathartic experience. Suffering caused by the person's own actions strong passion, resolution of passion in suffering.
IN modern literary criticism Pathos is defined as the leading emotional tone of a work, its emotional mood.
Pathos can be heroic, dramatic, tragic, satirical, romantic and sentimental.
HEROIC PATHOS - reflects the greatness of a person performing a feat in the name of a common cause. At the same time, the actions of the heroes must certainly be associated with personal risk, personal danger, associated with the real possibility of a person losing some significant values - even life itself. Another condition for the manifestation of the heroic is the free will and initiative of a person: forced actions, as Hegel pointed out, cannot be heroic. The desire to remake the world, the structure of which seems unjust, or the desire to defend an ideal world (as well as one close to the ideal and seemingly so) - this is the emotional basis of heroism. Examples: in ancient Greek myths these are images of heroes, or, as they were called in Greece, heroes who perform unprecedented feats for the benefit of their people. This is Hercules with his twelve labors or Perseus, who cut off the head of the gorgon Medusa. In Homer's Iliad - Achilles, Patroclus, Hector, who became famous in the battles of Troy. In more later works folklore - historical songs, epics, heroic tales, epics, military stories- in the center stands a mighty, fair hero-warrior, protecting his people from foreign invaders.
DRAMATIC PATHOS - the author, with severe emotional anguish and heartfelt sympathy, depicts the suffering of his characters in the drama of their situation, experiences, and struggle. This drama is manifested in experiences, conflicts in private life, in the unsettled personal destiny, and in ideological “wandering.” The author can condemn his characters and see in their suffering fair retribution for the falsity of aspirations that led to the drama of the situation. Often the influence of external circumstances gives rise to internal contradiction in the character’s mind, a struggle with himself. Then the drama deepens to the point of tragedy. An example is Bulgakov's "Running".
TRAGIC PAPHOS - among the ancient Greeks, it was associated with the fact that the will of the gods dominates the lives of people, the fatal predetermination of fate, in whose power the whole life of people is in their power, or with the concept of the guilt of tragic heroes who violated some higher law and are paying for it. (for example, "Oedipus" by Sophocles). The pathos of tragedy is the awareness of the loss, and the irreparable loss, of some important life values - human life, social, national or personal freedom, the possibility of personal happiness, cultural values, etc. The first condition of the tragic is the regularity of this conflict, a situation where its unresolved nature cannot be tolerated. Secondly, the intractability of a conflict means the impossibility of its successful resolution - it is certainly associated with victims, with the death of certain indisputable humanistic values. This, for example, is the nature of the conflict in Pushkin’s “Little Tragedies,” Ostrovsky’s “The Thunderstorm,” and Bulgakov’s “The White Guard.”
If heroic pathos is always an ideological statement of the characters depicted, then the dramatic and tragic types of pathos can contain both their affirmation and their negation. A satirical depiction of characters always carries a condemning ideological orientation.
SATIRICAL PATHOS is an indignant and mocking denial of certain aspects of public life. Human characters and relationships become the subject of mocking interpretation and corresponding depiction. Satirical pathos arises in the process of a generalized emotional understanding of the comic discrepancy between the real emptiness of the characters’ existence and subjective claims to significance. For example, the feignedly laudatory tone of Gogol’s depiction of the capital secular society, expresses his mocking, ironic attitude towards high-ranking people who attach great importance to all sorts of trifles. It is “penetrating” laughter that deepens the subject that constitutes an integral property of satire. Authors who use satirical pathos in their works: Gogol, Griboyedov, Saltykov-Shedrin, Ilf and Petrov, Bulgakov.
SENTIMENTAL PATHOS. Sentimentality literally translated from French means sensitivity. In certain situations, almost every person happens to show sentimentality - for example, most normal people cannot pass indifferently past the suffering of a child, a helpless person or even an animal. But even if sentimental pity is directed at the phenomena of the surrounding world, the person reacting to it always remains in the center - touched, compassionate. At the same time, sympathy for another in sentimentality is fundamentally ineffective; it acts as a kind of psychological substitute real help(such, for example, is the artistically expressed sympathy for the peasant in the works of Radishchev and Nekrasov). This is emotional tenderness caused by the awareness of moral virtues in the characters of people who are socially humiliated or associated with an immoral privileged environment. One of the most characteristic sentimental works is Goethe's story “The Sorrows of Young Werther.” Its pathos is created by the depiction of the experiences of a young man who is disillusioned with the empty and vain life of the urban noble-bureaucratic society. Werther seeks satisfaction in simple rural life, in sensitive admiration of nature, in helping the poor. His touching love There is no hope for Lotte - Lotte is married. And because of the dramatic hopelessness of his situation, the impracticability of his lofty ideal, Werther commits suicide. Another example: “Moo-moo” by Turgenev.
ROMANTIC PATHOS - the rise of romantic self-awareness is caused by aspiration towards the ideal of civil freedom. This is an enthusiastic state of mind caused by the desire for a sublime ideal. A romantic hero is always tragic, he does not accept reality, he is at odds with himself, he is a rebel and a victim. Romantic heroes- spiritually rich natures who cannot express themselves fully, because life sets boundaries for them and undeservedly expels them from society. Romanticism is characterized by a violent manifestation of feelings. Conflict with the surrounding world and complete rejection of it, contrasting it with a higher, ideal world created by the creative imagination of the artist is the basis of the worldview of the romantics. For example, the early Gorky denied the lack of heroism in the life around him, dreamed of strong, strong-willed natures, of people who were fighters. In contrast to the gray, bourgeois existence, the world of his stories is bright and exotic. The action takes place in an unusual setting, surrounded by romantic elements. The heroes of the works are more symbolic than typical. "Song about the Falcon", "Song about the Petrel", "Danko".
Romance is related to heroism by the desire for a sublime ideal. But if heroism is a sphere of active action, then romance is a region of emotional experience and aspiration that does not turn into action. The objective basis of romance is such situations in personal and public life when the realization of a sublime ideal is either impossible in principle or impracticable at the moment. historical moment. However, on such an objective basis, not only the pathos of romance can, in principle, arise, but also tragedy, irony, and satire, so that the decisive factor in romance is still the subjective moment, the moment of experiencing an irreparable gap between dream and reality. The natural world of romance is a dream, a fantasy, a daydream, therefore romantic works so often they are turned either to the past (“Borodino” by Lermontov), or to something fundamentally non-existent (“Aelita” by A.N. Tolstoy).
What is the difference between sentimental and romantic pathos? Sentimentality is tenderness addressed to an obsolete, fading way of life with its simplicity and moral integrity of relationships and experiences. Romance is enthusiasm addressed to one or another “superpersonal” ideal and its embodiments.
PAPHOS IN MASS CULTURE. In epic cinema, pathos is a vital element. Without it, the viewer will be purple, they killed Epic Hero, or he prevailed. The popcorn eater needs to get goosebumps from the severity and epicness of Mesilov on the screen. For this purpose, Pathos Moments are used: sublime Monologues, In Which Every Word Must Be Written With A Capital Letter, accompanied by hysterical symphonic music. And if the hero dies, then he will not vomit blood and become stiff, but will pronounce the Farewell Monologue, close his eyes and sharply throw back his head, as if his food had been pulled out. Pathetic moments are necessarily accompanied by pathetic phrases: “Ail bi bek!”, “Come and get it!”; “Our arrows will block the sun from you - We will fight in the shadows!”; “Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword!” and so on.
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1. (Greek suffering), a passion that causes an action that entails suffering, as well as the suffering itself experienced fundamentally. waste element in antiquity. If P. is in the middle of a tragic actions, then this is pathetic. tragedy (as opposed to ethical, in which character and its development are more important). P.'s effect in tragedy intensifies when P. appears unexpectedly. P. belongs to the emotional elements of tragedy and creates in it, as in pathetic. music (playing the flute), creatures, the premise of catharsis. P.'s action in poetry and music is not aimed at educating the listener, but is associated with pleasure. Plato therefore argues with tragedy, while Aristotle justifies it.
2. city on zatt. coast of Cyprus, colonized in Mycenaean times by the Arcadians. Place of veneration of Aphrodite.
Excellent definition
PATHOS
from Greek pathos – suffering, inspiration, passion), the emotional content of a work of art, feelings and emotions that the author puts into the text, expecting the reader’s empathy. In modern literary criticism, the term is used in combination with “pathos of a work” - for example, pathos “ Dead souls" and "The Inspector General" by N.V. Gogol (according to the author himself) - “laughter visible to the world through tears invisible to him.” In the history of literature, the term "pathos" had different meanings: in ancient theory, pathos is passion as a property of the soul, its ability to feel something. In German classical aesthetics, pathos is a set of passions that determines the content of human behavior. For the German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, pathos is the essential content of the human “I” (for example, the pathos of Romeo is his love for Juliet). V. G. Belinsky for the first time shifts the emphasis from the properties of a person to the properties of the text: pathos is characteristic not of the writer or his hero, but of the work or creativity as a whole. Modern literary criticism is close to Belinsky’s interpretation. Sometimes the word “pathetic” is used to mean “too emotional, too tragic.”
This is pathos a term that has had different meanings in the history of art. In ancient aesthetics, pathos denotes passion or a state associated with strong excitement. For Aristotle in the Nicomachean Ethics (4th century BC) pathos is a property of the soul, passion in in a broad sense words; accordingly, as stated in his Rhetoric, good speech must be “pathetic,” i.e. influence feeling. Gradually, the center of gravity in the interpretation of pathos moved from a certain mental experience to those properties artistic image, which cause this experience and make it possible: the concept of “pathos” in different time associated with the characteristics of style, hero, category of the sublime (the anonymous treatise “On the Sublime,” 1st century, was attributed to Longinus) and especially with the theory of the tragic, for which the internal conflict of pathos is important. Even I. Winckelmann in “History of the Art of Antiquity” (1763), noting in Laocoon “the struggle of the intellect with suffering physical nature“, concluded: “So, with any pathos, the physical feeling must be attracted by suffering, and the spirit by freedom.”
This thesis was the starting point for F. Schiller (“On the Pathetic,” 1793), who wrote that pathos presupposes both the depiction of deep suffering and the struggle against it, testifying to the moral height and freedom of the tragic hero. In German classical aesthetics, an understanding of pathos was formulated as a set of certain passions and impulses that make up the content of human behavior. According to F. Riedel, who included in his “Theory fine arts and Sciences" extensive section "On pathos" (Riedel F.J. Theorie der schonen Kunste und Wissenschaften. Neue Auflage, Wien; Jena, 1774), pathos consists of: the desire for perfection, the love instinct, hope, surprise, the desire for pleasure. This tendency to interpret pathos turned out to be very significant for the aesthetics of G.W.F. Hegel, who understood it as “substantial”, “essential, rational content that is present in the human “I”, filling and penetrating the entire soul” (Antigone’s love for her brother in the tragedy of Sophocles, the love of Romeo and Juliet in the tragedy of William Shakespeare).
V.G. Belinsky considered pathos as an “idea-passion” that the poet “contemplates... not with reason, not with reason, not with feeling... but with all the fullness and integrity of his moral being.” Thus, Belinsky transferred the terminological designation of pathos from artistic character on itself artistic activity and used this concept to characterize the work or creativity of the writer as a whole: the pathos of “Dead Souls” (1842) by N.V. Gogol is humor, contemplating life “through the laughter visible to the world” and “tears invisible to him”; the pathos of A.S. Pushkin’s creativity is artistry and artistry. In Russian literary consciousness In the 19th century, both Aristotelian and Hegelian interpretations of pathos were present, but Belinsky's interpretation had the predominant influence. There was also the concept (as in Western European aesthetics) of “empty pathos” - i.e. pompous, internally unjustified rhetoric. In modern literary criticism the term "pathos" has lost its strict definition, sometimes coming close in meaning to the concepts of “tragic”, “lofty”, sometimes - with Belinsky’s interpretation, sometimes (in a negative or ironic aspect) - with the concept of “empty pathos”.
Not everything in the content of a literary work is determined by themes and ideas. The author expresses an ideological and emotional attitude to the subject with the help of images. And, although the author's emotionality is individual, some elements are naturally repeated. IN different works similar emotions and similar types of illumination of life appear. The types of this emotional orientation include tragedy, heroism, romance, drama, sentimentality, as well as the comic with its varieties (humor, irony, grotesque, sarcasm, satire).
The theoretical status of these concepts is subject to much debate. Some modern scientists, continuing the traditions of V.G. Belinsky, call them “types of pathos” (G. Pospelov). Others call them “modes of artistry” (V. Tyupa) and add that these are embodiments of the author’s concept of personality. Still others (V. Khalizev) call them “worldview emotions.”
At the heart of the events and actions depicted in many works is conflict, confrontation, the struggle of someone with someone, of something with something.
At the same time, contradictions can be not only different strengths, but also of different content and character. A kind of answer that the reader often wants to find can be considered the author’s emotional attitude to the characters of the characters portrayed and to the type of their behavior, to conflicts. Indeed, a writer can sometimes reveal his likes and dislikes for a particular type of personality, while not always clearly assessing it. So, F.M. Dostoevsky, condemning what Raskolnikov came up with, at the same time sympathizes with him. I.S. Turgenev examines Bazarov through the lips of Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov, but at the same time appreciates him, emphasizing his intelligence, knowledge, and will: “Bazarov is smart and knowledgeable,” Nikolai Petrovich Kirsanov says with conviction.
It is on the essence and content of the contradictions exposed in a work of art that its emotional tone depends. And the word pathos is now perceived much more broadly than a poetic idea; it is the emotional and value orientation of the work and characters.
So, different types pathos.
A tragic tone is present where there is a violent conflict that cannot be tolerated and cannot be safely resolved. This may be a contradiction between man and non-human forces (fate, God, the elements). This could be a confrontation between groups of people (a war of nations), and finally, an internal conflict, that is, a clash of opposing principles in the mind of one hero. This is an awareness of an irreparable loss: human life, freedom, happiness, love.
The understanding of the tragic goes back to the works of Aristotle. The theoretical development of the concept relates to the aesthetics of romanticism and Hegel. The central character is a tragic hero, a person who finds himself in a situation of discord with life. This is a strong personality, not bent by circumstances, and therefore doomed to suffering and death.
Such conflicts include contradictions between personal impulses and supra-personal restrictions - caste, class, moral. Such contradictions gave rise to the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, who loved each other, but belonged to different clans of Italian society of their time; Katerina Kabanova, who fell in love with Boris and understood the sinfulness of her love for him; Anna Karenina, tormented by the awareness of the gap between her, society and her son.
A tragic situation can also arise if there is a contradiction between the desire for happiness, freedom and the hero’s awareness of his weakness and powerlessness in achieving them, which entails motives of skepticism and doom. For example, such motives are heard in the speech of Mtsyri, pouring out his soul to the old monk and trying to explain to him how he dreamed of living in his aul, but was forced to spend his entire life, except for three days, in a monastery. The tragic fate of Elena Stakhova from the novel by I.S. Turgenev “On the Eve”, who lost her husband immediately after the wedding and went with his coffin to a foreign country.
The height of tragic pathos is that it instills faith in a person who has courage, remaining true to himself even before death. Since antiquity tragic hero you have to experience a moment of guilt. According to Hegel, this guilt lies in the fact that a person violates the established order. Therefore, works of tragic pathos are characterized by the concept of tragic guilt. It is in both the tragedy “Oedipus the King” and the tragedy “Boris Godunov”. The mood in works of this type is sorrow, compassion. Since the second half of the 19th century, the tragic has been understood more and more widely. It includes everything that causes fear and horror in human life. After the spread of the philosophical doctrines of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, the existentialists gave universal meaning to the tragic. In accordance with such views, the main property of human existence is catastrophicity. Life is meaningless due to the death of individual beings. In this aspect, the tragic is reduced to a feeling of hopelessness, and those qualities that were characteristic of a strong personality (affirmation of courage, perseverance) are leveled out and not taken into account.
IN literary work both tragic and dramatic principles can be combined with the heroic. Heroism arises and is felt there and then when people take or perform active actions for the benefit of others, in the name of protecting the interests of a tribe, clan, state, or simply a group of people in need of help. People are ready to take risks and face death with dignity in the name of realizing lofty ideals. Most often, such situations occur during periods of national liberation wars or movements. Moments of heroism are reflected in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in Prince Igor’s decision to enter into the fight against the Polovtsians. At the same time, heroic-tragic situations can also occur in peacetime, in moments of natural disasters that arise due to the “fault” of nature (floods, earthquakes) or man himself. Accordingly, they appear in the literature. Events in the folk epic, legends, epics. The hero in them is an exceptional figure, his actions are a socially significant feat. Hercules, Prometheus, Vasily Buslaev. Sacrificial heroism in the novel “War and Peace”, the poem “Vasily Terkin”. In the 1930s and 1940s, heroism was required under duress. From the works of Gorky, the idea was instilled: in everyone’s life there should be a feat. In the 20th century, the literature of struggle contains heroics of resistance to lawlessness, heroics of defending the right to freedom (stories by V. Shalamov, novel by V. Maksimov “The Star of Admiral Kolchak”).
L.N. Gumilyov believed that the truly heroic could only exist at the origins of the life of the people. Any process of nation formation begins with heroic deeds small groups of people. He called these people passionaries. But crisis situations that require heroic and sacrificial achievements from people always arise. Therefore, the heroic in literature will always be significant, lofty and inescapable. An important condition Heroic, Hegel believed, is free will. A forced feat (the case of a gladiator), in his opinion, cannot be heroic.
Heroics can also be combined with romance. Romance is an enthusiastic state of personality caused by the desire for something high, beautiful, and morally significant. The sources of romance are the ability to feel the beauty of nature, to feel part of the world, the need to respond to someone else's pain and someone else's joy. Natasha Rostova’s behavior often gives reason to perceive it as romantic, because of all the heroes of the novel “War and Peace”, she alone has a lively nature, a positive emotional charge, and dissimilarity from secular young ladies, which the rational Andrei Bolkonsky immediately noticed.
Romance for the most part manifests itself in the sphere of personal life, revealing itself in moments of anticipation or the onset of happiness. Since happiness in people's minds is primarily associated with love, the romantic attitude most likely makes itself felt at the moment of the approach of love or hope for it. We find images of romantically minded heroes in the works of I.S. Turgenev, for example, in his story “Asya”, where the heroes (Asya and Mr. N.), close to each other in spirit and culture, experience joy, emotional uplift, which is expressed in their enthusiastic perception of nature, art and themselves, in joy communication with each other. And yet, most often, the pathos of romance is associated with an emotional experience that does not turn into action. Achieving a sublime ideal is impossible in principle. Thus, in Vysotsky’s poems, it seems to young men that they were born too late to participate in wars:
And in basements and semi-basements
The kids wanted to see the tanks,
They didn’t even get a bullet...
The world of romance - dream, fantasy, romantic ideas are often correlated with the past, exoticism: “Borodino” by Lermontov, “Shulamith” by Kuprin, “Mtsyri” by Lermontov, “Giraffe” by Gumilyov.
The pathos of romance can appear together with other types of pathos: irony in Blok, heroism in Mayakovsky, satire in Nekrasov.
The combination of heroism and romance is possible in those cases when the hero accomplishes or wants to accomplish a feat, and this is perceived by him as something sublime. Such an interweaving of heroism and romance is observed in “War and Peace” in the behavior of Petya Rostov, who was obsessed with the desire to personally take part in the fight against the French, which led to his death.
The predominant tone in the content of the overwhelming number works of art undoubtedly dramatic. Trouble, disorder, dissatisfaction of a person in the mental sphere, in personal relationships, in social status - these are the real signs of drama in life and literature. The failed love of Tatyana Larina, Princess Mary, Katerina Kabanova and other heroines famous works testifies to the dramatic moments of their lives.
Moral and intellectual dissatisfaction and unrealized personal potential of Chatsky, Onegin, Bazarov, Bolkonsky and others; social humiliation of Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin from the story by N.V. Gogol's "The Overcoat", as well as the Marmeladov family from the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”, many heroines from the poem by N.A. Nekrasov’s “Who Lives Well in Rus'”, almost all the characters in M. Gorky’s play “At the Lower Depths” - all this serves as a source and indicator of dramatic contradictions.
Emphasizing romantic, dramatic, tragic and, of course, heroic moments in the lives of heroes and their moods in most cases becomes a form of expressing sympathy for the heroes, a way of supporting and protecting them by the author. There is no doubt that V. Shakespeare worries together with Romeo and Juliet about the circumstances that impede their love, A.S. Pushkin takes pity on Tatyana, who is not understood by Onegin, F.M. Dostoevsky mourns the fate of such girls as Dunya and Sonya, A.P. Chekhov sympathizes with the suffering of Gurov and Anna Sergeevna, who fell in love with each other very deeply and seriously, but they have no hope of uniting their destinies.
However, it happens that the depiction of romantic moods becomes a way of debunking the hero, sometimes even condemning him. So, for example, Lensky’s vague poems evoke slight irony A. S. Pushkin. F. M. Dostoevsky's depiction of Raskolnikov's dramatic experiences is in many ways a form of condemnation of the hero, who conceived a monstrous option for correcting his life and became confused in his thoughts and feelings.
Sentimentality is a type of pathos with a predominance of subjectivity and sensitivity. All R. In the 18th century, it was dominant in the works of Richardson, Stern, and Karamzin. He is in “The Overcoat” and “Old World Landowners”, in early Dostoevsky, in “Mu-mu”, Nekrasov’s poetry.
Much more often, humor and satire play a discrediting role. Under humor and satire in in this case another variant of emotional orientation is implied. Both in life and in art, humor and satire are generated by such characters and situations that are called comic. The essence of the comic is to discover and identify the discrepancy between the real capabilities of people (and, accordingly, characters) and their claims, or the discrepancy between their essence and appearance. The pathos of satire is destructive, satire reveals socially significant vices, exposes deviations from the norm, and ridicules. The pathos of humor is affirming, because the subject of the humorous sensation sees not only the shortcomings of others, but also his own. Awareness of one's own shortcomings gives hope of healing (Zoshchenko, Dovlatov). Humor is an expression of optimism (“Vasily Terkin”, “The Adventures of the Good Soldier Schweik” by Hasek).
A mocking and evaluative attitude towards comic characters and situations is called irony. Unlike the previous ones, it carries skepticism. She does not agree with the assessment of life, situation or character. In Voltaire’s story “Candide, or Optimism,” the hero with his fate refutes his own attitude: “Everything that is done is for the better.” But the opposite opinion “everything is for the worse” is not accepted. Voltaire's pathos lies in his mocking skepticism towards extreme principles. Irony can be light and not malicious, but it can also become unkind and judgmental. Deep irony, which causes not a smile and laughter in the usual sense of the word, but a bitter experience, is called sarcasm. The reproduction of comic characters and situations, accompanied by an ironic assessment, leads to the appearance of humorous or satirical works of art: Moreover, not only works of verbal art (parodies, anecdotes, fables, stories, short stories, plays), but also drawings and sculptural images can be humorous and satirical , facial performances.
In the story by A.P. Chekhov's “The Death of an Official”, the comic is manifested in the absurd behavior of Ivan Dmitrievich Chervyakov, who, while in the theater, accidentally sneezed on the general’s bald head and was so frightened that he began to pester him with his apologies and pursued him until he aroused the general’s real anger that and led the official to death. The absurdity lies in the discrepancy between the act committed (he sneezed) and the reaction it caused (repeated attempts to explain to the general that he, Chervyakov, did not want to offend him). In this story, the funny is mixed with the sad, since such fear of a high-ranking person is a sign of the dramatic position of a small official in the system of official relations. Fear can give rise to unnaturalness in human behavior. This situation was reproduced by N.V. Gogol in the comedy "The Inspector General". The identification of serious contradictions in the behavior of heroes, giving rise to a clearly negative attitude towards them, becomes a hallmark of satire. Classic designs satire comes from the creativity of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“How a man fed two generals”) Esalnek A. Ya. S. 13-22..
Grotesque (French grotesque, literally - bizarre; comical; Italian grottesco - bizarre, Italian grotta - grotto, cave) - one of the varieties of the comic, combines in a fantastic form the terrible and funny, the ugly and the sublime, and also brings together the distant, combines incompatible, interweaves the unreal with the real, the present with the future, reveals the contradictions of reality. As a form of the comic, the grotesque differs from humor and irony in that in it the funny and amusing are inseparable from the terrible and sinister; As a rule, images of the grotesque carry a tragic meaning. In the grotesque, behind the external improbability and fantasticness, lies a deep artistic generalization important phenomena life. The term “grotesque” became widespread in the fifteenth century, when excavations of underground chambers (grottoes) revealed wall paintings with intricate patterns that used motifs from plant and animal life. Therefore, distorted images were originally called grotesque. How artistic image The grotesque is distinguished by its two-dimensionality and contrast. Grotesque is always a deviation from the norm, a convention, an exaggeration, an intentional caricature, therefore it is widely used for satirical purposes. Examples literary grotesque may serve as N.V. Gogol's story "The Nose" or "Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober" by E.T.A. Hoffmann, fairy tales and stories by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.
To define pathos means to establish the type of attitude towards the world and man in the world.