Catherine's ideology and projectsII.
Catherine II adhered to the policy of “enlightened absolutism”, the main provisions of which were reflected in the “Order” to the Empress of the Statutory Commission (1767):
Creation of a new legislative code based on the principles of educational philosophy;
Abolition of outdated feudal institutions (some class privileges, subordination of the church to the state);
Carrying out peasant, judicial, educational reforms, easing censorship.
Most of these plans were not implemented.
Presentation page 9
Catherine's domestic policyII.
With the “Manifesto on Freedom for the Nobility” (1762) and the “Charter Granted to the Nobility” (1785), Catherine II secured the privileges of the nobility:
The nobles were exempt from taxes and duties.
Noble land ownership increased noticeably.
The exemption of the nobility from compulsory service (introduced by Peter III) was confirmed.
In 1775, the country was divided into 50 provinces instead of the previous 20. The population of the province ranged from 300 to 400 thousand people.
The secularization (confiscation) of church lands in favor of the state continued.
In 1787, a system of city schools was created (main and small public schools)
Presentation page 10
The uprising of E.I. Pugacheva (1773-1775)
In 1773, an uprising of the Yaik Cossacks (who lived in the area of the Yaik River) began, a peasant war led by E. I. Pugachev.
Pugachev proclaimed himself Emperor Peter III.
The peasant uprising covered the lands of the Yaitsk army, the Orenburg region, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkortostan, part of Western Siberia, as well as the Middle and Lower Volga regions.
During the uprising, the Cossacks were joined by Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Chuvashs, Mordovians, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all the provinces where hostilities took place.
Basic demands: abolition of serfdom, restoration of Cossack liberties in areas where Cossacks lived.
In 1775 the uprising was suppressed.
Presentation page 11
XVIIIcentury. Wars with Turkey.
Foreign policy objectives:
the struggle for access to the Black and Azov Seas;
liberation of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus from foreign domination and the unification of all Eastern Slavs in one state;
the fight against revolutionary France in connection with the Great French Revolution that began in 1789;
Presentation page 12
Russian foreign policy in the second halfXVIIIcentury. Partitions of Poland.
Together with Prussia and Austria, Russia participated in the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Poland).
According to the first partition (1772) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, part of eastern Belarus went to Russia.
According to the second section (1793) - Russia received the remaining part of eastern and central Belarus with Minsk, Volyn and Podolia.
According to the third partition (1795), western Belarus, western Volyn, Lithuania and Courland went to Russia.
Thus, almost all the lands of the Eastern Slavs who were part of Kievan Rus were united under Russian rule, with the exception of the Galician lands with Lvov (Galicia), which became part of Austria.
Presentation page 13
Russo-Turkish War 1768-1774
After a number of victories on land (under the leadership of P.A. Rumyantsev, V.M. Dolgorukov and A.V. Suvorov) and at sea (under the leadership of G.A. Spiridonov, A.G. Orlov and S.K. Greig ) the war was over.
According to the termsKuchuk-Kainardzhisky world(1774) Russia received:
access to the Black Sea;
the steppes of the Black Sea region - Novorossiya;
the right to have your own fleet in the Black Sea;
right of passage through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits;
Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to Russia;
The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey;
the Russian government received the right to act as a defender legal rights Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.
Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791 also ended in defeat for Turkey.
ByTreaty of Jassy:
Türkiye recognized Crimea as a possession of Russia;
the territory between the Bug and Dniester rivers became part of Russia;
Turkey recognized Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783.
Presentation page 14
Paul's reformsI (1796-1801)
In 1796, Paul I (son of Catherine II and Peter III) came to power. During his 5 years in power, he carried out important reforms:
1. the law on succession to the throne, according to which the eldest son of the monarch became the heir to the throne,
2. limiting the work of peasants for the landowner to three days a week.
3. reduction of noble privileges and restoration of compulsory service of nobles.
The latter caused discontent among the nobility, and a conspiracy arose during which Paul I was killed.
Presentation page 16
2.1 Life and customs
The second half of the 18th century, namely the period of the reign of Catherine II, went down in history as the “golden age” of the Russian nobility. One of the first manifestos of Catherine II after her accession to the throne was the “Manifesto on the granting of liberty and freedom to the entire Russian nobility,” according to which the nobles were exempted from the duties of military and civil service.
According to the same “Manifesto”, many nobles received lands into their possession, and the peasants, the inhabitants of these lands, were assigned to them. Naturally, these lands had to be improved. Improvement began, as a rule, with the construction of an estate. And the reign of Catherine was the heyday of noble estate culture. But the life of the majority of landowners was not separated by the “Iron Curtain” from the life of the peasants; there was direct contact with folk culture, and a new attitude was emerging towards the peasant as an equal person, as an individual.
Also, the second half of the 18th century was marked by a number of innovations concerning the life of citizens. Especially a lot of new things have appeared in the life of cities. After the government allowed merchants to keep shops in their homes, merchant estates with warehouses and shops appeared in cities, forming entire shopping streets.
Water pipelines appeared in Moscow and St. Petersburg, but for most cities the source of water supply remained numerous wells and nearby reservoirs, as well as water carriers delivering water in barrels.
At the end of the century in some major cities lighting of main streets is being introduced. In Moscow, the first street lamps appeared in the 30s. XVIII century In them, a wick dipped in hemp oil was lit by special order of the authorities.
With the increase in population, hygiene issues became a big problem for city authorities, so the number of public baths in cities was growing, where visitors could have a meal and while away the night for a special fee. For the first time, a special decree of the Senate prohibited the patriarchal custom of bathing together for men and women, and according to the Charter of the Deanery of 1782, persons of the opposite sex were prohibited from entering the bathhouse not on their day.
Another innovation in the second half of the century was the opening of city hospitals. The first of them appeared in St. Petersburg in 1779. But, despite this, the common people firmly retained faith in healers and conspiracies. The government itself strengthened prejudices: in 1771, during the plague epidemic in Kostroma, Catherine II confirmed the decree of 1730 on fasting and religious procession around the city as a means of combating the infection.
2.2 Education and science
In the “Catherine era” the trend towards nationalization of education received a new impetus and new character. If in the first quarter of the century the main goal of education was to satisfy the state’s need for personnel, then Catherine II, with the help of education, sought to influence public consciousness and educate “a new breed of people.” In accordance with this, the principle of class-based education was preserved.
Book publishing played an important role in the spread of literacy and the development of education, which expanded significantly in the second half of the century. Book publishing has ceased to be a privilege of the state. The Russian educator N.I. played a major role in its development. Novikov. His printing houses published books in all branches of knowledge, including textbooks. An important event was the publication in 1757 of “Russian Grammar” by M.V. Lomonosov, which replaced the outdated “Grammar” by M. Smotritsky.
Primary school still remained the least developed link in the education system. As in the previous period, there were diocesan schools for the children of the clergy, and garrison schools for the children of recruits. Only at the end of the century were formally classless main public schools opened in each province, and small public schools in each district. However, the children of serfs were still deprived of the opportunity to receive an education.
Vocational schools continued to occupy a significant position in the education system. The network of medical, mining, commercial and other vocational schools was further developed, and new areas of special education emerged. In 1757 in St. Petersburg, according to the project of I.I. Shuvalov founded the Academy of the Three Most Noble Arts. A Ballet School was opened at the Moscow Orphanage. For teacher training public schools Teachers' seminaries were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg, on the basis of which pedagogical institutes subsequently emerged.
Significant changes have occurred in the system high school. The largest cultural center Russian Empire became created in 1755 according to the project of M.V. Lomonosov and I.I. Shuvalov Moscow Imperial University. The university had philosophical, law and medical faculties. Theology was not taught there until the beginning of the 19th century; all lectures were given in Russian. A printing house was organized at the university, where the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti was published until 1917. In addition to Moscow University, where education in accordance with the charter was classless, noble corps (land, naval, artillery, engineering and pages) and theological academies still operated.
In 1764, the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens (Educational Society of Noble Maidens at the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg) was opened for girls, at which there was a “School for Young Girls” of non-noble origin (later it was transformed into the Alexander Institute).
In 1786, the “Charter of Public Schools” was published - the first legislative act in the field of education. For the first time, unified curricula and a class-lesson system were introduced
By the end of the 18th century. there were 550 educational institutions in the country, with about 60 thousand students; Women's education was started. Despite significant achievements in the spread of literacy and the development of a network of educational institutions, education still remained class-based; it was not universal, compulsory and the same for all categories of the population.
Catherine II continued her policy state support domestic science. Understanding the importance of the development of science for strengthening the economy and defense capability of the country, Catherine II supported various scientific research. For example, it was she who received the first smallpox vaccination in 1768. In the “Era of Catherine”, domestic scientists took a dominant position in the Academy of Sciences, the circle of domestic scientists - academicians, among them the nephew of M.V., grew significantly. Lomonosov mathematician M.E. Golovin, geographer and ethnographer I.I. Lepekhin, astronomer S.Ya. Rumovsky and others. At the same time, fearing any “freethinking,” the empress sought to subordinate the development of science to strict state regulation. This was one of the reasons for the sad fate of many talented Russian self-taught scientists.
Natural sciences in the second half of the 18th century, as in the previous period, developed at an accelerated pace. By the end of the century, domestic natural science had reached the pan-European level. In the second half of the century, active development and description of new lands continued. To study the territory of the Russian Empire, its natural resources, population and historical monuments, the Academy organized 5 “physical” expeditions (1768-1774); polar explorer S.I. Chelyuskin described part of the coast of the Taimyr Peninsula; in honor of Russian navigators D.Ya. and H.P. Laptev named the sea of the Arctic Ocean; S.P. Krasheninnikov, who is considered the founder of Russian ethnography, compiled the first “Description of the Land of Kamchatka”; V. Bering's expedition reached the strait between Asia and America, named after him. G.I. Shelikhov compiled a description of the Aleutian Islands and organized the exploration of Alaska.
By the second half of the 18th century. refers to the origin of domestic agronomic science, one of the founders of which is the Russian writer and naturalist A.T. Bolotov.
2.3 Literature
In the second half of the 18th century. In Russian literature, the intensive creative search that began in the previous period continued. The socio-political role of literature and writers has noticeably increased. XVIII century often called the "century of odes". Indeed, odes became widespread during this period, but in general literature is characterized by a multi-genre nature. Further development has already been achieved famous genres(elegies, songs, tragedies, comedies, satires, etc.), new ones appeared (modern urban story - " Poor Lisa" N.M. Karamzin).
Until the end of the 60s, classicism remained the dominant direction. In the last third of the century, a new literary and artistic direction was born - realism, characterized by social topicality and interest in the inner world of man. Sentimentalism, which appeared in the last quarter of a century, proclaimed the cult of natural feeling, nature, and called for the liberation of man from power social environment. In the literature of sentimentalism, the predominant genres were the lyrical story, family and psychological novel, and elegy. The flourishing of Russian sentimentalism is associated with the work of the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin (the stories "Poor Liza", "The Village", "Natalia, the Boyar's Daughter").
Folk art. In the second half of the 18th century. oral folk art acquired a pronounced anti-serfdom character: songs about the hard lot of peasants and the tyranny of landowners; satirical poems ridiculing gentlemen; jokes in which the main character was a savvy man; stories about the life of serfs and Cossacks. Among the most striking works of this period are “The Tale of the Pakhrinskaya Village of Kamkina”, “The Tale of the Village of Kiselikha” and the song of the runaway peasant “The Lament of the Serfs”.
The patriotic themes traditional for the Russian epic received further development. Folk tales and soldiers' songs reflect the historical battles of the Russian army and the activities of outstanding Russian commanders of the 18th century.
2.4 Art
2.4.1 Visual arts
Second half of the 18th century. - time of intensive development of various species fine arts, which was largely determined by the activities of the Academy of Arts created in 1757. The leading direction of academic painting was classicism, characterized by compositional clarity, clarity of lines, and idealization of images. Russian classicism manifested itself most clearly in historical and mythological painting.
Leading genre national painting the portrait remained. Intensive development secular portrait by the end of the century, it raised it to the level of the highest achievements of modern world portrait art. The largest portrait painters of the era, who were world famous, were F. Rokotov (“Unknown in pink dress"), D. Levitsky, who created a series of ceremonial portraits (from the portrait of Catherine II to portraits of Moscow merchants), V. Borovikovsky (portrait of M.I. Lopukhina).
Along with portrait painting Landscape (S.F. Shchedrin), historical and mythological (A.P. Losenko), battle (M.M. Ivanov) and still life ("tricks" by G.N. Teplov, P.G. Bogomolov) painting developed. In the watercolors of I. Ermenev and the paintings of M. Shibanov, images of the life of peasants appeared for the first time in Russian painting.
M.V. Lomonosov revived the smalt mosaic technique. Under his leadership, easel portraits and battle compositions were created using this technique. In 1864, a mosaic department was founded at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, the main task of which was to produce mosaics for St. Isaac's Cathedral.
At the end of the 18th century. Catherine II's purchase of a number of private art collections in Europe laid the foundation for one of the largest and most significant museums in the world - the Hermitage.
On July 29, 1762, another coup took place as a result of which Catherine II (1762-1796), Catherine proclaimed herself autocrat, and her husband deposed.
Development of crafts, manufactories, domestic and foreign trade in Russia in the 50s - 80s. XVIII century dictated the government's active economic policy. It was dictated by the interests of the nobility and partly large merchants and industrialists. The proclamation of freedom of trade and industrial activity contributed to the development of peasant trade and manufacturing, which undoubtedly was beneficial to the nobility, because “capitalist peasants” were serfs and paid large quitrents and were bought out for freedom for a lot of money. During the reign of Catherine II, 2/3 of the manufactories registered in the second half of the 90s were created. XVIII century
IN social sphere Catherine II's policy was called "enlightened absolutism". “Enlightened absolutism” is a pan-European phenomenon that constituted a natural stage of state development in many European countries. This version of public policy arose under the influence of the ideas of the French Enlightenment. The main slogan of the Enlightenment was the achievement of the "kingdom of reason." Belief in the limitless powers of the human mind gave rise to ideas about the possibility of building a society on reasonable, fair principles. Many figures of the era pinned their hopes on an enlightened monarch who would be able to put their ideas into practice. The policy of "enlightened absolutism" in Russia was an attempt to prevent popular movements against the serfdom system and adapt the landowner economy to new bourgeois relations.
Under the influence of the ideas of the European Enlightenment, Catherine II decided to develop a new Code of Laws, which, while keeping the autocracy and serfdom, would give grounds to talk about Russia as a rule-of-law state. For this purpose, in 1767, Catherine II convened the Legislative Commission in Moscow. Elections of deputies were class-based. The discussion of the peasant issue caused the greatest urgency at the commission meetings. Disputes over this issue became so protracted that the empress became disillusioned with the expediency of the commission's work and came to the conclusion of its dissolution. Under the pretext of war with Turkey in 1768, the commission was dissolved without drawing up a new Code.
The obvious tilt of the internal political course towards protecting the interests of the nobility (Charter to the nobility of 1785; Charter to the cities of 1785) led to the outbreak of the most bloody and brutal peasant war - the war led by Emelyan Pugachev (1773-1775), which demonstrated presence of deep social contradictions in Russian society. The Pugachev uprising caused swipe according to the provincial administration. Catherine took steps to restore and improve local government, to give it stability. In 1775 she published the “Institution on the Provinces”. The new provincial administration relied on the nobility, which increased the empress's dependence on him.
There was an alliance of the most conservative elements of society against everyone else. He greatly slowed down the development of the commercial bourgeoisie and preserved the peasantry in silent and inert slavery, creating the social roots of the modernization crisis, which ultimately required considerable efforts to overcome. Thus, strict adherence to the principles of class society contradicted the modernization processes that had begun in the state.
Since the dissolution of the Statutory Commission, an important feature has emerged in Russian politics: from now on, periods of internal reforms will alternate with periods of active foreign policy. Reforms in Russia were, as it were, too frightening, while the sphere of foreign policy was a more relaxed and reliable field of activity for energetic supporters of enlightened absolutism.
The main directions of Russian foreign policy under Catherine II were southern, western and eastern. The most important task The foreign policy facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century was the struggle for access to the Azov and Black Seas. For a long time, the Crimean Khanate posed a great danger to the southern borders of the empire. From there, with the support of Turkey, Tatar military raids were constantly carried out. At the end of the century, Catherine II fought two victorious wars with Turkey - in 1768-1774. and 1787-1791, as a result of which Russia received Crimea and access to the Black Sea. The port cities of Chersonesus, Odessa, and Sevastopol were created on its coast, which became the military base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. Russia's centuries-old task of strengthening its southern borders and gaining the opportunity for active foreign policy actions in the south has been solved.
Simultaneously with the events of the Russian-Turkish War, Europe was shocked by the events of the Great French Revolution. Revolutionary events turned out to be closely intertwined with the Polish question. Russia has shown very active position in his decision. As a result of three divisions of Poland (1772, 1793 and 1795) between Austria, Prussia and Russia, the latter took over Belarus, right-bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Courland, and part of Volyn. The unification of Belarusian and Ukrainian lands was a progressive act for the development of these peoples.
Russia's influence also grew in the east. Economic and cultural ties between Russia and Kazakhstan were strengthened, and the development of Siberia continued. In the first half of the 18th century. Russian travelers reach Alaska, and in 1784 the construction of permanent Russian settlements on its territory began.
After the death of Catherine II, the throne passed to her son, Paul I (1796-1801). Paul strove to further strengthen the autocracy, to individual power. The transformations of Paul I in the army, his desire to follow the military doctrine of the Prussian king Frederick II, caused serious rejection in the guard, which led to the last palace coup in the history of Russia. Paul 1 was killed by the conspirators. The Russian throne passed to his eldest son Alexander I (1801-1825).
Concluding our brief excursion into the events of the 17th – 18th centuries, we can highlight the following changes in the development of our country:
1. During this period for economic policy The state was characterized by a policy of mercantilism and protectionism. The development of elements of capitalism, however, was hampered by the deepening of serf relations and their penetration into the emerging industry, which led to Russia's growing lag behind the advanced countries of Western Europe;
2. The social policy of the state was aimed at eliminating those social institutions that limited the absolutism of the tsarist power, as well as at creating new social strata and their unification;
3. State legal system of Russia in the 17th – 18th centuries. evolved from an estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. This was expressed in the creation of an extensive bureaucratic apparatus, a new service ideology, the concentration in the hands of the monarch of all legislative, executive and judicial powers, the absence of any bodies or legislative acts limiting his powers;
4. During the XVII – XVIII centuries. Significant changes are also taking place in the spiritual life of Russia. In the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries. the church falls under the control of secular power and is deprived of part of its wealth as a result of the secularization of church land ownership. Internal church life is also complicated by the schism caused by the reforms of the mid-17th century.
This period also saw the formation of a new class secular culture and education, the penetration of Enlightenment ideas into Russia, the formation of various trends in socio-political life;
5. Throughout the XVII – XVIII centuries. Russia's territory is expanding significantly as a result of an active foreign policy. The tasks of breaking out of economic isolation and strengthening state borders were solved, which led to a change in the geopolitical position of Russia and the formalization of its imperial status.
However, despite the efforts state power, Russia remained an agrarian country, entangled in serfdom (feudal) relations, with the absolute power of the monarch. This led to the fact that public life Elements of unfreedom were strengthened, and the sprouts of civil society were harshly suppressed.
Thus, despite a certain success of modernization, Russia at the end of the 18th - early XIX centuries remained a traditional society.
Further reading
1. Anisimov, E.V. Time of Peter's reforms / E.V. Anisimov. - L.: Lenizdat, 1989.
2. Anisimov, E.V., Kamensky, A.B. Russia in the 17th – first half of the 19th centuries / E.V. Anisimov, A.B. Kamensky. - M.: MIROS, 1994.
3. Buganov, V.I. Peter the Great and his time / V.I. Buganov. - M.: Nauka, 1989.
4. Klyuchevsky, V.O. Historical portraits/ V.O. Klyuchevsky. - M.: Pravda, 1990.
5. Pavlenko, N.I. Peter the Great / N.I. Pavlenko. - M.: Mysl, 1994.
6. The first Romanovs on the Russian throne / N.F. Demidova. - M.: Publishing house. Center IRI RAS, 1996.
7. Sorokin, Yu.A. Alexey Mikhailovich / Yu.A. Sorokin // Questions of history. - 1992. - No. 4, 5.
8. With a sword and a torch. Palace coups Russia 1725 – 1825 / Comp. M.A. Boytsov. - M.: Sovremennik, 1991.
WORKSHOP PLANS
The time of Catherine II (1762-1796) was the “golden age” of the nobility. His privileges and influence reach their apogee - the queen, who came to power illegally, needed his support. The closest circle helping the queen in solving state affairs are her favorites G. G. Orlov, G. A. Potemkin and others. In 1767, the Legislative Commission was convened to develop a new set of laws. Various reform projects arose, including easing the situation of peasants (for the first time in Russian history). Since 1768, the commission was almost never convened in order to avoid excessive freethinking. In 1764, the secularization (transfer to the state) of church lands began and the autonomy of Ukraine was eliminated. In 1775, a provincial reform was carried out, which streamlined local government (division into provinces and districts). “The charter granted to the nobility” (1785) guaranteed its exclusive right to own land and peasants, the freedom of the nobles from corporal punishment, established noble assemblies with the right to petition the monarch. The charter to cities determined the order of self-government in cities. In the economy, as under Elizabeth, a policy is being pursued of further abolition of petty regulation of production and trade. The number of serfs leaving to work is growing; some are starting their own enterprises. However, the people's dissatisfaction with the arbitrariness of officials and landowners is great. In 1771, a “plague riot” broke out in Moscow, and in 1772, a Cossack uprising in the Yaitsky town. In 1773, a peasant war began, led by the impostor “Peter III” - Emelyan Pugachev. It covers the Urals and the Volga region, but in 1774 Pugachev was defeated and extradited by his accomplices, and in 1775 he was executed. In 1796-1801 Paul I ruled. He tried to ease the situation of the people (amounting arrears, banning corvée on weekends), but infringed on the nobles - he reduced the rights of noble meetings, strengthened censorship, and carried out repressions. In 1801, Pavel was killed by conspirators.
Russian foreign policy in the 18th century
In 1686, Russia, according to the Eternal Peace with Poland, secured Kyiv and entered into an anti-Turkish coalition. In 1687 and 1689 V.V. Golitsyn went to Crimea twice, but did not reach it. In 1695-1696 After two campaigns, the troops of Peter I took Azov with the help of a specially built fleet. In 1697-1698. Peter traveled abroad (“Great Embassy”), looking for allies to continue the war with Turkey, but found allies only against Sweden - Poland, Saxony, Denmark. Started Northern War with Sweden (1700-21). Having suffered defeat at Narva, Peter I reorganized the army and achieved a number of successes. In 1707, King Charles XII of Sweden invaded Russia, but in 1709 he was defeated near Poltava. In 1714, the Russian fleet won a victory at Gangut. In 1721, according to the Treaty of Nischtadt, Russia received Estonia, Latvia and almost all of Karelia for a large sum. In 1711, a war broke out with Turkey. Peter began Prut campaign to Moldova, which ended unsuccessfully. Russia lost Azov. In 1722-1723 Peter took the southern and western shores of the Caspian Sea from Iran. In 1726 Russia entered into an alliance with Austria. In 1734, she took part in the War of the Polish Succession and installed her protege on her throne. In 1732-1735 Russia returned Azerbaijan to Iran. In 1735-1739 She fought with Austria against Turkey. The army of B. Kh. Minikh ravaged the Crimea and won a victory at Stavuchany. As a result, Russia received Azov, and the Crimean raids stopped. In 1730-1740 Russian power was recognized by the Junior and Middle Kazakh zhuzes. In 1741-1743 There was a Russian-Swedish war. Russian troops led by P. Lasi defeated the enemy near Vilmanstrand. As a result of the war, the Russian border moved to the northwest. In the 1740s. European countries finally recognized the imperial title for Russian monarchs.
Second half of the 18th century
During the reign of Elizabeth in 1756, Russia entered the Seven Years' War on the side of Austria and France against a dangerously strengthened Prussia. Russian troops captured East Prussia, in 1759, together with the Austrians, won a victory at Kunersdorf over Frederick II, in 1760 they took Berlin, but after the death of Elizabeth in 1761, Peter III, an admirer of Prussia, left the war. Russia's successes raised its prestige. In 1768, Russia intervened in the unrest in Poland, and in 1768-1774. There was a Russian-Turkish war for influence in Poland and southern Russian lands. P. A. Rumyantsev defeated the Turks at Larga and Kagul in 1770, the Russian fleet under the command of G. A. Spiridonov and A. G. Orlov won a victory at Chesma in 1770, A.V. Suvorov and M.F. Kamensky in 1774 - under Kozludzha. The lands in the Black Sea region and a number of fortresses went to Russia. In 1783, she annexed Crimea and, at the request of Irakli II, took Eastern Georgia under her protection. In 1787-1791 Russia, together with Austria, again defeated Turkey (A.V. Suvorov’s successes at Focsani, Rymnik, the capture of Izmail, N.V. Repnin at Machin, F.F. Ushakov at sea at Tendra and Kaliakria). Russia secured the Northern Black Sea region. In 1788-1790 Russia fought with Sweden to no avail. In 1772, 1793, 1795 together with Prussia and Austria, carried out the divisions of Poland, receiving Right Bank Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania. In 1780-1783 Russia supported the future USA against England. In 1793, Russia broke off relations with revolutionary France and prepared for war with it. In 1798, she joined the 2nd anti-French coalition. Ushakov's squadron made a trip to the Mediterranean Sea and captured the Ionian Islands. Suvorov carried out the Italian and Swiss campaigns. Considering Austria and England to be dishonest allies, Paul I withdrew from the war and concluded (after Napoleon I came to power) an alliance with France against England, prepared a campaign to India, but was soon killed.
Russian culture of the 18th century
Under Peter I, Western trends actively penetrated into culture and everyday life. This leads to a fruitful synthesis. Main artistic direction in the era of Peter there was classicism. Painting. Prominent portrait painters under Peter I were Nikitin and Matveev. The heyday of painting - under Catherine II: A. P. Losenko, G. I. Gloomy ( history painting), F. S. Rokotov, D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, I. P. Argunov (portrait). Sculpture. Until the 18th century there was no art of sculpture in Russia. Its founder is the Italian B. Rastrelli. Masters 2nd floor. XVIII century – M.I. Kozlovsky, F.I. Shubin, Frenchman E. Falcone. Architecture. In the beginning XVIII century The Naryshkin baroque (Menshikov Tower) is still alive. Regular urban development begins (primarily St. Petersburg). V. Rastrelli (son) is building the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, Peterhof, Catherine's Palaces in the suburbs of the capital, I. E. Old - Tauride Palace. In Moscow, M.I. Kazakov is building the Senate building, V.I. Bazhenov is building the Pashkov house. Theater and music. Under Peter I, the first public theater was created. The first Russian drama troupe created in Yaroslavl by F. G. Volkov. Theaters were created in Moscow (Petrovsky) and St. Petersburg (Kamenny). The chamber music of D. S. Bortnyansky and the operas of E. I. Fomin are well known. Literature. Master of satire in the 1st half. XVIII century was A.D. Kantemir. V.K. Trediakovsky carried out a reform of versification, M.V. Lomonosov formulated the theory of three “calms”. The most prominent poets are G. R. Derzhavin, M. M. Kheraskov, A. P. Sumarokov. Science. Lomonosov made outstanding discoveries in the fields of physics, chemistry, and astronomy. E. R. Dashkova, head of the Academy of Sciences, did a lot to organize research. I.P. Kulibin created a semaphore telegraph, a screw elevator, a 300-meter single-arch bridge, I.I. Polzunov created the world's first steam engine. M. M. Shcherbatov wrote “Russian History” in 7 volumes.
Key questions:
Definition of "Enlightened absolutism";
Social policy and reforms of Catherine II;
Foreign policy;
Results of the reign of Catherine II;
The rise to power of Paul I.
XVIII century – Age of Enlightenment in world history - an era of rapid development of natural sciences, widespread dissemination of secular knowledge. Enlightenment is powerful ideological trend. The main ideas of the Enlightenment (“reason rules the world”, “theory of natural law”, principles of legality and separation of powers, etc.). Results of the American and Great French revolutions. Revolutionaries are followers of enlighteners.
The essence of the policy of “Enlightened absolutism”. Second half of the 18th century. called the “Era of Enlightened Absolutism.” Enlightened absolutism emerged in countries with a relatively slow development of bourgeois relations, where the nobility retained its political rights and economic privileges.
Social policy and reforms of Catherine II. Golden Age of Catherine II (1762-1796). Like Peter I, Catherine II went down in history under the name Catherine the Great. Her reign became new era in the history of Russia.
The beginning of Catherine II's reign was difficult, primarily in moral terms. No matter how unpopular Peter III was in Russia, he was a legitimate (by God's grace) sovereign, and, moreover, the grandson of Peter the Great, albeit insufficient. Catherine was a purebred German who, in the eyes of society, usurped the ancient throne of the Moscow kings. The role of Catherine II in the murder of her husband was also unclear.
First of all, Catherine II hastened with the coronation, which was supposed to legitimize her accession to the throne. The ceremony took place on September 22, 1762. in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Catherine generously rewarded everyone who contributed to her victory. The main participants in the coup (40 people) received ranks, land holdings with serfs and large sums of money. The Empress ordered the return from exile of those who “innocently” suffered, including the former Grand Chancellor Count Bestuzhev-Ryumin, the former Prosecutor General Shakhovsky.
Wanting to win over the influential Orthodox clergy in Russia, Catherine II canceled the decree of Peter III on the confiscation of land property and peasants from monasteries. True, having strengthened her position, the empress already in 1764. nevertheless, she took away 990 thousand peasants from the monasteries in favor of the state. The former monastic peasants (there were about 1 million male souls) began to be called economic, since the College of Economy was created to manage them. The number of monasteries in Russia decreased from 881 to 385.
Acting cautiously, avoiding dangerous conflicts, Catherine II made it clear from the very beginning that she did not intend to sacrifice autocratic power.
"Manifesto on freedom for the nobility"(1762) and “Charter granted to the nobility”(1785) Catherine II finally consolidated the privileges of the nobility. The nobles were exempt from taxes and duties. Noble land ownership increased noticeably. State and palace peasants, as well as uninhabited lands, were distributed to the landowners. The period of the reign of Catherine II in historical science was called the golden age of the Russian nobility.
Anti-peasant decrees were issued in the 1760s: permission for landowners to exile peasants to Siberia and hard labor without trial, a ban on complaining about landowners, maintenance of military teams in the event of an uprising at their own expense, mass distributions of state peasants (300 thousand in 34 years), permission trade by peasants without land.
In 1985 – The charter granted cities the right to local self-government, exempting the merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds from poll tax and conscription.
By the time of her accession to the throne, Catherine II was well acquainted with the liberal ideas of European philosophical, political and economic thought. Even in her youth, she read the works of French educators - Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, D'Alembert– and considered herself their student. In 1763 Catherine began a correspondence with Voltaire, which continued until 1777, i.e. almost until the death of the famous French educator. In letters to Voltaire, Catherine told the “teacher” about activities for the benefit of her subjects and about military events, and Voltaire showered the “student” with flattery and compliments. Catherine II emphasized that the book of the French educator Montesquieu became her guide in politics. In countries Western Europe they started talking about the “great Semiramis of the north.”
Based on the ideas of European enlighteners, Catherine developed a certain idea of what needs to be done for the prosperity of the state. Combined with knowledge of Russian reality, these ideas influenced the formation of the empress’s political program. How Catherine imagined the tasks of an enlightened monarch, which she sincerely considered herself to be, can be seen from her draft note: “1. It is necessary to educate the nation that is to be governed. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors” (“Notes”).
Since ideologically this program, and therefore Catherine’s internal policy, was based on the principles of the Enlightenment, this period of Russian history itself received the name “enlightened absolutism” in the literature (E.V. Anisimov, A.B. Kamensky).
The largest event of enlightened absolutism was the convening in 1767. commission on the drafting of a new code (Laid Commission). It should be noted that the convening of the Statutory Commission was preceded by Catherine II's study tours around Russia. “After Peter the Great, Catherine was the first empress who undertook travel around Russia for government purposes” (S.M. Solovyov).
Catherine II decided to give Russia a legislative code based on the principles new philosophy and sciences discovered by the modern Age of Enlightenment.
As a guiding document for the commission, the Empress prepared "Order" which consisted of 22 chapters and was divided into 655 articles. Almost a quarter of the text of the “Nakaz” consisted of quotations from the works of enlighteners (Beccaria, Bielfeld, Montesquieu, Justi). These quotes were carefully selected, and “Nakaz”, thus, was a complete work in which the need for strong autocratic power in Russia and the class structure of Russian society was proved.
Catherine’s commission failed to draw up a new code of laws, since it was difficult to bring the old legislation into agreement, on the one hand, with Catherine’s liberal “Order” (built on book theories, without taking into account real facts Russian life), and on the other hand, with conflicting needs, wishes and many separate orders from different groups of the population.
The collapse of the policy of enlightened absolutism was influenced by two events of the 18th century: the peasant war led by E. Pugacheva in Russia and the Great French Revolution in Europe.
Foreign policy. Transformation of Russia into a great European power. In the second half of the 18th century. Russia played an increasingly active role in international relations. It is a member of European military-political alliances and, thanks to its strong army, has significant influence in them.
The influence of foreign officers is declining. Russian officers and commanders take their place. The Russian army is increasingly acquiring national character.
Foreign policy objectives:
Firstly, the struggle for access to the southern seas - the Black and Azov;
Secondly, the liberation of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus from foreign domination and the unification of all Eastern Slavs in one state;
Thirdly, the struggle with revolutionary France in connection with the war that began in 1789. Great French Revolution;
Fourthly, asserting its interests in European politics, Russia sought to play the role of guarantor of the independence of the British colonies in North America; compliance with Russian interests in this region - participation in colonization North America.
Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774. In the 60s of the XVIII century. A complex political game is taking place in Europe. The degree of rapprochement between certain countries was determined by the strength of the contradictions between them. Russia had its strongest contradictions with France and Austria.
The Russian government was pushed to take active action in the south by the country's security interests, the need of the nobility, who sought to obtain the richest southern lands, and developing industry and trade, which dictated the need to access the Black Sea coast.
Türkiye, incited by France and England, in the fall of 1768. declared war on Russia. After the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. Brilliant victories were won on land: in 1770. under the command of a talented commander P.A. Rumyantseva, in 1771 under the command of the prince V.A. Dolgoruky, in 1774 - Major General A.V. Suvorov. In the famous Battle of Chesma at sea under the command of admirals G.A. Spiridonova, A.G. Orlova and S.K. Greig victory was also won.
According to the terms Kuchuk-Kainardzhisky world(1774) Russia received:
Access to the Black Sea;
Steppes of the Black Sea region - Novorossiya;
The right to have your own fleet on the Black Sea;
Right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits;
Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to Russia;
The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey;
Türkiye paid an indemnity in the amount of 4 million rubles;
The Russian government sought the right to act as a defender of legal rights Christian peoples Ottoman Empire.
For brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish War, Catherine II generously awarded her commanders with orders and personalized weapons. In addition, A.G. Orlov began to be called Chesmensky, V.M. Dolgorukov - Krymsky, P.A. Rumyantsev - Zadunaisky. A.V. Suvorov received a gold sword with diamonds.
Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791. Since 1780, a rapprochement between Russia and Austria began on the basis of common interests in relation to Turkey and Poland.
Türkiye did not want to come to terms with Russia's assertion in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's attempt to return Crimea to its rule, Russian troops occupied Crimean peninsula, which became part of Russia. Sevastopol was founded as a base for the fleet (1783). G.A. Potemkin for the successes and annexation of Crimea (the old name of Taurida) he received a prefix to his title “Prince of Tauride”.
In 1787 Türkiye presented an ultimatum with a number of unacceptable demands. The Second Russian-Turkish War took place in a difficult international situation for Russia. At this time, an alliance between England, Prussia and Holland took shape, aimed at undermining Russia’s position in the Baltic. these countries provoked Sweden, and the war with it in 1788-1790. weakened the forces of Russia, although the peace treaty of 1790 did not make any territorial changes between Russia and Sweden. At this time, only Austria provided support to Russia, and then only with insignificant forces. Nevertheless, this war also showed the superiority of the Russian army.
During these years, his military leadership talent was especially evident. A.V. Suvorov. In 1787 he defeats the Turks during their siege of Kinburn, then in 1788. takes the powerful fortress of Ochakov, and in 1789. wins two convincing victories over many times superior enemy forces at Fokshanna and on the river. Rymnik, for which he receives the title of Count Rymninsky.
Special significance had a take Ishmael(1790) - citadels of Turkish rule on the Danube. After a 10-hour assault, Izmail was taken. In battle, student A.V. glorified himself. Suvorova - future commander M.I. Kutuzov.
Along with the ground forces, the fleet, commanded by Admiral F.F., operated successfully. Ushakov. In the battle of Cape Kalpakria in 1791. the Turkish fleet was destroyed.
By Treaty of Jassy(signed in Iasi) Türkiye recognized Crimea as possession of Russia; the border between the two countries became the Dniester River; the territory between the Bug and Dniester rivers became part of Russia; Türkiye recognized Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783.
As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the Mediterranean countries expanded. The Crimean Khanate was liquidated - a permanent center of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands in the south of Russia, Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Ekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded.
Russia and US education. One of the significant international events was the struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution, which led to the creation of the United States of America.
Disagreements between England and Russia had a beneficial effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780 government adopted Declaration of Armed Neutrality, supported by the majority European countries. Ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by a belligerent fleet. This resulted in England’s abandonment of attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution.
At the same time, Russia participated in colonization of North America. Movement of Cossacks and Russian settlers in the 16th-17th centuries. through Siberia and Far East led in 1784 to the landing of G.I. Shelekhov in Alaska and the appearance Russian America– permanent settlements of Russians on Alaska, and then in California.
Partitions of Poland. The strengthening of Prussia, Austria, Russia and the constant weakening of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth led to its divisions.
For the first section(1772) The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth acquired part of eastern Belarus.
For the second section(1793) - Russia received the remaining part of eastern and central Belarus with Minsk, Volyn and Podolia.
According to the third section(1795) western Belarus, western Volyn, Lithuania, and Courland went to Russia.
Under power Russian emperors Almost all the lands of the Eastern Slavs that were part of Kievan Rus were united, with the exception of the Galician lands with Lvov (Galicia), which became part of Austria.
The meaning of these events was controversial. On the one hand, this raised the political prestige of Russia. In addition, Russia has become one of the most populated countries in Europe. But, on the other hand, the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth led to an aggravation of national problems in the Russian Empire. The Polish nobility, who fought for national independence, became a destabilizing factor in the life of the country. His activity caused a response in the form of the government's Russification policy.
War with revolutionary France. The Great French Revolution of 1789 created a new political situation in Europe. and the execution of King Louis XVI. Relations between Russia and France were severed. Russia entered into an alliance with Prussia, England and Austria for a joint struggle against revolutionary France. It was an alliance of the reactionary forces of Europe against the hotbed of ideas of freedom and democracy, which was France.
Thus, thanks to Russia’s active foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century. became a great European power. This was a victory for the policy of adaptation (adjustment) to Europe, begun by Peter I. However, Russia's political role in Europe far exceeded its economic position in the European market, similar to the place of Prussia, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Russia remained a socio-economically backward country, which made its position in the system European civilization unstable, contradictory.
Results of the reign of Catherine II.
1. Imperial events in foreign and domestic policy.
2. Strengthening absolutism by reforming government institutions and the new administrative structure of the state, protecting the monarchy from any attacks.
3. Socio-economic measures for the further “Europeanization” of the country and the final formation and strengthening of the nobility.
4. liberal educational initiatives, care for education, literature and the arts.
5. Unpreparedness Russian society not only to the abolition of serfdom, but even to more moderate reforms.
In addition, the country waged continuous wars, as a result - a sharp increase in tax oppression and exploitation, which led to numerous popular uprisings: 1771. – Plague riot, 1773-1775. - Peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev.
It is worth pointing out the general features of peasant wars in Russia:
They started on the outskirts;
Home driving force- Cossacks;
They passed under tsarist slogans.
Contradictions of personality and politics of Paul I (1796-1801). In historical studies, there is no unity in the assessment of the reign of Paul I. Some historians call his reign “unenlightened absolutism”, others - a “military-police dictatorship”, others consider Paul a “Russian Hamlet”, and others - a “romantic emperor”.
The enlightener D'Alembert found in Pavel Petrovich an “exalted character” and education.
According to researchers, the main motives of activity Paul were the following:
Firstly, the desire to oppose oneself to the mother, to change everything that Catherine had done and to build her reign in defiance of the traditions of government laid down by her;
Secondly, fear, fear of the aristocratic opposition, peasant unrest, French republican ideas.
Paul I ascended the throne at the age of 42, already a mature, established man. He removed from power the former favorites of Catherine, whom he hated and blamed for the death of his father.
Paul I introduced a military-police regime in the country and at the same time returned Radishchev, Novikov, Kosciuszko from exile, laid the foundation for the foundation of the University of Dorpat, the Pavlovsk Corps (a school for military orphans in St. Petersburg), and amnestied the living Pugachevites. Ideal liberal politics, based on the self-government of classes, their rights and privileges, Paul I contrasted the ideal guardianship policy, based on the strong power of the king and his care for his people.
In general, the policy of Paul I was, in spite of everything, a direct continuation of Catherine’s reign.
Fighting the influence of the French Revolution, Paul I introduced the most severe censorship and banned all private printing houses.
In relation to nobility Paul's politics also encountered contradictory tendencies. On the one side - the king's concern for strengthening economic situation nobility, which was expressed in material assistance through the credit and banking system, the creation of a regime of maximum favorability for the nobility in the service (decrees of 1797 and 1798). Another trend emerged in limitation of class self-government and its absorption by the bureaucratic apparatus.
The most unacceptable for the nobility were Paul I's transformation in the army. An ardent admirer of the Prussian military doctrine of Frederick II, he issued new infantry and cavalry regulations just three weeks after his accession; The basic principles of strategy and tactics of Russian military art fell into oblivion.
Ultimately, it was the infringement of the interests of the nobility that became the decisive moment that determined the fate of Paul I.
Foreign policy of Paul I. There are three stages to be distinguished:
1st stage 1796-1797. – proclamation of peaceful coexistence with all countries, an attempt to develop an ideological counterbalance to the ideas of the French Revolution;
2nd stage 1798-1799– Russia’s entry into the second anti-French coalition, Suvorov’s Italian and Swiss campaigns, Ushakov’s naval landings in Greece and Italy; indicate the reasons for the break with England (failure to provide assistance to Suvorov and refusal to liberate the island of Malta).
3rd stage 1800-1801- rapprochement with France and preparation of a joint campaign with her in India against England. However, his murder thwarted the plans of the French-Russian coalition.
On the night of March 12, 1801, Paul I was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle by a group of conspirators, which included former favorites of Catherine II: the Zubov brothers, General L.L. Bennigsen, commanders of the guards regiments P.A. Talyzin and F.P. Uvarov, St. Petersburg governor P.A. Palen, Senator D.P. Troshchinsky. The heir to the throne supported the conspiracy Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich.