Basic terms in literature. Dictionary of basic literary terms and concepts

15.04.2019

ABERTATION - distortion of something.
PARAGRAPH - a passage of text from one red line to another.
AUTOBIOGRAPHY is a work in which the writer describes his life.
AUTOGRAPH - a manuscript of a work, a letter, an inscription on a book, handwritten by the author, as well as the author’s handwritten signature.
AUTHOR is a real person, the creator of a literary work.
AUTHOR'S SPEECH is an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept or phenomenon of reality using a specific image.
ACMEISM is a literary movement (neo-romanticism) in Russian poetry of the early 20th century. This name was invented by N.S. Gumilyov to designate the work of a group of poets, which included A.A. Akhmatova, O.E. Mandelstam and others.
ACROSTIC - a poem in which the initial letters of the lines form a first or last name, word or phrase.
ACTUALISM is a sense of time in which the present is perceived as the only objective reality.
ALLEGORY is a type of allegory. An abstract concept embodied in a concrete image: wolf - greed, fox - cunning, cross (in Christianity) - suffering, etc.
ALLITERATION - repetition in poetry (less often in prose) of identical, consonant consonant sounds to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech.
ALLUSION - the use of an allusion to some well-known fact instead of mentioning the fact itself.
ALMANAC - a collection of literary works of various contents.
AMFIBRACHIUS is a three-syllable foot in Russian syllabic-tonic versification, in which the stress falls on the second syllable.
ANACREONTIC POETRY is a type of ancient lyric poetry: poems that glorify a cheerful, carefree life.
ANAPEST - a three-syllable foot in Russian syllabic-tonic versification with stress on the third syllable.
ANAPHOR - repetition of the same sounds, words, or phrases at the beginning of each poetic line.
ANECDOTE is a genre of folklore, a short story of humorous content with a witty ending.
ANIMAL WORK – a work that describes the habits and characteristics of animals.
ABSTRACT - a brief explanation of the contents of the book.
ANONYMOUS - 1) a work without indicating the name of the author; 2) the author of the work who has hidden his name.
ANTISYSTEM - systemic integrity of people with a negative outlook.
ANTITHESIS is a turn of poetic speech in which, for expressiveness, directly opposite concepts, thoughts, and character traits of the characters are sharply contrasted.
ANTHOLOGY - a collection of selected works by various authors.
ANTHROPOCENTRISM is the view that man is the “crown of the universe.”
APOSTROPE - a turn of poetic speech consisting of addressing an inanimate phenomenon as an animate one and an absent person as a present one.
ARCHITECTONICS - the construction of a work of art, the proportionality of its parts, chapters, episodes.
APHORISM is a short saying containing an original thought, worldly wisdom, and moral teaching.

BALLAD is a lyric-epic poetic work with a clearly expressed plot of a historical or everyday nature.
FABLE - a small work with ironic, satirical or moralizing content based on the technique of allegory, allegory. A fable differs from a parable or an apologist in the completeness of its plot development, and from other forms of allegorical narration, such as the allegorical novel, in its unity of action and conciseness of presentation.
ABYSS - emptiness or vacuum that is not part of the material world.
FICTION - artistic prose works.
WHITE POEMS - poems that do not rhyme.
BLESSING (euphony) - the quality of speech, which consists in the beauty and naturalness of its sound.
BURIME - a poem composed according to predetermined, often unusual rhymes.
BURLESQUE is a comic narrative poem in which a sublime theme is presented ironically and parodically.
EPIC - Russian folk narrative song-poem about heroes and heroes.

INSPIRATION - a state of inspiration, creative upsurge.
Free verse is free verse without formal features (meter and rhyme), but with some rhythm.
VERSIFICATION is a system of certain rules and techniques for constructing poetic speech and versification.
VISION - a description of a journey through the afterlife accompanied by an angel, a saint; contains religious or ethical teaching.
VERSHI - poems on religious and secular topics with a mandatory rhyme at the end of the line.
ARTISTIC TASTE - the ability to correctly perceive and independently comprehend works of art; understanding the nature of artistic creativity and the ability to analyze a work of art.
EXTRA-PLOT ELEMENTS - elements of the composition of the work that do not develop the action: lyrical digressions, introductory episodes and descriptions.
VAUDEVILLE is a short play of the dramatic genre with intrigue and comic situations of love content.
FREE VERSE - syllabic-tonic, usually iambic verse with an unequal number of feet in the poetic lines.
WILL - the ability to act according to a freely made choice.
MEMORIES, or MEMOIRS - works of narrative literature about past events, written by their participants.
VULGARISM is a rude word, an incorrect turn of phrase, not accepted in literary speech.
FICTION is a figment of the writer's imagination.

HEXAMETER - poetic meter in ancient versification, in Russian - six-foot dactyl combined with trochee.
LYRICAL HERO - a person in lyric poetry, whose experiences, thoughts and feelings are expressed in the poem on whose behalf it is written.
THE HERO OF A LITERARY WORK is the main or one of the main characters, possessing distinct character traits and behavior, a certain attitude towards other characters and life phenomena.
HYPERBOLE is a stylistic figure consisting of a figurative exaggeration of the depicted event or phenomenon.
TALKING SURNAME – a character’s surname that conveys an important trait of his character.
GOLEM is a very common Jewish folk legend that originated in Prague about an artificial man, the Golem, created from clay to perform various “menial” jobs, difficult tasks that are important for the Jewish community, and ch. arr. to prevent blood libel through timely intervention and exposure.
FEE - literary fee - remuneration received by a writer for his work.
GOTHIC NOVEL - works of the horror genre, the scene of which is a medieval castle with ghosts, devilish forces and asserting the unknowability of the world and the omnipotence of evil.
GROTESQUE - an image of a person, events or phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form.
HUMANISM is a worldview in which man in all his manifestations is declared the highest value.

DIGEST – a publication or book consisting of fragments or a summary of literary works.
DACTYL - a three-syllable foot in Russian syllabic-tonic versification, containing a stressed and two unstressed syllables.
DECADENTITY - decadence. Ideological phenomenon at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. which was based on the statement about the onset of an era of decline and extinction of civilization.
DETECTIVE is an epic work in which crime investigations take place.
CHILDREN'S LITERATURE - works of different genres intended for children.
DIALOGUE - a conversation between two or more characters.
DITHYRAMB - a work of praise.
DOLNIK - a three-syllable meter with the omission of one or two unstressed syllables within the line. An intermediate form between syllabic-tonic and tonic verse.
DUMA is a lyric-epic genre of Ukrainian folklore (ballad).

GENRE is a historically established division of a set of literary works, carried out on the basis of the specific properties of their form and content.
CRUEL ROMANCE is a lyric-epic genre; a poetic monologue telling about unhappy love and love suffering, with an emphasis on the experiences and torments of the lover.
LIFE - in ancient Russian literature, a story about the life of a hermit, monk or saint.

PREPARATION - the event from which the development of action in the work begins.
RIDDLE is a genre of folklore in which the correct answer must be found based on the image contained in the question.
CONSPIRACY – a genre of folklore; words having magical meaning and called upon, with the help of a certain combination, to influence the material world.
BORROWING - the use by an author of techniques, themes or ideas of another writer.
SPELL - a genre of folklore, a magical formula designed to influence nature and humans; usually accompanied by magical ritual actions.
ZAKLICHKA – a genre of children's folklore; a naive poetic appeal to the forces of nature.
SOUND WRITTEN - a technique that consists in selecting words, the combination of which imitates the sounds of the real world in the text (the whistle of the wind, the sound of rain, the chirping of birds, etc.).

IDEALIZATION - an image of something in a better form than in reality.
THE IDEAL WORLD OF A WORK is the area of artistic solutions. It includes the author’s assessments and ideal, artistic ideas and pathos of the work.
IDIOMA is an indecomposable phrase peculiar only to a given language, the meaning of which does not coincide with the meaning of its constituent words, taken individually, for example, the Russian expressions “stay with your nose”, “ate the dog”, etc.
THE IDEA OF A WORK OF ART is the main idea about the range of phenomena that are depicted in the work; expressed by the writer in artistic images.
IDYLL - a poem that depicts a serene life in the lap of nature.
IMAGINISM is a literary movement; Imagists proclaimed that the main task of artistic creativity is to invent new images not related to reality. Participants in this movement argued for the necessity and inevitability of “pure art.” Imagists included S.A. Yesenin, V.G. Shershenevich and others.
IMPRESSIONISM is a literary movement; The impressionists considered the task of art to convey the writer’s immediate personal impressions.
IMPROVISATION is the creation of works without prior preparation.
INVECTIVE is a type of pathos, a sharp denunciation that expresses the author’s hatred of certain phenomena and characters. Unlike satire, it does not cause comedy or laughter.
INVERSION is a turn of poetic speech consisting of a peculiar arrangement of words in a sentence that violates the usual order.
Allegory - an indirect, hidden image of objects, phenomena, people.
INTERIOR – description interior decoration any room. Often used to indirectly characterize a character.
INTONATION is a syntactic structure of a relatively completed fragment of a literary text (phrase, period, stanza), indicating how artistic speech should sound in this fragment.
INTRIGE - the development of action in a complex plot of a work.
IRONY - hidden mockery.

PUN – a stylistic turn (“play on words”), based on the use of complete sound coincidence of various words and phrases.
CANTATA - a poem of a solemn nature, glorifying some joyful event or its hero.
CANTILENA - a short narrative poem sung to music.
CANZONA - a poem glorifying knightly love.
CARICATURE - a humorous or satirical depiction of events or persons.
CATharsis is a strong emotional experience when perceiving a literary work. Catharsis is considered as an obligatory consequence of the tragic in literature.
CLASSICISM - literary movement (current) XVII - beginning. XIX centuries in Russia Western Europe, based on imitation of ancient models and strict stylistic standards.
CLASSICAL LITERATURE - exemplary, most valuable literature of the past and present.
CLAUSE - the final syllables of a poetic line, starting with the last stressed syllable.
CLIMAX - a type of gradation, a series of expressions relating to the same phenomenon; Moreover, these expressions are arranged in order of increasing importance, i.e., so that each of them enhances the meaning of the previous one (“increasing”).
CODA - final, additional verse.
COLLISION - a clash, a struggle between acting forces involved in a conflict among themselves.
COMMENT - interpretation, explanation of the meaning of a work, episode, phrase.
COMPOSITION - the structure of a work of art.
CONTEXT is the “environment” in which a work of art was created and continued to live. The context can be socio-historical, biographical, everyday, literary, etc.
CONTRAST - a sharply expressed opposition of traits, qualities, properties of human character, object, phenomenon; literary device.
CONFLICT is a clash underlying the struggle of the characters in a work of art.
ENDING - the final part or epilogue of a literary work.
BEAUTY is a complex of forms that are liked without prejudice.
CRITICISM - essays devoted to the evaluation, analysis and interpretation of works of art.
WINGED WORD is an apt expression that has become a proverb.
CLIMAX - an episode of a literary work in which the conflict reaches a critical point in its development.
VERSE - a stanza in a song that has a refrain; usually has a complete meaning, close to the stanzas.

LACONISM - brevity in the expression of thoughts.
LEGEND - in folklore, an oral, folk story based on a miraculous event or image.
LEITMOTHIO - an image or turn of artistic speech that is repeated in a work.
LIMERICK - a pentaverse written in anapest according to the AABBA scheme. In limericks 3 and 4, verses have fewer feet than 1, 2 and 5. Limericks in a comic-ironic form describe some events that happen to someone.
FICTION LITERATURE is a field of art, the distinctive feature of which is the reflection of life, the creation of an artistic image using words.
LITOTE is the opposite of hyperbole. A deliberately implausible understatement.
PULK LITERATURE - cheap books with pictures, which were sold by traveling peddlers.

MAGIC is a set of actions, rituals and verbal formulas aimed at influencing the material world, changing it, as well as establishing connections between the real and the unreal world.
MADRIGAL is a lyrical work of humorous, complimentary or loving content, expressing admiration for someone.
MACARONICA SPEECH - a combination of two or more national languages in one phrase; can create a comic effect and serve as a means of characterizing a literary character.
ARTISTIC SKILLS - the writer’s ability to convey the truth of life in artistic images.
MEDITATION is lyrical reflection accompanied by emotional experience.
MELODICS OF A VERSE - its intonation organization, raising and lowering the voice, conveying intonation and semantic shades.
MELODRAMA is a dramatic genre that orients the viewer toward compassion and sympathy for the characters.
METAPHOR - the use of a word in a figurative sense to describe a person, object or phenomenon.
METHOD - the basic principles that guide the writer. Artistic methods included realism, romanticism, sentimentalism, etc.
METONYMY - replacement in speech of a word or concept with another that has a causal or other connection with the first.
METRIC VERSE - a system of versification based on the alternation of short and long syllables in verse. This is what ancient versification is like.
MINIATURE - small literary work.
MYTH is an ancient legend about the origin of life on Earth, about natural phenomena, about the exploits of gods and heroes.
POLY UNION (polysyndeton) - a turn of poetic speech; deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence.
MODERNISM is a direction (current) in art that is opposite to realism and is characterized by the denial of traditions, conventional representation and experimentation.
MONOLOGUE is the speech of a character addressed to an interlocutor or to himself.
MONORHYTHM - a poem with a repeating single rhyme.
MOTIVE - in a literary work, additional, secondary themes, which, in combination with the main theme, form an artistic whole.
MOTIVATION - the dependence of all elements of the artistic form of a work on its content.

SCIENCE FICTION – works whose plot is based on scientific and technical achievements that have not been refuted, but also not proven by science.
INITIAL RHYME - consonance found at the beginning of a verse.
FABLES - a genre of children's folklore, comic poems that depict obvious absurdities and implausible circumstances.
NEOLOGISM is a new word.
INNOVATION - introducing new ideas and techniques.
NOVELLA - a short story with an unexpected ending.

IMAGE - an artistic depiction in a literary work of a person, nature or individual phenomena.
ADDRESS - a turn of poetic speech, consisting in the writer’s emphasized appeal to the hero of his work, natural phenomena, and the reader.
RITUAL SONG is a genre of folklore. Part of the ritual during wedding, funeral and other ceremonies.
ODE - a laudatory poem dedicated to a solemn event or hero.
OXYMORON - a combination of words that contradict each other in meaning in one image.
OCTAVE - a stanza of eight verses in which the first six verses are united by two cross rhymes, and the last two by an adjacent rhyme.
PERSONIFICATION (prosopopoeia) is a technique in which inanimate objects, animals, and natural phenomena are endowed with human abilities and properties.
ONEGIN STROPHE - a stanza used by A. S. Pushkin when writing the novel "Eugene Onegin", consisting of three quatrains and a final couplet.
DISCOVERY – describing the familiar from an unexpected point of view.
OPEN FINALE – no resolution to the work.

PANTORISM - a poem in which all the words rhyme.
PALINDROME - “reversal” - a word, phrase or verse that is read the same from left to right and back.
PAMPHLET is a journalistic work with a clearly expressed accusatory orientation and a specific socio-political address.
PARAPHRASE - retelling a work or part of it in your own words.
PARALLELISM is a technique of poetic speech that consists of comparing two phenomena by depicting them in parallel.
PARODY is a genre of literature that politically or satirically imitates the features of the original.
LAMPURE - a work with offensive, slanderous content.
PASTORAL - a poem describing the peaceful life of shepherds and shepherdesses in the lap of nature.
PAPHOS is the leading emotional tone of the work.
LANDSCAPE - an image of nature in a literary work.
TRANSFER (enjambeman) - transferring the end of a complete sentence from one poetic line or stanza to the next one.
PERIPHRASIS - replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with a description of its essential features and characteristics.
CHARACTER is the protagonist of a literary work.
NARRATOR - the person on whose behalf the story is told in epic and lyric epic works.
STORY - medium shape; a work that highlights a number of events in the life of the main character.
PROVERB - a short figurative expression that does not have syntactic completeness.
PORTRAIT - a depiction of a character's appearance in a work of art.
DEDICATION - an inscription at the beginning of a work indicating the person to whom it is dedicated.
MESSAGE - a literary work written in the form of an appeal to any person or persons.
AFTERWORD - an additional part of the work, which contains the author’s explanations of his creation.
PROVERB is a genre of folklore, a short, rhythmically organized and syntactically complete saying, containing judgments from the field of morality, philosophy, and worldly wisdom.
Rhymes are humorous rhymes that parents use to accompany games with their little children.
TEACHING - a literary work in the form of speech of an educational nature.
POETRY - artistic creativity in poetic form.
JOB - a sharp word or phrase.
PARABLE - an edifying story about human life in allegorical or allegorical form. Unlike fables, it explains abstract, for example, religious problems.
PROBLEM - a question that is explored by the writer in the work.
ISSUES - a list of issues raised in the work.
PROSE is a work of art presented in ordinary (freely organized, not poetic) speech.
PROLOGUE - introduction to a literary work.
COMMON SPEECH - words inherent in folk non-literary speech. Speech of poorly educated native speakers.
PROTOTYPE is a real person whose life and character were reflected when the writer created a literary image.
A pseudonym is a fictitious name or surname of a writer.
PUBLICISTICS - a set of artistic works reflecting the social and political life of society.
JOURNEY - a literary work that tells about a real or fictitious journey.

PARADISE VERSE - lines of different feet joined together by paired rhymes.
DENOUGH - the position of the characters that has developed in the work as a result of the development of the events depicted in it; final scene.
VERSE SIZE - the number and order of alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in the feet of syllabic-tonic verse.
RHAPSOD is a wandering ancient Greek poet-singer who sang epic songs to the lyre.
STORY – a work of art of small form that describes a completed event.
REASON is the ability to freely choose a reaction under conditions that allow it.
EDITION - one of the text options of the work.
REASONER - an “outside observer” in a work expressing the author’s point of view on events and characters.
REQUIEM is a literary work in the form of farewell to the deceased.
REMARK - an explanation by the author about a particular character or the setting of the action, intended for actors.
REPLICA - the response of one character to the speech of another.
REFRAIN - repeated verses at the end of each stanza.
REVIEW - a critical review of a work. The review can be negative or positive.
RHYTHM is a systematic, measured repetition in verse of certain, similar units of speech (syllables).
RHYME - endings of poetic lines that match in sound.
TYPE OF LITERATURE - division according to fundamental characteristics: drama, lyricism, lyric epic, epic.
ROMAN - large form; a work in the events of which many characters usually take part, whose destinies are intertwined. Novels can be philosophical, adventure, historical, family, social
ROMANCE is a small lyric poem of a melodious type on the theme of love.
NOVEL - EPIC - a work that reveals the fate of a person against the backdrop of historical events that are important for the entire people.
RONDO - an eight-line poem containing 13 (15) lines and 2 rhymes.
RUBAI - forms of lyrical poetry of the East: quatrains in which the first, second and fourth lines rhyme.
KNIGHT'S NOVEL is a medieval epic genre telling about the adventures of a knight, emphasizing the idealism of the feudal era.

SAGA is a genre of Scandinavian and Icelandic epic literature; a heroic epic that combines poetic and prose descriptions of deeds.
SARCASM is a caustic mockery.
SATIRE - works of art that ridicule vicious phenomena in the life of society or the negative qualities of an individual.
FREE VERSE (free verse) - verse in which the number of stressed and unstressed syllables is arbitrary; it is based on a homogeneous syntactic organization that determines the uniform intonation of the verse.
SYLLABIC VERSE - it is based on the same number of syllables in a poetic line.
SYLLAB-TONIC VERSE - a system of versification, which is determined by the number of syllables, the number of stresses and their location in the poetic line.
SYMBOLISM is a literary movement; Symbolists created and used a system of symbols that had a special mystical meaning.
SKAZ is a way of organizing a narrative, focused on oral, often popular, speech.
LEAD (legend) - a work of art based on an incident that took place in reality.
LITERARY TALE - a genre of epic that creates a mythologized artistic world based on fantastic conventions.
SYLLABLE - a sound or combination of sounds in a word, pronounced with one exhalation; primary rhythmic unit in poetic measured speech.
DEATH is a way of existence of biosphere phenomena, in which there is a separation of space from time.
EVENT - rupture of system connections.
A SONNET is a type of complex stanza consisting of 14 verses, divided into 2 quatrains (quatrains) and 2 tercets (tercets).
JUSTICE - compliance with morals and ethics.
COMPARISON - definition of a phenomenon or concept in artistic speech by comparing it with another phenomenon that has common characteristics with the first.
STANCES - a small form of lyric poetry, consisting of quatrains, complete in thought.
STYLISTICS is a section of literary theory that studies the features of the language of works.
STYLE is a set of basic ideological and artistic features of a writer’s work.
VERSE - measured, rhythmically organized, brightly emotional speech, as well as one line in a poetic work.
VERSE - a system for constructing measured poetic speech, which is based on some repeating rhythmic unit of speech. -
STOP - in syllabic-tonic versification, repeated combinations of stressed and unstressed syllables in a verse, which determine its size.
STROPHE - a combination of two or more poetic lines, united by a rhyme system and general intonation or only general intonation.
SCRIPT – processing of a work to create a film, play, cartoon.
PLOT - the main episodes of a series of events in their artistic sequence.

TAUTOGRAM - a poem in which all words begin with the same letter.
CREATIVE HISTORY - the history of the creation of a work of art.
CREATIVE PROCESS - the writer’s work on a work.
THEME is the object of artistic reflection.
THEME - a set of themes of the work.
TREND is an idea, a conclusion to which the author seeks to lead the reader.
TERZETT – a poetic stanza consisting of 3 verses (lines) that rhyme with each other or with the corresponding verses of the subsequent terzetto.
LITERARY TREND - a creative unity of writers who are close to each other in ideology, perception of life and creativity.
TYPE is an artistic image that reflects the main characteristic features of a certain group of people or phenomena.
TRAGEDY is a dramatic genre that is built on an insoluble conflict. A type of dramatic work telling about the unfortunate fate of the main character, often doomed to death.
TREATISE - genre scientific literature; a complete essay on a scientific topic, containing a statement of the problem, a system of evidence for its solution and conclusions.
THRILLER – a work that causes severe stress, horror, disgust, etc.
TROP - a figure of speech consisting of the use of a word or expression in a figurative meaning, meaning.
LABOR SONGS – a genre of folklore, songs accompanying labor processes; with their rhythm and emotional attitudes contributing to the facilitation of work.

SIMPLIFICATION - reducing the density of system connections.
URBANISM is a direction in literature primarily concerned with describing the features of life in a big city.
UTOPIA is a work of art that tells about a dream as a real phenomenon, depicting an ideal social order without scientific justification.
ORAL FOLK POETIC CREATIVITY (folklore) - a set of poetic works created among the people, existing in oral form; they do not have a single author’s position, which is replaced by an orientation towards a national ideal.

FABULA - the plot basis of a literary work.
FANTASTIC – depiction of the impossible in real life.
FEULETON - A feuilleton, at the time of its appearance, is a piece of paper in a newspaper specifically devoted to issues of theater, literature, and art. Now, a newspaper article ridiculing the evils of society.
STYLISTIC FIGURE - an unusual turn of speech that the writer resorts to to enhance expressiveness artistic word.
FOLKLORE is a set of works of oral folk poetry.
FUTURISM is a sense of time in which the future is perceived as the only objective reality.
FANTASY – creative method Romanticism is characterized by the creation of works based on the myth-making of the author, which have a pronounced philosophical sound.

CHARACTER is an artistic image of a person with pronounced individual traits.
Trochaic - a two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the first syllable.
CHRONICLE - a narrative or dramatic literary work that displays events in public life in chronological order.

CAESURA - a pause in the middle of a verse (line) of a poetic work.
CYCLE - a series of artistic works united by the same characters, era, thought or experience.

CHASTUSHKA - a small work (quatrain) of oral folk poetry with humorous, satirical or lyrical content.

EUPHEMISM is the replacement of rude expressions in poetic speech with softer ones.
AESOP'S LANGUAGE is an allegorical, disguised way of expressing one's thoughts.
ECLOGUE - a short poem depicting rural life.
EXPOSITION - the introductory, initial part of the plot; unlike the plot, it does not affect the course of subsequent events in the work.
Impromptu is a work created quickly, without preparation.
ELEGY - a poem permeated with sadness or a dreamy mood.
EPIGRAM - a short witty, mocking or satirical poem.
EPIGRAPH - a short text placed at the beginning of the work and explaining the author's intention.
EPISODE - one of the interconnected events in the plot, which has more or less independent meaning in the work.
EPILOGUE is the final part of the work, briefly informing the reader about the fate of the heroes.
EPITHET - figurative definition.
EPIC - a heroic narrative describing a significant historical era or a major historical event.
ESSAY is a work of the epic genre, containing subjective, unconventional reasoning of the author, which does not pretend to be an exhaustive description and in-depth study of the problem raised. The essay is distinguished by its free composition and focus on figurative, aphoristic language, and a conversation with the reader.

HUMOR is a type of pathos based on the comic. Unlike satire, humor does not reject or ridicule the comic in life, but accepts and affirms it as an inevitable and necessary side of existence. Humor is an expression of cheerfulness and healthy optimism.
HUMORESQUE - a short humorous work in prose or poetry.

JAMB is a two-syllable meter in Russian versification, consisting of an unstressed and stressed syllable.

Dictionary of literary terms

Autology – an artistic technique of figuratively expressing a poetic idea not in poetic words and expressions, but in simple everyday ones.

And everyone looks with respect,

How again without panic

I slowly put on my pants

And almost new

From the point of view of the sergeant major,

Canvas boots...

Acmeism – a movement in Russian poetry in the first two decades of the 20th century, the center of which was the “Workshop of Poets” circle, and the main platform was the magazine “Apollo”. The Acmeists contrasted the realism of material mother nature and the sensual, plastic-material clarity of artistic language with the social content of art, abandoning the poetics of vague hints and the mysticism of symbolism in the name of a “return to the earth,” to the subject, to the exact meaning of the word (A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky , N. Gumilev, M. Zenkevich, O. Mandelstam).

Allegory- allegorical image of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a concrete image; personification of human properties or qualities. The allegory consists of two elements:
1. semantic - this is any concept or phenomenon (wisdom, cunning, kindness, childhood, nature, etc.) that the author seeks to depict without naming it;
2. figurative-objective - this is a specific object, a creature depicted in a work of art and representing a named concept or phenomenon.

Alliteration- repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of the same consonant sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech; one of the types of sound recording.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

A storm is coming. It hits the shore

A black boat alien to enchantment.

K.D.Balmont

Alogism – an artistic device that uses phrases that contradict logic to emphasize the internal inconsistency of certain dramatic or comic situations - to prove, as if by contradiction, a certain logic and, therefore, the truth of the position of the author (and then the reader), who understands the illogical phrase as a figurative expression (the title of the novel by Yu. Bondarev "Hot Snow").

Amphibrachium- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the second syllable - stressed among unstressed ones - in the foot. Scheme: U-U| U-U...

The midnight blizzard was noisy

In the forest and remote side.

Anapaest- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the last, third, syllable in the foot. Scheme: UU- | UU-…
People's houses are clean, bright,
But in our house it’s cramped, stuffy...

N.A. Nekrasov.

Anaphora- unity of command; repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several phrases or stanzas.
I love you, Petra's creation,
I love your strict, slender appearance...

A.S. Pushkin.

Antithesis- a stylistic device based on a sharp contrast of concepts and images, most often based on the use of antonyms:
I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!

G.R.Derzhavin

Antiphrase(s) – using words or expressions in a clearly contrary sense. "Well done!" - as a reproach.

Assonance- repeated repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of homogeneous vowel sounds. Sometimes assonance is called an imprecise rhyme in which the vowels coincide, but the consonants do not coincide (hugeness - I’ll come to my senses; thirst - it’s a pity). Enhances the expressiveness of speech.
The room became dark.
The window obscures the slope.
Or is this a dream?
Ding-dong. Ding dong.

I.P. Tokmakova.

Aphorism – a clear, easy-to-remember, precise, brief expression of a certain completeness of thought. Aphorisms often become individual lines of poetry or phrases of prose: “Poetry is everything! - a ride into the unknown." (V. Mayakovsky)

Ballad- a narrative song with a dramatic development of the plot, the basis of which is an unusual incident, one of the types of lyric-epic poetry. The ballad is based on an extraordinary story, reflecting the essential moments of the relationship between man and society, people among themselves, the most important features of a person.

Bard – a poet-singer, usually a performer of his own poems, often set to his own music.

Fable – a short poetic story-allegory of a moralizing nature.

Blank verse- unrhymed verses with metric organization (i.e., organized through a system of rhythmically repeating accents). Widely distributed in oral folk art and was actively used in the 18th century.
Forgive me, maiden beauty!
I will part with you forever,
Young girl, I’ll cry.
I'll let you go, beauty,
I'll let you go with ribbons...

Folk song.

Epics - Old Russian epic songs and tales, glorifying the exploits of heroes, reflecting historical events of the 11th - 16th centuries.

Barbarism – a word or figure of speech borrowed from a foreign language. The unjustified use of barbarisms pollutes the native language.

Vers libre- a modern system of versification, which represents a kind of border between verse and prose (it lacks rhyme, meter, traditional rhythmic ordering; the number of syllables in a line and lines in a stanza can be different; there is also no equality of emphasis characteristic of blank verse. Their poetic features speech remains divided into lines with a pause at the end of each line and weakened symmetry of speech (the emphasis falls on the last word of the line).
She came in from the cold
Flushed,
Filled the room
The aroma of air and perfume,
In a ringing voice
And completely disrespectful to classes
Chatting.

Eternal image - an image from a work of classic world literature, expressing certain features of human psychology, which has become a common name of one type or another: Faust, Plyushkin, Oblomov, Don Quixote, Mitrofanushka, etc.

Inner monologue - the announcement of thoughts and feelings that reveal the character’s inner experiences, not intended for the hearing of others, when the character speaks as if to himself, “to the side.”

Vulgarism – simple, even seemingly rude, seemingly unacceptable expressions in poetic speech, used by the author to reflect the specific nature of the phenomenon being described, to characterize a character, sometimes similar to vernacular.

Hero lyrical- the image of the poet (his lyrical “I”), whose experiences, thoughts and feelings are reflected in the lyrical work. The lyrical hero is not identical to the biographical personality. The idea of a lyrical hero is of a summary nature and is formed in the process of familiarization with the inner world that is revealed in lyrical works not through actions, but through experiences, mental states, and manner of verbal self-expression.

Literary hero - character, protagonist of a literary work.

Hyperbola- a means of artistic representation based on excessive exaggeration; figurative expression, which consists in an exorbitant exaggeration of events, feelings, strength, meaning, size of the depicted phenomenon; an outwardly effective form of presenting what is depicted. Can be idealizing and humiliating.

Gradation- stylistic device, arrangement of words and expressions, as well as means of artistic representation in increasing or decreasing importance. Types of gradation: increasing (climax) and decreasing (anti-climax).
Increasing gradation:
Orata's bipod is maple,
The damask boots on the bipod,
The bipod's snout is silver,
And the horn of the bipod is red and gold.

Epic about Volga and Mikula
Descending gradation:
Fly! less fly! disintegrated into a grain of sand.

N.V.Gogol

Grotesque – a bizarre mixture in the image of the real and the fantastic, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic - for a more impressive expression of creative intent.

Dactyl- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the first syllable in the foot. Scheme: -UU| -UU...
Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!
The azure steppe, the pearl chain
You rush as if, like me, you are exiles,
From the sweet north to the south.

M.Yu.Lermontov

Decadence – a phenomenon in literature (and art in general) of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, reflecting the crisis of the transitional stage of social relations in the minds of some spokesmen for the sentiments of social groups whose ideological foundations were being destroyed by the turning points of history.

Artistic detail – detail that emphasizes the semantic authenticity of the work with material, eventual authenticity - concretizing this or that image.

Dialectisms – words borrowed by the literary language or by a specific author in his work from local dialects: “Well, go - and okay, you have to climb the hill, the house is nearby” (F. Abramov).

Dialogue - exchange of remarks, messages, live speech between two or more persons.

Drama – 1. One of three types of literature, defining works intended for stage execution. It differs from the epic in that it has not a narrative, but a dialogic form; from the lyrics - in that it reproduces the world external to the author. Divided into genres: tragedy, comedy, and also drama itself. 2. Drama is also called a dramatic work that does not have clear genre characteristics, combining techniques of different genres; sometimes such a work is simply called a play.

Unity of people – the technique of repeating similar sounds, words, linguistic structures at the beginning of adjacent lines or stanzas.

Wait for the snow to blow

Wait for it to be hot

Wait when others are not waiting...

K. Simonov

AND

Literary genre - a historically developing type of literary work, the main features of which, constantly changing along with the development of the diversity of forms and content of literature, are sometimes identified with the concept of “type”; but more often the term genre defines a type of literature based on content and emotional characteristics: satirical genre, detective genre, historical essay genre.

Jargon, Also argo - words and expressions borrowed from the internal language of certain social groups of people. The use of jargon in literature allows us to more clearly define the social or professional characteristics of the characters and their environment.

Lives of the saints - a description of the lives of people canonized by the church (“The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, “The Life of Alexy the Man of God”, etc.).

Tie – an event that determines the occurrence of a conflict in a literary work. Sometimes it coincides with the beginning of the work.

Beginning – the beginning of a work of Russian folk literature - epics, fairy tales, etc. (“Once upon a time...”, “In the distant kingdom, in the thirtieth state...”).

Sound organization of speech- purposeful use of elements of the sound composition of the language: vowels and consonants, stressed and unstressed syllables, pauses, intonation, repetitions, etc. It is used to enhance the artistic expressiveness of speech. The sound organization of speech includes: sound repetitions, sound writing, onomatopoeia.

Sound recording- a technique for enhancing the imagery of a text by constructing phrases and lines of poetry in a sound manner that would correspond to the reproduced scene, picture, or expressed mood. In sound writing, alliteration, assonance, and sound repetitions are used. Sound recording enhances the image of a certain phenomenon, action, state.

Onomatopoeia- a type of sound recording; the use of sound combinations that can reflect the sound of the described phenomena, similar in sound to those depicted in artistic speech ("thunder rumbles", "horns roar", "cuckoos crow", "echoes of laughter").

AND

The idea of a work of art - the main idea that summarizes the semantic, figurative, emotional content of a work of art.

Imagism – a literary movement that appeared in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917, proclaiming the image as an end in itself of a work, and not as a means of expressing the essence of the content and reflecting reality. It broke up on its own in 1927. At one time, S. Yesenin joined this trend.

Impressionism- a direction in art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which asserted that the main task of artistic creativity is the expression of the artist’s subjective impressions of the phenomena of reality.

Improvisation – direct creation of a work in the process of performance.

Inversion- violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase, giving it special expressiveness; an unusual sequence of words in a sentence.
And the maiden's song is barely audible

Valleys in deep silence.

A.S. Pushkin

Interpretation – interpretation, explanation of an idea, theme, figurative system and other components of a work of art in literature and criticism.

Intrigue – system, and sometimes the mystery, complexity, mystery of events, on the unraveling of which the plot of the work is built.

Irony – a kind of comic, bitter or, on the contrary, kind ridicule, by ridiculing this or that phenomenon, exposing its negative features and thereby confirming the positive aspects foreseen by the author in the phenomenon.

Historical songs – a genre of folk poetry that reflects the people's understanding of genuine historical events in Rus'.

Literary canon - a symbol, image, plot, born of centuries-old folklore and literary traditions and which has become, to a certain extent, normative: light is good, darkness is evil, etc.

Classicism – an artistic movement that developed in European literature of the 17th century, which is based on the recognition of ancient art as the highest example, ideal, and works of antiquity as the artistic norm. Aesthetics are based on the principle of rationalism and “imitation of nature.” Cult of the mind. A work of art is organized as an artificial, logically constructed whole. Strict plot and compositional organization, schematism. Human characters are depicted in a straightforward manner; positive and negative heroes are contrasted. Actively addressing social and civil issues. Emphasized objectivity of the narrative. Strict hierarchy of genres. High: tragedy, epic, ode. Low: comedy, satire, fable. Mixing high and low genres is not allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.

Collision – generating a conflict that underlies the action of a literary work, a contradiction between the characters of the heroes of this work, or between characters and circumstances, the collisions of which constitute the plot of the work.

Comedy – a dramatic work that uses satire and humor to ridicule the vices of society and man.

Composition – arrangement, alternation, correlation and interrelation of parts of a literary work, serving the most complete embodiment of the artist’s plan.

Context – the general meaning (theme, idea) of the work, expressed in its entire text or in a sufficiently meaningful passage, cohesion, connection with which the quotation, and indeed any passage in general, should not lose.

Artistic conflict - figurative reflection in a work of art of the actions of the forces of struggle of interests, passions, ideas, characters, political aspirations, both personal and social. Conflict adds spice to the plot.

Climax – in a literary work, a scene, event, episode where the conflict reaches its highest tension and a decisive clash occurs between the characters and aspirations of the heroes, after which the transition to the denouement begins in the plot.

Legend – narratives that initially told about the lives of saints, then - religious-didactic, and sometimes fantastic biographies of historical, or even fairy-tale heroes, whose deeds express the national character, which entered worldly use.

Leitmotif- an expressive detail, a specific artistic image, repeated many times, mentioned, passing through a separate work or the entire work of the writer.

Chronicles – handwritten Russian historical narratives telling about events in the life of the country by year; each story began with the word: “Summer... (year...)”, hence the name - chronicle.

Lyrics- one of the main types of literature, reflecting life through the depiction of individual (single) states, thoughts, feelings, impressions and experiences of a person caused by certain circumstances. Feelings and experiences are not described, but expressed. The center of artistic attention is the image-experience. The characteristic features of the lyrics are poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size, a clear reflection of the experiences of the lyrical hero. The most subjective type of literature.

Lyrical digression - deviation from descriptions of events, characters in an epic or lyric-epic work, where the author (or the lyrical hero on whose behalf the story is told) expresses his thoughts and feelings about what is being described, his attitude towards it, addressing directly the reader.

2. Reception of the characteristics of a particular phenomenon not by a direct definition, but by the negation of the opposite definition:

The key to nature is not lost,

Proud work is not in vain...

V. Shalamov

A.S. Pushkin

Metaphor increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness. A type of metaphor is personification.
Types of metaphor:
1. lexical metaphor, or erased, in which the direct meaning is completely destroyed; " It is raining", "time flies", "clock hand", "door handle";
2. a simple metaphor - built on the convergence of objects or on one of their common features: “hail of bullets”, “talk of waves”, “dawn of life”, “table leg”, “dawn is blazing”;
3. realized metaphor - literal understanding of the meanings of the words that make up the metaphor, emphasizing the direct meanings of the words: “But you don’t have a face - you’re only wearing a shirt and trousers” (S. Sokolov).
4. expanded metaphor - the spread of a metaphorical image over several phrases or the entire work (for example, A.S. Pushkin’s poem “The Cart of Life” or “He couldn’t sleep for a long time: the remaining husk of words clogged and tormented the brain, stabbed in the temples, there’s no way was to get rid of it" (V. Nabokov)
A metaphor is usually expressed by a noun, a verb, and then other parts of speech.

Metonymy- rapprochement, comparison of concepts by contiguity, when a phenomenon or object is designated using other words and concepts: “a steel speaker is dozing in a holster” - a revolver; “led swords at a plentiful pace” - led warriors into battle; “The little owl began to sing” - the violinist began to play his instrument.

Myths – works of folk fantasy that personify reality in the form of gods, demons, and spirits. They were born in ancient times, preceding the religious and, especially, scientific understanding and explanation of the world.

Modernism – designation of many trends, trends in art that determine the desire of artists to reflect modernity with new means, improving, modernizing - in their opinion - traditional means in accordance with historical progress.

Monologue – the speech of one of the literary heroes, addressed either to himself, or to others, or to the public, isolated from the remarks of other heroes, and having independent meaning.

Motive- 1. The smallest element of the plot; the simplest, indivisible element of a narrative (a stable and endlessly repeating phenomenon). Various plots are formed from numerous motifs (for example, the motif of the road, the motif of the search for the missing bride, etc.). This value The term is more often used in relation to works of oral folk art.

2. “Stable semantic unit” (B.N. Putilov); “a semantically rich component of a work, related to the theme, idea, but not identical to them” (V.E. Khalizev); a semantic (content) element essential for understanding the author’s concept (for example, the motive of death in “The Tale of the Dead Princess...” by A.S. Pushkin, the motive of cold in “light breathing” - “ Easy breath"I.A.Bunin, the motif of the full moon in "The Master and Margarita" by M.A. Bulgakov).

Naturalism – direction in literature of the last third of the 19th century, which asserted an extremely accurate and objective reproduction of reality, sometimes leading to the suppression of the author’s individuality.

Neologisms – newly formed words or expressions.

Novella – a short piece of prose comparable to a short story. The novella is more eventful, the plot is clearer, the plot twist leading to the denouement is clearer.

ABOUT

Artistic image - 1. The main way of perceiving and reflecting reality in artistic creativity, a form of knowledge of life and expression of this knowledge specific to art; the goal and result of the search, and then identifying, highlighting, emphasizing with artistic techniques those features of a phenomenon that most fully reveal its aesthetic, moral, socially significant essence. 2. The term “image” sometimes denotes one or another trope in a work (the image of freedom - “the star of captivating happiness” by A.S. Pushkin), as well as one or another literary hero (the image of the wives of the Decembrists E. Trubetskoy and M. Volkonskaya N. Nekrasova).

Oh yeah- a poem of an enthusiastic nature (solemn, glorifying) in honor of some
either persons or events.

Oxymoron, or oxymoron- a figure based on a combination of words with opposite meanings for the purpose of an unusual, impressive expression of a new concept, representation: hot snow, stingy knight, lush nature withering.

Personification- the depiction of inanimate objects as animate, in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings: the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel.
What are you howling about, night wind,
Why are you complaining so madly?

F.I.Tyutchev

Onegin stanza - stanza created by A.S. Pushkin in the novel “Eugene Onegin”: 14 lines (but not a sonnet) of iambic tetrameter with the rhyme ababvvggdeejj (3 quatrains alternately - with a cross, paired and sweeping rhyme and a final couplet: designation of the theme, its development, culmination , ending).

Feature article- a type of small form of epic literature, different from its other form, story, the absence of a single, quickly resolved conflict and the great development of descriptive images. Both differences depend on the specifics of the essay's problems. It touches not so much on the problems of developing the character of an individual in its conflicts with the established social environment, but on the problems of the civil and moral state of the “environment.” The essay can relate to both literature and journalism.

Paradox - in literature - the technique of a statement that clearly contradicts generally accepted concepts, either to expose those of them that, in the opinion of the author, are false, or to express one’s disagreement with the so-called “common sense”, due to inertia, dogmatism, and ignorance.

Parallelism- one of the types of repetition (syntactic, lexical, rhythmic); a compositional technique that emphasizes the connection between several elements of a work of art; analogy, bringing together phenomena by similarity (for example, natural phenomena and human life).
In bad weather the wind
Howls - howls;
Violent head
Evil sadness torments.

V.A.Koltsov

Parcellation- dividing a statement with a single meaning into several independent, isolated sentences (in writing - using punctuation marks, in speech - intonation, using pauses):
Well? Don't you see that he's gone crazy?
Say it seriously:
Insane! What kind of nonsense is he talking about here!
The sycophant! father-in-law! and so menacing about Moscow!

A.S.Griboyedov

Pamphlet(English pamphlet) - a journalistic work, usually small in volume, with a sharply expressed accusatory nature, often a polemical orientation and a well-defined socio-political “address”.

Pathos – the highest point of inspiration, emotional feeling, delight, achieved in a literary work and in its perception by the reader, reflecting significant events in society and the spiritual upsurges of the heroes.

Scenery - in literature - the depiction of pictures of nature in a literary work as a means of figurative expression of the author’s intention.

Periphrase- using a description instead of your own name or title; descriptive expression, figure of speech, substitute word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition, or carry the meaning of allegory.

Pyrrhic - an auxiliary foot of two short or unstressed syllables, replacing an iambic or trochaic foot; lack of stress in iambic or trochee: “I am writing to you...” by A.S. Pushkin, “Sail” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

Pleonasm- unjustified verbosity, the use of words that are unnecessary to express thoughts. In normative stylistics, Pleonasm is considered as a speech error. In the language of fiction - as a stylistic figure of addition, serving to enhance the expressive qualities of speech.
“Elisha had no appetite for food”; “some boring guy... lay down... among the dead and personally died”; “Kozlov continued to lie silent, having been killed” (A. Platonov).

Tale – a work of epic prose, gravitating towards a sequential presentation of the plot, limited to a minimum of plot lines.

Repetition- a figure consisting of the repetition of words, expressions, song or poetic lines in order to attract special attention to them.
Every house is alien to me, every temple is not empty,
And everything is the same and everything is one...

M. Tsvetaeva

Subtext – the meaning hidden “under” the text, i.e. not expressed directly and openly, but arising from the narrative or dialogue of the text.

Permanent epithet- a colorful definition, inextricably combined with the word being defined and forming a stable figurative and poetic expression (“blue sea”, “white stone chambers”, “red maiden”, “clear falcon”, “sugar lips”).

Poetry- a special organization of artistic speech, which is distinguished by rhythm and rhyme - poetic form; lyrical form of reflection of reality. The term poetry is often used to mean “works of different genres in verse.” Conveys the subjective attitude of the individual to the world. In the foreground is the image-experience. It does not set the task of conveying the development of events and characters.

Poem- a large poetic work with a plot-narrative organization; a story or novel in verse; a multi-part work in which the epic and lyrical principles merge together. The poem can be classified as a lyric-epic genre of literature, since the narration of historical events and events in the lives of the heroes is revealed in it through the perception and assessment of the narrator. The poem deals with events of universal significance. Most poems glorify some human acts, events and characters.

Tradition – oral narration about real persons and reliable events, one of the varieties of folk art.

Preface – an article preceding a literary work, written either by the author himself or by a critic or literary scholar. The preface may include brief information about the writer, and some explanations about the history of the creation of the work, an interpretation of the author’s intention is proposed.

Prototype – a real person who served as a model for the author to create the image of a literary hero.

Play - a general designation for a literary work intended for stage performance - tragedy, drama, comedy, etc.

Interchange – the final part of the development of a conflict or intrigue, where the conflict of the work is resolved and comes to a logical figurative conclusion.

Poetic meter- a consistently expressed form of poetic rhythm (determined by the number of syllables, stresses or feet - depending on the system of versification); diagram of the construction of a poetic line. In Russian (syllabic-tonic) versification, there are five main poetic meters: two-syllable (iamb, trochee) and three-syllable (dactyl, amphibrach, anapest). In addition, each size can vary in the number of feet (4-foot iambic; 5-foot iambic, etc.).

Story - a small prose work of a mainly narrative nature, compositionally grouped around a separate episode or character.

Realism – an artistic method of figuratively reflecting reality in accordance with objective accuracy.

Reminiscence – the use in a literary work of expressions from other works, or even folklore, that evoke some other interpretation from the author; sometimes the borrowed expression is slightly changed (M. Lermontov - “Lush city, poor city” (about St. Petersburg) - from F. Glinka “Wonderful city, ancient city” (about Moscow).

Refrain- repetition of a verse or a series of verses at the end of a stanza (in songs - chorus).

We are ordered to go into battle:

"Long live freedom!"

Freedom! Whose? Not said.

But not the people.

We are ordered to go into battle -

"Allied for the sake of nations"

But the main thing is not said:

Whose for the sake of banknotes?

Rhythm- constant, measured repetition in the text of the same type of segments, including minimal ones, - stressed and unstressed syllables.

Rhyme- sound repetition in two or more verses, mainly at the end. Unlike other sound repetitions, rhyme always emphasizes the rhythm and division of speech into verses.

A rhetorical question- a question that does not require an answer (either the answer is fundamentally impossible, or is clear in itself, or the question is addressed to a conditional “interlocutor”). A rhetorical question activates the reader’s attention and enhances his emotional reaction.
"Rus! Where are you rushing to?"

"Dead Souls" by N.V. Gogol
Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?
Or is the Russian unaccustomed to victories?

"To the slanderers of Russia" A.S. Pushkin

Genus - one of the main sections in the taxonomy of literary works, defining three different forms: epic, lyric, drama.

Novel - an epic narrative with elements of dialogue, sometimes including drama or literary digressions, focusing on the story of an individual in a social environment.

Romanticism – a literary movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, which opposed itself to classicism as a search for forms of reflection that were more in line with modern reality.

Romantic hero– a complex, passionate personality, whose inner world is unusually deep and endless; it is a whole universe full of contradictions.

WITH

Sarcasm – caustic, sarcastic ridicule of someone or something. Widely used in satirical literary works.

Satire – a type of literature that exposes and ridicules the vices of people and society in specific forms. These forms can be very diverse - paradox and hyperbole, grotesque and parody, etc.

Sentimentalism – literary movement of the late 18th – early 19th centuries. It arose as a protest against the canons of classicism in art that had turned into dogma, reflecting the canonization of feudal social relations that had already turned into a hindrance to social development.

Syllabic versification e - syllabic system of versification, based on the equality of the number of syllables in each verse with obligatory stress on the penultimate syllable; equipoise. The length of a verse is determined by the number of syllables.
It's hard not to love
And love is hard
And the hardest thing
Loving love cannot be obtained.

A.D. Kantemir

Syllabic-tonic versification- syllabic stress system of versification, which is determined by the number of syllables, the number of stresses and their location in the poetic line. It is based on the equality of the number of syllables in a verse and the orderly change of stressed and unstressed syllables. Depending on the system of alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, two-syllable and three-syllable sizes are distinguished.

Symbol- an image that expresses the meaning of a phenomenon in objective form. An object, an animal, a sign becomes a symbol when they are endowed with additional, extremely important meaning.

Symbolism – literary and artistic movement of the late 19th – early 20th centuries. Symbolism sought through symbols in a tangible form to embody the idea of the unity of the world, expressed in accordance with its most diverse parts, allowing colors, sounds, smells to represent one through the other (D. Merezhkovsky, A. Bely, A. Blok, Z. Gippius, K. Balmont , V. Bryusov).

Synecdoche – artistic technique of substitution for the sake of expressiveness - one phenomenon, subject, object, etc. – correlated with it by other phenomena, objects, objects.

Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh’s hat!

A.S. Pushkin.

Sonnet – a fourteen-line poem composed according to certain rules: the first quatrain (quatrain) presents an exposition of the theme of the poem, the second quatrain develops the provisions outlined in the first, in the subsequent terzetto (three-line verse) the denouement of the theme is outlined, in the final terzetto, especially in its final line, the denouement is completed , expressing the essence of the work.

Comparison- a pictorial technique based on the comparison of a phenomenon or concept (object of comparison) with another phenomenon or concept (means of comparison), with the goal of highlighting any particularly important artistic feature of the object of comparison:
Full of goodness before the end of the year,
Days are like Antonov apples.

A.T. Tvardovsky

Versification- the principle of rhythmic organization of poetic speech. Versification can be syllabic, tonic, syllabic-tonic.

Poem- a small work created according to the laws of poetic speech; usually a lyrical work.

Poetic speech- a special organization of artistic speech, differing from prose in its strict rhythmic organization; measured, rhythmically organized speech. A means of conveying expressive emotions.

Foot- a stable (ordered) combination of a stressed syllable with one or two unstressed syllables, which are repeated in each verse. The foot can be two-syllable (iambic U-, trochee -U) and three-syllable (dactyl -UU, amphibrachium U-U, anapest UU-).

Stanza- a group of verses repeated in poetic speech, related in meaning, as well as in the arrangement of rhymes; a combination of verses that forms a rhythmic and syntactic whole, united by a certain rhyme system; additional rhythmic element of verse. Often has complete content and syntactic structure. The stanza is separated from one another by an increased interval.

Plot- a system of events in a work of art, presented in a certain connection, revealing the characters of the characters and the writer’s attitude to the depicted life phenomena; subsequence. The course of events that makes up the content of a work of art; dynamic aspect of a work of art.

Tautology- repetition of the same words that are close in meaning and sound.
Everything is mine, said gold,
Damask steel said everything mine.

A.S. Pushkin.

Subject- a circle of phenomena and events that form the basis of the work; object of artistic depiction; what the author is talking about and what he wants to attract the attention of readers to.

Type - a literary hero who embodies certain features of a particular time, social phenomenon, social order or social environment (“extra people” - Evgeny Onegin, Pechorin, etc.).

Tonic versification- a system of versification based on the equality of stressed syllables in poetry. The length of the line is determined by the number of stressed syllables. The number of unstressed syllables is arbitrary.

The girl sang in the church choir

About all those who are tired in a foreign land,

About all the ships that went to sea,

About everyone who has forgotten their joy.

Tragedy - a type of drama that arose from the ancient Greek ritual dithyramb in honor of the patron of viticulture and wine, the god Dionysus, who was represented in the form of a goat, then in the likeness of a satyr with horns and a beard.

Tragicomedy – a drama that combines features of both tragedy and comedy, reflecting the relativity of our definitions of the phenomena of reality.

Trails- words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to achieve artistic expressiveness of speech. The basis of any trope is a comparison of objects and phenomena.

Default- a figure that gives the listener or reader the opportunity to guess and reflect on what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted utterance.
But is it for me, for me, the sovereign’s favorite...
But death... but power... but the people's disasters....

A.S. Pushkin

Fable – a series of events that serve as the basis of a literary work. Often, the plot means the same thing as the plot; the differences between them are so arbitrary that a number of literary scholars consider the plot to be what others consider to be the plot, and vice versa.

Feuilleton(French feuilleton, from feuille - sheet, sheet) - a genre of artistic and journalistic literature, which is characterized by a critical, often comic, including satirical, beginning, and certainly relevance.

The final - part of the composition of a work that ends it. It may sometimes coincide with the denouement. Sometimes the ending is an epilogue.

Futurism – artistic movement in the art of the first two decades of the 20th century. The birth of futurism is considered to be the “Futurist Manifesto” published in 1909 in the Parisian magazine Le Figaro. The theorist and leader of the first group of futurists was the Italian F. Marienetti. The main content of futurism was the extremist revolutionary overthrow of the old world, its aesthetics in particular, down to linguistic norms. Russian futurism opened with the “Prologue of Egofuturism” by I. Severyanin and the collection “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” in which V. Mayakovsky took part.

Literary character - a set of features of the image of a character, a literary hero, in which individual characteristics serve as a reflection of the typical, determined both by the phenomenon that makes up the content of the work and by the ideological and aesthetic intention of the author who created this hero. Character is one of the main components of a literary work.

Trochee- two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the first syllable.
The storm covers the sky with darkness,

U|-U|-U|-U|
Whirling snow whirlwinds;

U|-U|-U|-
Then, like a beast, she will howl, -U|-U|-U|-U|
Then he will cry like a child...

A.S. Pushkin

Quote - a statement by another author quoted verbatim in the work of one author - as confirmation of one’s thought with an authoritative, indisputable statement, or even vice versa - as a formulation requiring refutation, criticism.

Aesopian language - various ways to figuratively express this or that thought that cannot be expressed directly, for example, due to censorship.

Exposition – the part of the plot immediately preceding the plot that provides the reader with background information about the circumstances in which the conflict of the literary work arose.

Expression- emphasized expressiveness of something. Unusual artistic means are used to achieve expression.

Elegy- a lyrical poem that conveys deeply personal, intimate experiences of a person, imbued with a mood of sadness.

Ellipsis- a stylistic figure, an omission of a word whose meaning can be easily restored from the context. The meaningful function of ellipsis is to create the effect of lyrical “understatement,” deliberate negligence, and emphasized dynamism of speech.
The beast has a den,
The way for the wanderer,
For the dead - drogues,
To each his own.

M. Tsvetaeva

Epigram- a short poem ridiculing a person.

Epigraph – an expression prefixed by the author to his work or part of it. The epigraph usually expresses the essence of the creative intent of the author of the work.

Episode – a fragment of the plot of a literary work that describes a certain integral moment of action that makes up the content of the work.

Epistrophe – repetition of the same word or expression in a long phrase or period, focusing the reader’s attention, in poetry - at the beginning and end of stanzas, as if surrounding them.

I won't tell you anything

I won't alarm you at all...

Epithet- an artistic and figurative definition that emphasizes the most significant feature of an object or phenomenon in a given context; used to evoke in the reader a visible image of a person, thing, nature, etc.

I sent you a black rose in a glass

Golden as the sky, Ai...

An epithet can be expressed by an adjective, adverb, participle, or numeral. Often the epithet has a metaphorical character. Metaphorical epithets highlight the properties of an object in a special way: they transfer one of the meanings of a word to another word based on the fact that these words have a common feature: sable eyebrows, a warm heart, a cheerful wind, i.e. a metaphorical epithet uses the figurative meaning of a word.

Epiphora- a figure opposite to anaphora, repetition of the same elements at the end of adjacent segments of speech (words, lines, stanzas, phrases):
Baby,
We are all a little bit of a horse,
Each of us is a horse in our own way.

V.V. Mayakovsky

Epic – 1. One of three types of literature, the defining feature of which is the description of certain events, phenomena, characters. 2. This term is often used to describe heroic tales, epics, and fairy tales in folk art.

Essay(French essai - attempt, test, essay) - a literary work of small volume, usually prosaic, of free composition, conveying the author’s individual impressions, judgments, thoughts about a particular problem, topic, particular event or phenomenon. It differs from an essay in that in an essay the facts are only a reason for the author’s thoughts.

Humor - a type of comic in which vices are not ridiculed mercilessly, as in satire, but the shortcomings and weaknesses of a person or phenomenon are kindly emphasized, recalling that they are often only a continuation or the reverse side of our merits.

Iambic- two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the second syllable.
The abyss has opened and is full of stars

U-|U-|U-|U-|
The stars have no number, the bottom of the abyss. U-|U-|U-|U-|

Dictionary

literary terms

Used Books

Bushko O.M. School dictionary of literary terms. – Kaluga: Publishing house. "Golden Alley", 1999

Esin A.B., Ladygin M.B., Trenina T.G. Literature: A short reference book for schoolchildren. 5-11 grades – M.: Bustard, 1997

Meshcheryakova M.I. Literature in tables and diagrams. – M.: Rolf, 2001

Chernets L.V., Semenov V.B., Skiba V.A. School dictionary of literary terms. – M.: Education, 2007

Autology – an artistic technique of figuratively expressing a poetic idea not in poetic words and expressions, but in simple everyday ones.

And everyone looks with respect,
How again without panic
I slowly put on my pants

And almost new

From the point of view of the sergeant major,

Canvas boots...

A.T. Tvardovsky

Allegory - allegorical image of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a concrete image; personification of human properties or qualities. The allegory consists of two elements:
1. semantic - this is any concept or phenomenon (wisdom, cunning, kindness, childhood, nature, etc.) that the author seeks to depict without naming it;
2. figurative-objective - this is a specific object, a creature depicted in a work of art and representing a named concept or phenomenon.

Alliteration - repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of the same consonant sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech; one of the types of sound recording.
Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.
The majestic cry of the waves.
A storm is coming. It hits the shore
A black boat alien to enchantment.
K.D.Balmont

Amphibrachium - a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the second syllable - stressed among unstressed ones - in the foot. Scheme: U-U| U-U...
The midnight blizzard was noisy
In the forest and remote side.
A.A.Fet

Anapaest - a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the last, third, syllable in the foot. Scheme: UU- | UU-…
People's houses are clean, bright,
But in our house it’s cramped, stuffy...
N.A. Nekrasov.

Anaphora - unity of command; repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several phrases or stanzas.
I love you, Petra's creation,
I love your strict, slender appearance...
A.S. Pushkin.

Antithesis - a stylistic device based on a sharp contrast of concepts and images, most often based on the use of antonyms:
I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!
G.R.Derzhavin

Antiphrase(s) – using words or expressions in a clearly contrary sense. "Well done!" - as a reproach.

Assonance - repeated repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of homogeneous vowel sounds. Sometimes assonance is called an imprecise rhyme in which the vowels coincide, but the consonants do not coincide (hugeness - I’ll come to my senses; thirst - it’s a pity). Enhances the expressiveness of speech.
The room became dark.
The window obscures the slope.
Or is this a dream?
Ding-dong. Ding dong.
I.P. Tokmakova.

Ballad - a narrative song with a dramatic development of the plot, the basis of which is an unusual incident, one of the types of lyric-epic poetry. The ballad is based on an extraordinary story, reflecting the essential moments of the relationship between man and society, people among themselves, the most important features of a person.

Bard – a poet-singer, usually a performer of his own poems, often set to his own music.

Fable – a short poetic story-allegory of a moralizing nature.

Blank verse - unrhymed verses with metric organization (i.e., organized through a system of rhythmically repeating accents). Widely distributed in oral folk art and was actively used in the 18th century.
Forgive me, maiden beauty!
I will part with you forever,
Young girl, I’ll cry.
I'll let you go, beauty,
I'll let you go with ribbons...
Folk song.

Epics - Old Russian epic songs and tales, glorifying the exploits of heroes, reflecting historical events of the 11th - 16th centuries.

Barbarism – a word or figure of speech borrowed from a foreign language. The unjustified use of barbarisms pollutes the native language.

Vers libre - a modern system of versification, which represents a kind of border between verse and prose (it lacks rhyme, meter, traditional rhythmic ordering; the number of syllables in a line and lines in a stanza can be different; there is also no equality of emphasis characteristic of blank verse. Their poetic features speech remains divided into lines with a pause at the end of each line and weakened symmetry of speech (the emphasis falls on the last word of the line).
She came in from the cold
Flushed,
Filled the room
The aroma of air and perfume,
In a ringing voice
And completely disrespectful to classes
Chatting.
A.Blok

Hero lyrical - the image of the poet (his lyrical “I”), whose experiences, thoughts and feelings are reflected in the lyrical work. The lyrical hero is not identical to the biographical personality. The idea of a lyrical hero is of a summary nature and is formed in the process of familiarization with the inner world that is revealed in lyrical works not through actions, but through experiences, mental states, and manner of verbal self-expression.

Literary hero - character, protagonist of a literary work.

Hyperbola - a means of artistic representation based on excessive exaggeration; figurative expression, which consists in an exorbitant exaggeration of events, feelings, strength, meaning, size of the depicted phenomenon; an outwardly effective form of presenting what is depicted. Can be idealizing and humiliating.

Gradation - stylistic device, arrangement of words and expressions, as well as means of artistic representation in increasing or decreasing importance. Types of gradation: increasing (climax) and decreasing (anti-climax).
Increasing gradation:
Orata's bipod is maple,
The damask boots on the bipod,
The bipod's snout is silver,
And the horn of the bipod is red and gold.
Epic about Volga and Mikula
Descending gradation:
Fly! less fly! disintegrated into a grain of sand.
N.V.Gogol

Grotesque – a bizarre mixture in the image of the real and the fantastic, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic - for a more impressive expression of creative intent.

Dactyl - a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the first syllable in the foot. Scheme: -UU| -UU...
Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!
The azure steppe, the pearl chain
You rush as if, like me, you are exiles,
From the sweet north to the south.
M.Yu.Lermontov

Artistic detail – detail that emphasizes the semantic authenticity of the work with material, eventual authenticity - concretizing this or that image.

Dialogue - exchange of remarks, messages, live speech between two or more persons.

Drama – 1. One of three types of literature , defining works intended for stage execution. It differs from the epic in that it has not a narrative, but a dialogic form; from the lyrics - in that it reproduces the world external to the author. Divided intogenres : tragedy, comedy, and also drama itself. 2. Drama is also called a dramatic work that does not have clear genre characteristics, combining techniques of different genres; sometimes such a work is simply called a play.

Unity of people – the technique of repeating similar sounds, words, linguistic structures at the beginning of adjacent lines or stanzas.

Wait for the snow to blow

Wait for it to be hot

Wait when others are not waiting...

K. Simonov

AND

Lives of the saints - a description of the lives of people canonized by the church (“The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, “The Life of Alexy the Man of God”, etc.).

Tie – an event that determines the occurrence of a conflict in a literary work. Sometimes it coincides with the beginning of the work.

Beginning – the beginning of a work of Russian folk literature - epics, fairy tales, etc. (“Once upon a time...”, “In the distant kingdom, in the thirtieth state...”).

Sound organization of speech - purposeful use of elements of the sound composition of the language: vowels and consonants, stressed and unstressed syllables, pauses, intonation, repetitions, etc. It is used to enhance the artistic expressiveness of speech. The sound organization of speech includes: sound repetitions, sound writing, onomatopoeia.

Sound recording - a technique for enhancing the imagery of a text by constructing phrases and lines of poetry in a sound manner that would correspond to the reproduced scene, picture, or expressed mood. In sound writing, alliteration, assonance, and sound repetitions are used. Sound recording enhances the image of a certain phenomenon, action, state.

Onomatopoeia - a type of sound recording; the use of sound combinations that can reflect the sound of the described phenomena, similar in sound to those depicted in artistic speech ("thunder rumbles", "horns roar", "cuckoos crow", "echoes of laughter").

AND

The idea of a work of art - the main idea that summarizes the semantic, figurative, emotional content of a work of art.

Impressionism - a direction in art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which asserted that the main task of artistic creativity is the expression of the artist’s subjective impressions of the phenomena of reality.

Improvisation – direct creation of a work in the process of performance.

Inversion - violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase, giving it special expressiveness; an unusual sequence of words in a sentence.
And the maiden's song is barely audible

Valleys in deep silence.

A.S. Pushkin

Interpretation – interpretation, explanation of ideas, themes, figurative systems and other components of a work of art in literature and criticism.

Intrigue – system, and sometimes the mystery, complexity, mystery of events, on the unraveling of which the plot of the work is built.

Historical songs – a genre of folk poetry that reflects the people's understanding of genuine historical events in Rus'.

Literary canon - a symbol, image, plot, born of centuries-old folklore and literary traditions and which has become, to a certain extent, normative: light is good, darkness is evil, etc.

Comedy – a dramatic work that uses satire and humor to ridicule the vices of society and man.

Composition – arrangement, alternation, correlation and interrelation of parts of a literary work, serving the most complete embodiment of the artist’s plan.

Leitmotif - an expressive detail, a specific artistic image, repeated many times, mentioned, passing through a separate work or the entire work of the writer.

Lyrics - one of the main types of literature, reflecting life through the depiction of individual (single) states, thoughts, feelings, impressions and experiences of a person caused by certain circumstances. Feelings and experiences are not described, but expressed. The center of artistic attention is the image-experience. The characteristic features of the lyrics are poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size, a clear reflection of the experiences of the lyrical hero. The most subjective type of literature.

Litota – 1. The technique of downplaying a phenomenon or its details is a reverse hyperbole (the fabulous “boy as big as a finger” or “a little man... in big mittens, and himself as big as a fingernail” by N. Nekrasov). 2. Reception of the characteristics of a particular phenomenon not by a direct definition, but by the negation of the opposite definition:

The key to nature is not lost,

Proud work is not in vain...

V. Shalamov

Memoirs – the author's memories of real events in which he took part or witnessed.

Metaphor - figurative meaning of a word, based on the use of one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast; a hidden comparison based on the similarity or contrast of phenomena, in which the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are absent, but implied.
Bee for field tribute
Flies from a wax cell.
A.S. Pushkin
Metaphor increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness. A type of metaphor is personification.
Types of metaphor:
1. lexical metaphor, or erased, in which the direct meaning is completely destroyed; “it’s raining”, “time is running”, “clock hand”, “doorknob”;
2. a simple metaphor - built on the convergence of objects or on one of their common features: “hail of bullets”, “talk of waves”, “dawn of life”, “table leg”, “dawn is blazing”;
3. realized metaphor - literal understanding of the meanings of the words that make up the metaphor, emphasizing the direct meanings of the words: “But you don’t have a face - you’re only wearing a shirt and trousers” (S. Sokolov).
4. expanded metaphor - the spread of a metaphorical image over several phrases or the entire work (for example, A.S. Pushkin’s poem “The Cart of Life” or “He couldn’t sleep for a long time: the remaining husk of words clogged and tormented the brain, stabbed in the temples, there’s no way was to get rid of it" (V. Nabokov)
A metaphor is usually expressed by a noun, a verb, and then other parts of speech.

Metonymy - rapprochement, comparison of concepts by contiguity, when a phenomenon or object is designated using other words and concepts: “a steel speaker is dozing in a holster” - a revolver; “led swords at a plentiful pace” - led warriors into battle; “The little owl began to sing” - the violinist began to play his instrument.

Monologue – the speech of one of the literary heroes, addressed either to himself, or to others, or to the public, isolated from the remarks of other heroes, and having independent meaning.

Motive - 1. The smallest element of the plot; the simplest, indivisible element of a narrative (a stable and endlessly repeating phenomenon). Various plots are formed from numerous motifs (for example, the motif of the road, the motif of the search for the missing bride, etc.). This meaning of the term is more often used in relation to works of oral folk art.

2. “Stable semantic unit” (B.N. Putilov); “a semantically rich component of a work, related to the theme, idea, but not identical to them” (V.E. Khalizev); a semantic (content) element essential for understanding the author’s concept (for example, the motive of death in “The Tale of the Dead Princess...” by A.S. Pushkin, the motive of cold in “light breathing” - “Easy Breathing” by I. A. Bunin, motive full moon in "The Master and Margarita" by M.A. Bulgakov).

Neologisms – newly formed words or expressions.

Novella – a short piece of prose comparable to a short story. The novella is more eventful, the plot is clearer, the plot twist leading to the denouement is clearer.

ABOUT

Oh yeah - a poem of an enthusiastic nature (solemn, glorifying) in honor of some
either persons or events.

Oxymoron, or oxymoron - a figure based on a combination of words that are opposite in meaning for the purpose of an unusual, impressive expression of some new concept, representation: hot snow, a stingy knight, lush nature withering.

Personification - the depiction of inanimate objects as animate, in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings: the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel.
What are you howling about, night wind,
Why are you complaining so madly?
F.I.Tyutchev

Feature article - a literary work based on facts, documents, and observations of the author.

Parallelism - one of the types of repetition (syntactic, lexical, rhythmic); a compositional technique that emphasizes the connection between several elements of a work of art; analogy, bringing together phenomena by similarity (for example, natural phenomena and human life).
In bad weather the wind
Howls - howls;
Violent head
Evil sadness torments.
V.A.Koltsov

Parcellation - dividing a statement with a single meaning into several independent, isolated sentences (in writing - using punctuation marks, in speech - intonation, using pauses):
Well? Don't you see that he's gone crazy?
Say it seriously:
Insane! What kind of nonsense is he talking about here!
The sycophant! father-in-law! and so menacing about Moscow!
A.S.Griboyedov

Scenery - in literature - the depiction of pictures of nature in a literary work as a means of figurative expression of the author’s intention.

Periphrase - using a description instead of your own name or title; descriptive expression, figure of speech, substitute word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition, or carry the meaning of allegory.

Pleonasm - unjustified verbosity, the use of words that are unnecessary to express thoughts. In normative stylistics, Pleonasm is considered as a speech error. In the language of fiction - as a stylistic figure of addition, serving to enhance the expressive qualities of speech.
“Elisha had no appetite for food”; “some boring guy... lay down... among the dead and personally died”; “Kozlov continued to lie silent, having been killed” (A. Platonov).

Tale – a work of epic prose, gravitating towards a sequential presentation of the plot, limited to a minimum of plot lines.

Repetition - a figure consisting of the repetition of words, expressions, song or poetic lines in order to attract special attention to them.
Every house is alien to me, every temple is not empty,
And everything is the same and everything is one...
M. Tsvetaeva

Subtext – the meaning hidden “under” the text, i.e. not expressed directly and openly, but arising from the narrative or dialogue of the text.

Permanent epithet - a colorful definition, inextricably combined with the word being defined and forming a stable figurative and poetic expression (“blue sea”, “white stone chambers”, “red maiden”, “clear falcon”, “sugar lips”).

Poetry - a special organization of artistic speech, which is distinguished by rhythm and rhyme - poetic form; lyrical form of reflection of reality. The term poetry is often used to mean “works of different genres in verse.” Conveys the subjective attitude of the individual to the world. In the foreground is the image-experience. It does not set the task of conveying the development of events and characters.

Poem - a large poetic work with a plot-narrative organization; a story or novel in verse; a multi-part work in which the epic and lyrical principles merge together. The poem can be classified as a lyric-epic genre of literature, since the narration of historical events and events in the lives of the heroes is revealed in it through the perception and assessment of the narrator. The poem deals with events of universal significance. Most poems glorify some human acts, events and characters.

Tradition – oral narration about real persons and reliable events, one of the varieties of folk art.

Preface – an article preceding a literary work, written either by the author himself or by a critic or literary scholar. The preface may provide brief information about the writer, some explanations about the history of the creation of the work, and offer an interpretation of the author’s intentions.

Prototype – a real person who served as a model for the author to create the image of a literary hero.

Play - a general designation for a literary work intended for stage performance - tragedy, drama, comedy, etc.

Interchange – the final part of the development of a conflict or intrigue, where the conflict of the work is resolved and comes to a logical figurative conclusion.

Poetic meter - a consistently expressed form of poetic rhythm (determined by the number of syllables, stresses or feet - depending on the system of versification); diagram of the construction of a poetic line. In Russian (syllabic-tonic) versification, there are five main poetic meters: two-syllable (iamb, trochee) and three-syllable (dactyl, amphibrach, anapest). In addition, each size can vary in the number of feet (4-foot iambic; 5-foot iambic, etc.).

Story - a small prose work of a mainly narrative nature, compositionally grouped around a separate episode or character.

Realism – an artistic method of figuratively reflecting reality in accordance with objective accuracy.

Refrain - repetition of a verse or a series of verses at the end of a stanza (in songs - chorus).

We are ordered to go into battle:

"Long live freedom!"

Freedom! Whose? Not said.

But not the people.

We are ordered to go into battle -

"Allied for the sake of nations"

But the main thing is not said:

Whose for the sake of banknotes?

D.Bedny

Rhythm - constant, measured repetition in the text of the same type of segments, including minimal ones, - stressed and unstressed syllables.

Rhyme - sound repetition in two or more verses, mainly at the end. Unlike other sound repetitions, rhyme always emphasizes the rhythm and division of speech into verses.

A rhetorical question is a question that does not require an answer (either the answer is fundamentally impossible, or is clear in itself, or the question is addressed to a conditional “interlocutor”). A rhetorical question activates the reader’s attention and enhances his emotional reaction.
"Rus! Where are you rushing to?"
"Dead Souls" by N.V. Gogol
Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?
Or is the Russian unaccustomed to victories?
"To the slanderers of Russia" A.S. Pushkin

Genus - one of the main sections in the taxonomy of literary works, defining three different forms: epic, lyric, drama.

Novel - an epic narrative with elements of dialogue, sometimes including drama or literary digressions, focusing on the story of an individual in a social environment.

Romanticism – a literary movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, which opposed itself to classicism as a search for forms of reflection that were more in line with modern reality.

Romantic hero – a complex, passionate personality, whose inner world is unusually deep and endless; it is a whole universe full of contradictions.

WITH

Sarcasm – caustic, sarcastic ridicule of someone or something. Widely used in satirical literary works.

Satire – a type of literature that exposes and ridicules the vices of people and society in specific forms. These forms can be very diverse - paradox and hyperbole, grotesque and parody, etc.

Syllabic-tonic versification - syllabic stress system of versification, which is determined by the number of syllables, the number of stresses and their location in the poetic line. It is based on the equality of the number of syllables in a verse and the orderly change of stressed and unstressed syllables. Depending on the system of alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, two-syllable and three-syllable sizes are distinguished.

Symbol - an image that expresses the meaning of a phenomenon in objective form. An object, an animal, a sign becomes a symbol when they are endowed with additional, extremely important meaning.

Synecdoche – artistic technique of substitution for the sake of expressiveness - one phenomenon, subject, object, etc. – correlated with it by other phenomena, objects, objects.

Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh’s hat!

A.S. Pushkin.

Comparison - a pictorial technique based on the comparison of a phenomenon or concept (object of comparison) with another phenomenon or concept (means of comparison), with the goal of highlighting any particularly important artistic feature of the object of comparison:
Full of goodness before the end of the year,
Days are like Antonov apples.
A.T. Tvardovsky

Versification - the principle of rhythmic organization of poetic speech. Versification can be syllabic, tonic, syllabic-tonic.

Poem - a small work created according to the laws of poetic speech; usually a lyrical work.

Poetic speech - a special organization of artistic speech, differing from prose in its strict rhythmic organization; measured, rhythmically organized speech. A means of conveying expressive emotions.

Foot - a stable (ordered) combination of a stressed syllable with one or two unstressed syllables, which are repeated in each verse. The foot can be two-syllable (iambic U-, trochee -U) and three-syllable (dactyl -UU, amphibrachium U-U, anapest UU-).

Stanza - a group of verses repeated in poetic speech, related in meaning, as well as in the arrangement of rhymes; a combination of verses that forms a rhythmic and syntactic whole, united by a certain rhyme system; additional rhythmic element of verse. Often has complete content and syntactic structure. The stanza is separated from one another by an increased interval.

Plot - a system of events in a work of art, presented in a certain connection, revealing the characters of the characters and the writer’s attitude to the depicted life phenomena; subsequence. The course of events that makes up the content of a work of art; dynamic aspect of a work of art.

Tautology - repetition of the same words that are close in meaning and sound.
Everything is mine, said gold,
Damask steel said everything mine.
A.S. Pushkin.

Subject - a circle of phenomena and events that form the basis of the work; object of artistic depiction; what the author is talking about and what he wants to attract the attention of readers to.

Type - a literary hero who embodies certain features of a particular time, social phenomenon, social system or social environment (“extra people” - Eugene Onegin, Pechorin, etc.).

Tonic versification - a system of versification based on the equality of stressed syllables in poetry. The length of the line is determined by the number of stressed syllables. The number of unstressed syllables is arbitrary.

The girl sang in the church choir

About all those who are tired in a foreign land,

About all the ships that went to sea,

About everyone who has forgotten their joy.

A.A.Blok

Tragicomedy – a drama that combines features of both tragedy and comedy, reflecting the relativity of our definitions of the phenomena of reality.

Trails - words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to achieve artistic expressiveness of speech. The basis of any trope is a comparison of objects and phenomena.

Default - a figure that gives the listener or reader the opportunity to guess and reflect on what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted utterance.
But is it for me, for me, the sovereign’s favorite...
But death... but power... but the people's disasters....
A.S. Pushkin

The final - part of the composition of a work that ends it. It may sometimes coincide with the denouement. Sometimes the ending is an epilogue.

Trochee - two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the first syllable.
The storm covers the sky with darkness, -U|-U|-U|-U|
Whirling snow whirlwinds; -U|-U|-U|-
Then, like a beast, she will howl, -U|-U|-U|-U|
Then he will cry like a child... -U|-U|-U|-
A.S. Pushkin

Aesopian language - various ways to figuratively express this or that thought that cannot be expressed directly, for example, due to censorship.

Exposition – the part of the plot immediately preceding the plot that provides the reader with background information about the circumstances in which the conflict of the literary work arose.

Expression - emphasized expressiveness of something. Unusual artistic means are used to achieve expression.

Elegy - a lyrical poem that conveys deeply personal, intimate experiences of a person, imbued with a mood of sadness.

Ellipsis - a stylistic figure, an omission of a word whose meaning can be easily restored from the context. The meaningful function of ellipsis is to create the effect of lyrical “understatement,” deliberate negligence, and emphasized dynamism of speech.
The beast has a den,
The way for the wanderer,
For the dead - drogues,
To each his own.
M. Tsvetaeva

Epigram - a short poem ridiculing a person.

Epigraph – an expression prefixed by the author to his work or part of it. The epigraph usually expresses the essence of the creative intent of the author of the work.

Episode – a fragment of the plot of a literary work that describes a certain integral moment of action that makes up the content of the work.

Epilogue – a conclusion made by the author after presenting the narrative and completing it with a denouement - to explain the plan with a message about the further fate of the heroes, affirming the consequences of the phenomenon described in the work.

Epistrophe – repetition of the same word or expression in a long phrase or period, focusing the reader’s attention, in poetry - at the beginning and end of stanzas, as if surrounding them.

I won't tell you anything

I won't alarm you at all...

A. Fet

Epithet - an artistic and figurative definition that emphasizes the most significant feature of an object or phenomenon in a given context; used to evoke in the reader a visible image of a person, thing, nature, etc.

I sent you a black rose in a glass

Golden as the sky, Ai...

A.A.Blok

Epiphora - a figure opposite to anaphora, repetition of the same elements at the end of adjacent segments of speech (words, lines, stanzas, phrases):
Baby,
We are all a little bit of a horse,
Each of us is a horse in our own way.
V.V. Mayakovsky

Essay - a literary work of small volume, usually prosaic, of free composition, conveying the author’s individual impressions, judgments, and thoughts about a particular problem, topic, particular event or phenomenon. It differs from an essay in that in an essay the facts are only a reason for the author’s thoughts.

Iambic - two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the second syllable.
An abyss has opened, full of stars U-|U-|U-|U-|
The stars have no number, the bottom of the abyss. U-|U-|U-|U-|

Part I. Questions of poetics

ACT, or ACTION - a relatively completed part of a literary dramatic work or its theatrical performance. The division of a performance into A. was first carried out in the Roman theater. The tragedies of ancient authors, classicists, and romantics were usually constructed in 5 A. In realistic dramaturgy XIX c., along with the five-act play, a four- and three-act play appears(A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov). A one-act play is typical for vaudeville. In modern dramaturgy, there are plays with different numbers of A.

ALLEGORY - an allegorical expression of an abstract concept, judgment or idea through a specific image.

For example, hard work is in the image of an ant, carelessness is in the image of a dragonfly in I.A. Krylov’s fable “The Dragonfly and the Ant.”

A. is unambiguous, i.e. expresses a strictly defined concept (compare with the polysemy of a symbol). Many proverbs, sayings, fables, and fairy tales are allegorical.

ALLITERATION - repetition of consonant sounds in the same or similar combination in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech.

How sweetly the dark green garden sleeps,

Embraced by the bliss of the night l u b oh,

Through them, whitened with flowers.

How to the moon is shining like hell wow!...

(F.I. Tyutchev)

In the above example, A. (sl - ml - zl - forehead - bl - bl - sl - zl) helps to convey pleasure in the beauty of a blooming garden.

AMPHIBRACHIUS - in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a three-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable:

Once upon a time in the cold winter time

I came out of the forest; it was bitterly cold.

ANAPAEST - in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a three-syllable foot with stress on the third syllable:

Name me such an abode,

I've never seen such an angle

Where would your sower and guardian be?

Where would a Russian man not moan?

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Reflections at the Main Entrance”)

ANAPHOR, or UNITY - stylistic figure;
repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning side by side
standing lines or stanzas (in verse), at the beginning of adjacent phrases or paragraphs (in prose).

I swear I am the first day of creation.

I swear his last day

I swear the shame of crime

And eternal truth triumph.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Demon”)

By analogy with lexical a., they sometimes talk about phonic a. (repetition of the same sounds at the beginning of words), about compositional a. (repetition of the same plot motifs at the beginning of episodes).

ANTITHESIS - in a work of art there is a sharp contrast of concepts, images, situations, etc.:

You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blushing like poppies,

I am like death, skinny and pale.

(A.S. Pushkin. “You and Me”)

A. can be the basis of the composition of the entire work. For example, in L.N. Tolstoy’s story “After the Ball,” the scenes of the ball and the execution are contrasted.

ANTONYMS - words with opposite meanings. A. are used to emphasize the difference between phenomena. A.S. Pushkin characterizes Lensky and Onegin as follows:

They got along. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

("Eugene Onegin")

A. are also used to convey the internal complexity, inconsistency of a phenomenon or feeling:

All this would be funny

If only it weren't so sad.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “A.O. Smirnova”)

ARCHAISM - a word that is outdated in its lexical meaning or grammatical form. A. are used to convey the historical flavor of the era, as well as for the artistic expressiveness of the speech of the author and hero: they, as a rule, give it solemnity. For example, A.S. Pushkin, speaking about the tasks of the poet and poetry, achieves sublime pathos with the help of A.:

Arise, prophet, and see, and listen,

Be fulfilled by my will,

And, bypassing the seas and lands,

Verb burn people's hearts.

("Prophet")

Sometimes A. are introduced into a work for a humorous or satirical purpose.For example, A.S. Pushkin in the poem “Gavriliad” creates a satirical image of St. Gabriel, combining A. (“bowed down,” “rose up,” “river”) with lowered words and expressions (“grabbed him in the temple,” “hit him straight.” in the teeth").

ASSONANCE - repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech. The basis of arithmetic is made up of stressed vowels; unstressed vowels can only serve as peculiar sound echoes.

"On this moonlit night

We love to see our work!”

In this phrase, the persistent repetition of sounds OU creates the impression of groaning, crying of people tortured by hard work.

ARCHETYPE - in modern literary criticism: a prototype, a model of the world and human relations, as if unconsciously “dormant” in the collective memory of humanity, going back to its common primitive ideas(e.g. old age - wisdom; motherhood - protection). A. manifests itself in individual motifs or in the plot of the work as a whole. The images and motifs of the folklore of the peoples of the world are archetypal. Conscious or unconscious transformed (altered) archetypicality is inherent in the work of individual writers. Its opening during analysis enhances the perception of the artistic image in all its innovative originality, acutely perceptible as if “against the background” of its eternal (archetypal) essence.For example, the motif of the transformation of a person by an evil force into some other creature (inherent in various folklore systems) in literature emphasizes the tragedy and fragility of human fate (F. Kafka. “Metamorphosis”).

APHORISM - a deep generalizing thought, expressed with extreme brevity in a polished form:

The habit was given to us from above.

She is a substitute for happiness.

A. differs from a proverb in that it belongs to some author.

BLANK VERSE - syllabic-tonic unrhymed verse. B.S. especially common in poetic dramaturgy (usually iambic pentameter), because convenient for conveying conversational intonations:

Everyone says: there is no truth on earth.

But there is no higher truth. For me

So it's clear, like a simple scale.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Mozart and Salieri”)

In the lyrics of B.S. occurs, but less frequently.See: “Again I visited...” by A.S. Pushkin, “Can I hear your voice...” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

UNION, or ASINDETON - stylistic figure; skipping conjunctions that connect homogeneous words or sentences in phrases. B. can impart dynamism, drama, and other shades to the depicted:

Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts,

Drumming, clicks, grinding,

The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning...

(A.S. Pushkin. “Poltava”)

BLESSING, or EUPHONIA - the sound of words is pleasant to the ear, giving additional emotional coloring to poetic speech.

The mermaid swam along the blue river

Illuminated by the full moon:

And she tried to splash to the moon

Silvery foam waves.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Mermaid”)

Here the words sound softly, smoothly, imparting a special lyrical harmony to the verse. B. is created by all types of sound repetitions (rhyme, alliteration, assonance), as well as the intonation of phrases. Requirements for poetry vary depending on the genre, individual poetic tastes or literary movement(for example, futurists considered sharp sound combinations to be euphonious).

BARBARISM - a word of foreign origin that has not become an organic property of the national language in which it is used.For example, the Russified words “diploma” and “maternity leave” (from French) are not barbarisms, but the words “madame”, “pardon” (from French) are barbarisms.

Monsieur l'Abbe , poor Frenchman.

So that the child does not get tired,

I taught him everything jokingly.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”)

In Russian literature, V. are used when it is necessary to accurately name the phenomenon being described (in the absence of a corresponding Russian word), to convey the peculiarities of life of people of other nationalities, to create a satirical image of a person who worships everything foreign, etc.

EXTRA-SCRIPT ELEMENTS OF THE COMPOSITION- when interpreting the plot as an action - those passages of a literary work that do not advance the development of the action. To W.E.C. include various descriptions of the hero’s appearance (portrait), nature (landscape), description of the home (interior), as well as monologues, dialogues of the characters and lyrical digressions of the author.Thus, the second chapter of A.S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin” begins with a detailed description of the village, and then the house where the hero settled.V.E.K. allow us to reveal the character of the characters in a more multifaceted and detailed way (since their essence is manifested not only in actions, but also in the portrait, in the perception of nature, etc.). V.E.K. They also create a background for what is happening.

FREE VERSE - syllabic-tonic rhymed verse in which the lines have different lengths (unequal number of feet). Particularly common is free iambic (with feet fluctuating from 1 to 6), which is also called fable verse, because most often found in works of this genre.

Bear (1 foot)

Caught in the net, (2 stops)

Jokes about death from afar, as boldly as you want: (6 stops)

But death up close is a completely different matter! (5 stops)

(I.A. Krylov. “Bear in the Net”)

VULGARISM - a rude word that does not meet the literary norm. V. are sometimes introduced into the hero’s speech in order to characterize him.For example, Sobakevich conveys his attitude towards city officials in these words: “All are sellers of Christ. There is only one decent person there: the prosecutor; and even that one, to tell the truth, is a pig” (N.V. Gogol. “Dead Souls”).

HYPERBOLA - artistic exaggeration real properties of an object or phenomenon to such an extent that in reality they cannot possess. A variety of properties are hyperbolized: size, speed, quantity, etc. For example:“Hare pants as wide as the Black Sea” (N.V. Gogol, “How Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich quarreled”).G. is used especially widely in Russian epics.

GRADATION - stylistic figure; gradual increase (or, on the contrary, weakening) of the emotional and semantic meaning of words and expressions:“I knew him to be in love tenderly, passionately, madly...” (N.V. Gogol. “Old World Landowners”).G. is able to convey the development of any feeling of the hero, his emotional excitement or reflect the dynamism of events, the drama of situations, etc.

GROTESQUE - extreme exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character. G. assumes the internal interaction of contrasting principles: the real and the fantastic; tragic and comic; sarcastic and humorous. G. always sharply violates the boundaries of plausibility, giving the image conventional, bizarre, strange forms.For example, the veneration of one of Gogol’s heroes is so great that he worships his own nose, which was torn away from his face and became an official higher in rank than him (“The Nose”). Widely used by G. M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, V. V. Mayakovsky and others.

DACTYL - in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a three-syllable foot with stress on the first syllable:

Glorious autumn! Healthy, vigorous

The air invigorates tired forces.

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Railroad”)

COUPLET - the simplest stanza, consisting of two rhymed verses:

The prince bathes his horse in the sea;

He hears: “Tsarevich! Look at me!

The horse snorts and pricks his ears.

It splashes and splashes and floats away.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “The Sea Princess”)

DIALECTISM - a non-literary word or expression characteristic of the speech of people living in a certain area (in the North, in the South, in a certain region). D., as a rule, have correspondences in the literary language.So, in villages where Cossacks live, they say: “baz” (yard), “kuren” (hut); in the North they say: “basko” (beautiful), “parya” (guy). Writers turn to D. to create a convincing, realistic image hero.In Russian literature, D. N. A. Nekrasov, N. S. Leskov, M. A. Sholokhov, A. T. Tvardovsky and others were widely used. D. are partly capable of performing the function of historical coloring (V. M. Shukshin. “I I came to give you freedom...").

DIALOGUE - exchange of remarks between two or more persons in a literary work. D. is especially widely used in drama, and is also used in epic works(for example, D. Chichikov and Sobakevich).

JARGON, or ARGO - a non-literary artificial language, understandable only to k.-l. a circle of dedicated people: a certain social stratum (secular Zh., thief Zh.), people united by a common pastime (card gambling Zh.), etc.For example: “And the “hooks” are a damn flock!..” (I.L. Selvinsky. “The Thief”). "Hooks" here means "militia".Writers turn to J. to convey the hero’s social affiliation, emphasize his spiritual limitations, etc.

TIE - an episode of the plot that depicts the emergence of a contradiction (conflict) and, to some extent, determines the further development of events in the work.For example, “The Noble Nest” by I.S. Turgenev 3. is the flared love of Lavretsky and Lisa, colliding with the inert morality of the environment.3. may be motivated by previous exposure(this is 3. in the named novel)and can be sudden, unexpected, “opening” the work, which gives special poignancy to the development of the action.This 3. is often used, for example, by A.P. Chekhov (“Spouse”).

ABSOLUTE LANGUAGE, or ABSOLUTELY - a purely emotional language, based not on the meaning of words, but on a set of sounds that seem to express a certain state of the poet. Nominated by futurist writers (1910-20 in Russian literature). 3. Ya is, of course, the destruction of art as a form of knowledge and reflection of reality. Eg:

Alebos,

Tainobos.

Bezwe!

Boo Boo,

Baoba,

Decrease!!!

(A.E. Kruchenykh. “Vesel zau”)

To some extent, the zaum served as a search for new artistic means, for example, the author’s neologisms(“winged with the golden writing of the thinnest wings...” - this is what V. Khlebnikov says about the grasshopper).

ONOMATOPOEIA- the desire to use sounds to hint at the sound characteristics of a person. specific phenomenon of reality. 3. makes the artistic image more expressive.In a humorous story by A.P. Chekhov, an old train is described as follows: “The mail train... is rushing at full speed... The locomotive whistles, puffs, hisses, sniffles... “Something will happen, something will happen!” - the carriages, trembling from old age, knock... Ogogogo - oh - oh! - picks up the locomotive." ("In the wagon"). 3. is used especially often in poetry (S. Cherny. “Easter Chime”).

INVERSION - stylistic figure; unusual (from the point of view of grammar rules) word order in a sentence or phrase. Successful I. gives the created image greater expressiveness. The poet emphasizes the youth and lightness of Onegin, who is hurrying to the long-started ball, with the following inversion:

He passes the doorman with an arrow

He flew up the marble steps.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”)

ALLEGORY - an expression containing a different, hidden meaning.For example, about a small child: “How big man walking!» I. enhances the expressiveness of artistic speech and is the basis of tropes. Particularly striking types of fiction are allegory and Aesopian language.

INTONATION - the melody of spoken speech, which allows you to convey the subtlest semantic and emotional shades of a particular phrase. Thanks to I. same statement(e.g. greeting “Hello, Maria Ivanovna!”)may sound businesslike, or flirtatious, or ironic, etc. I. is created in speech by raising and lowering the tone, pauses, tempo of speech, etc. In writing, the main features of I. are conveyed using punctuation, explanatory words of the author regarding the speech of the characters . I. plays a special role in poetry, where it can be melodious, declamatory, colloquial, etc. In creating the intonation of a verse, poetic meters, line length, rhyme, clause, pauses, and stanzas are involved.

INTRIGUE - a complex, intense, tangled knot of events that underlies the development of a dramatic (less often, epic) work. I. is the result of a thoughtful, persistent, often secret struggle of the characters(for example, plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, novels by F.M. Dostoevsky).

PUN - a play on words based on the identical or very similar sound of words with different meanings. K. are based on homonyms or comic etymology. K. usually characterizes the hero as a witty, lively person:“I came to Moscow, I cry and cry” (P.A. Vyazemsky. “Letter to my wife”, 1824).

QUATREIN, or quatrains - the most popular stanza in Russian versification. The rhyming of lines in K. can be different:

1. abab (cross):

Don’t be shy for your dear fatherland...

The Russian people have endured enough.

He took out this railway too -

He will endure everything that God does not send!

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Railroad”)

2. aabb (adjacent):

I can't wait for freedom,

And prison days are like years;

And the window is high above the ground.

And there is a sentry at the door!

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “The Neighbor”)

3. abba (waist):

God help me, my friends,

And in storms and in everyday grief,

In a foreign land, in a deserted sea

And in the dark abysses of the earth.

COMPOSITION - this or that construction of a work of art, motivated by its ideological concept. K. is a certain arrangement and interaction of all components of works: plot (i.e., development of action), descriptive (landscape, portrait), as well as monologues, dialogues, author's lyrical digressions, etc. Depending on artistic goals, techniques and the principles underlying K. can be very diverse.So, for example, the basis for the arrangement of paintings in Leo Tolstoy’s story “After the Ball” is contrast, which well conveys the main idea about the inhumane essence of the outwardly respectable and brilliant colonel. And in “Dead Souls” one of compositional techniques is the repetition of similar situations (Chichikov’s arrival to the next landowner, meeting the hero, lunch) and descriptions (estate landscape, interior, etc.). This technique allows us to convey the idea of the diversity of the characters of the landowners and at the same time their uniformity, which consists in the meaninglessness of an idle existence at the expense of the peasants. In addition, the idea is raised about Chichikov’s many-sided opportunism.The composition of epic works is especially diverse in its components; In classical dramatic works, the plot, monologues, and dialogues play a particularly significant role; In K. lyrical works, as a rule, there is no plot beginning.

CLIMAX - that point in the development of the plot when the conflict reaches its highest tension: the clash of opposing principles (socio-political, moral, etc.) is felt especially acutely, and the characters in their essential features are revealed to the greatest extent.For example, in “The Noble Nest” by I.S. Turgenev, the contradiction between the love of the heroes and the laws of the social environment reaches a special intensity in the episode depicting the arrival of Lavretsky’s wife Varvara Pavlovna. This is K. novel, because The outcome of the conflict depends on how the main characters behave: will Lavretsky and Lisa be able to defend their feelings or not?

VOCABULARY - vocabulary of the language. When turning to this or that L., the writer is guided primarily by the tasks of creating an artistic image. For these purposes, it is important for the author to choose an accurate and apt word (see: synonyms, antonyms), the ability to use its figurative meaning (see: tropes), as well as lexical and stylistic shades (see: archaisms, colloquialisms, jargons, etc.) . Features of L. in the hero’s speech serve as a means of characterizing him.For example, Manilov’s speech contains many endearing words (“darling”, “mouth”) and epithets expressing the highest (even “twice the highest”) degree of k.-l. qualities (“most venerable”, “most amiable”), which speaks of the sentimentality and enthusiasm of his character (N.V. Gogol. “Dead Souls”).A literary analysis of a literary work should lead to an understanding of the character of the hero and the author’s attitude towards the depicted.

AUTHOR'S LYRICAL DISCLOSURE- the author’s deviation from the direct plot narrative, which consists in expressing his feelings and thoughts in the form of lyrical inserts on topics that have little (or nothing) to do with the main theme of the work. L.O. allow you to express the author’s opinion on important issues of our time and express thoughts on certain issues. L.O. found in both poetry and prose.For example, in the second chapter of A.S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin,” the story of Tatyana, who has fallen in love, is suddenly interrupted, and the author expresses his opinion on issues of classicist, romantic and realistic art (the principles of which he affirms in the novel. Then again there is a story about Tatyana. An example of a lyrical digression in prose is the author’s thoughts about the future of Russia in N.V. Gogol’s “Dead Souls” (see the end of Chapter XI).

LITOTES - artistic understatement of the real properties of an object or phenomenon to such an extent that in reality they cannot possess.For example: Chichikov’s stroller is “light as a feather” (N.V. Gogol. “Dead Souls”).A variety of properties can be downplayed: size, thickness, distance, time, etc. L. increases the expressiveness of artistic speech.

METAPHOR - one of the main tropes of artistic speech; hidden comparison of an object or phenomenon based on the similarity of their characteristics. In mathematics (as opposed to comparison), the word does not denote both objects (or phenomena) that are being compared, but only the second, the first is only implied.

Bee for field tribute

Flies from a wax cell.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”)

In this example, there are two M.: the beehive is compared by similarity with a cell, nectar - with tribute, although the concepts of “beehive” and “nectar” themselves are not named. Grammatically M. Can be expressed in different parts speech: noun (examples given), adjective("fire kiss"), verb (“a kiss sounded on my lips” - M.Yu. Lermontov. “Taman”), participle (“A bee crawls into every fragrant lilac carnation, singing” - A.A. Fet).If the image is revealed through several metaphorical expressions, then such a metaphor is called expanded:see the poem “In the worldly, sad and boundless steppe” by A.S. Pushkin, “The Cup of Life” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

METONYMY - transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another not on the basis of the similarity of their characteristics (which is noted in the metaphor), but only according to s.l. their adjacent connections. Depending on the specific nature of the contiguity, many types of M are distinguished. Let's name the most common ones.

1. Content is called instead of containing:“The flooded stove is cracking” (A.S. Pushkin. “Winter Evening”);

3. The material from which a thing is made is called instead of the thing itself:“The amber in his mouth was smoking” (A.S. Pushkin. “Bakhchisarai
fountain");

4. The place where people are is called instead of the people themselves:"Steam
ter and chairs - everything is boiling” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”).

MULTI-UNION, or POLYSYNDETHON - stylistic figure; a special construction of a phrase in which everything (or almost everything) homogeneous members sentences are connected by the same conjunction. M. can impart gradualism, lyricism, and other shades to artistic speech.“The whole earth is in a silver light, and the wonderful air is cool and sultry, and full of bliss, and moves an ocean of fragrances...” (N.V. Gogol. “May Night”).

Oh! Summer is red! I would love you.

If only it weren't for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Autumn”)

MONOLOGUE - a fairly long speech by the hero in a literary work. M. is especially significant in drama, used in epic works, and manifests itself in a unique way in lyric poetry (M. of the lyrical hero). M. conveys the character’s feelings, thoughts, includes messages about his past or future, etc. M. can be pronounced out loud (direct M.) or mentally (internal M).An example is the famous M. Onegin addressed to Tatyana, which begins with the words: “Whenever I wanted to limit my life to the home circle...” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”, Chapter IV, stanzas XIII-XVI ).

NEOLOGISM - a newly formed word or phrase in a language, created to designate a new object or phenomenon,e.g. "computer virus".Writers create their own individual narratives in order to enhance the imagery and emotionality of artistic speech, especially poetic speech.For example, the poet conveys his impression of a silent city street: “...the squat buildings of Otserkveneli, like yesterday” (L. Martynov. “New Arbat”).N. can be found in many writers of the 19th century and 20th centuries Some of them, very accurately expressing k.-l. a feeling or phenomenon has forever become part of the Russian language:“industry”, “phenomenon” (N.M. Karamzin); “Slavophile” (K.N. Batyushkov): “hunt” (N.M. Zagoskin); “to shy away” (F.M. Dostoevsky).

OCTAVE - an eight-line stanza with the following rhyme pattern: ababab vv (i.e. in the first 6 verses the rhyme is cross, and in the last two it is adjacent). The final couplet often contains an aphoristic conclusion, an unexpected thought, a comic turn of events, which is emphasized by a change in rhyme (vv). O.'s poetic meter is iambic pentameter or hexameter.

I'm tired of iambic tetrameter:

Everyone writes to them. Fun for the boys

It's time to leave him. I wanted

It's been a long time since we took up the octave.

But in fact: I would co-own

With triple consonance. I'm going to glory!

After all, rhymes easily live with me;

Two will come on their own, the third will be brought.

(A.S. Pushkin. “House in Kolomna”)

In Russian poetry, O. was also used by Zhukovsky, Lermontov, Maikov, A.K. Tolstoy and others.

PERSONIFICATION, or PROSOPOPEIA - trope; likening an inanimate object to a living being:“... the handsome poplar, in the summer heat, and in the winter cold, and in the terrible autumn nights, experiences its loneliness heavily...” (A.P. Chekhov. “The Steppe”).

The trees sing, the waters glisten,

The air is filled with love...

(F.I. Tyutchev. “The sun is shining, the waters are sparkling”)

HOMONYMS - words with the same sound but different meaning. In O.’s literary work they convey a peculiar play on words:

Sits, is silent, neither eats nor pours

And the current wears away tears,

And the older brother takes his knife,

Whistling, he sharpens.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Groom”)

ONEGIN STROPHA- she wrote the novel by A.S. Pushkin
“Eugene Onegin”: a fourteen-line stanza consisting of three
quatrains with cross rhymes, p. paired, and then r. encompassing and final rhymed couplet: abab vvgg deed
LJ.

So, she was called Tatyana.

Not your sister's beauty,

Nor the freshness of her ruddy

She wouldn't attract anyone's attention.

Dick, sad, silent,

Like a forest deer is timid,

She is in her own family

The girl seemed like a stranger.

She didn't know how to caress

To your father, nor to your mother;

Child herself, in a crowd of children

I didn’t want to play or jump

And often alone all day

She sat silently by the window.

The variety of rhymes makes O.S. flexible and intonationally rich: it is capable of conveying epic, lyrical, colloquial and other intonations. O.S., in addition to the named novel, also wrote“Tambov Treasurer” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Infancy” by V. Ivanov, etc.

SYNTACTIC PARALLELISM- repetition in adjacent verses of sentences with the same (or almost the same) syntactic structure. P.S. enhances the emotionality of artistic speech, giving it various shades, for example, dreamy sadness:

The lonely sail turns white

In the blue sea fog.

What is he looking for in a distant land?

What did he throw in his native land?

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Sail”)

SCENERY - description of pictures of nature in a work of art. P.'s role is very diverse.

1. P. can give events one or another emotional coloring.So, night P. (steep banks, rough sea, Moonlight and the approaching fog) in “Taman” by M.Yu. Lermontov imparts mystery and mystery to the actions of the smugglers.

2. P. can help reveal the character of the hero (or his psychological state).Thus, the surroundings of Manilov’s estate reflect his extraordinary mismanagement (the pond turned green with mud, frail trees) and at the same time the desire for European sophistication (the turf was trimmed, the flower beds and the pond were laid out in the English style), see “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, chapter II.

3. P. can symbolically express the main idea, the main pathos of the work.For example, the steppe in the story of the same name by A.P. Chekhov symbolizes the beauty and wealth of Russia, its forces dying in vain.P. can be urbanistic (urban).

REPEAT VERBAL- repetition of the same word or root k.-l. words in one or more adjacent sentences in order to emotionally enhance the expressed thought:

I'm driving in an open field,

Bell ding-ding-ding...

Scary, scary involuntarily

Among the unknown plains!

(A.S. Pushkin. “Demons”)

POETICS - the term P. in modern literary criticism has two main meanings:

1. A set of artistic techniques (plot, composition, language, verse, etc.) of a literary work.For example: A.P. Chudakov. Chekhov's poetics. - M., 1971;

2. The doctrine of the artistic form of literary works.For example: V.M. Zhirmunsky. Tasks of poetics. /Questions of literary theory. - L., 1928; V.V. Vinogradov. Stylistics. Theory of poetic speech. Poetics. - M.,) 1963.The term literature is also used in a broader meaning, close to the meaning of the term “theory of literature.”See, for example: D.S. Likhachev. Poetics of Old Russian Literature. - L., 1971.Historical literature involves the study of changes in artistic forms of literature over time.For example: A.N. Veselovsky. Historical poetics.-L., 1940.

PROLOGUE - a kind of preface to the main plot development. P. communicates the author's intentions or depicts events that long preceded the main action. P.'s purpose is to clarify the root causes of the events shown.For example, in “The Snow Maiden” by A.N. Ostrovsky, P. introduces us to an event that took place 15 years before the Snow Maiden’s settlement in the kingdom of the Berendeys, which allows us to better understand the conflict of the work.

VERBOSE - a word or expression that is a distortion of a literary norm due to illiteracy.For example, “lay down” instead of “put down”; “lie down” instead of “lay down.”In fiction, P. is used as a short and expressive technique for creating an image. For example,A.P. Chekhov, in one word belonging to a high school student, conveys her primitiveness and spiritual limitations: “I read a lot of books, including Meshchersky, Maykov, Dune, ... Turgenev and Lomonosov.” (“Vacation work of schoolgirl Nadenka N”).

INTERCLOSURE - outcome, resolution of the conflict in the work. R. shows which opposing forces won.For example, R. in “The Noble Nest” by I.S. Turgenev - Lavretsky’s satisfaction of Varvara Pavlovna’s demands and Lisa’s departure to the monastery. Thus, the heroes succumbed to the world they opposed.

VERSE SIZE - a certain commensurate ordering of rhythmic repetitions within poetic lines. R.S. depends on the rhythm-forming phonetic feature that forms the basis of a particular system of versification. Russian literary poetry is known for R.S. syllabic, syllabic-tonic and tonic. Russian classical poetry of the 19th century. mainly based on the syllabic-tonic principles of rhythm organization. Dimensions of the verse in social-t. system of versification indicate different ordering of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetic lines. There are five main social-t. sizes: iambic, trochee, dactyl, anapest, amphibrachium,

NARRATOR - the image of the person on whose behalf the story is told. R., as a rule, tells “incidents” that left a deep imprint on his soul.For example, in “The Station Agent” by A.S. Pushkin, the whole story is told not from the perspective of the author-narrator, but from the perspective of the narrator Belkin.Often R. is one of the main characters in the work.For example, Ivan Vasilyevich in Leo Tolstoy’s story “After the Ball.”As a rule, the author’s ideological content of a work (and even more so its objective ideological pathos) is broader than the conclusions that the narrator’s immediate listeners and the narrator himself draw from the story told.(“Man in a Case” by A.P. Chekhov).Thus, the narrator's form activates the reader's thoughts, forcing him to draw his own conclusions.

REFRAIN - a rhythmically repeated word, verse or group of verses at the end of each stanza. R. emotionally enhances the main mood of the verse.So, for example, each stanza of N.A. Nekrasov’s “Lullaby” ends with the refrain line: “Bayushki-bayu” (strengthening the author’s irony).Often R. is an independent stanza. In songs, R. is called the chorus.

NARRATOR'S SPEECH- the entire text epic work, except for the direct speech of the heroes. R.P. conducted from a third party. In the drama and lyrics of R.P. No. R.P., firstly, connects all the heterogeneous verbal elements of the work into a single whole; secondly, it contains a certain assessment of what is depicted. For some writers, R.P. is more evaluative(N.V. Gogol, L.N. Tolstoy),for others - less evaluative(A.P. Chekhov). R.P. in a work of art, it tells about events, helps to understand the ideological content of the text, the thoughts and emotions expressed in it in all their complexity. There cannot be a full perception of a work without understanding the specifics of the narrative style.For example, the style of narration by A.S. Pushkin is often characterized by a slight mockery (“Eugene Onegin”), and the manner of N.V. Gogol is characterized by mocking caustic laughter (“Dead Souls”).

RHYTHM - the process of regular repetitions of certain phenomena. Poetic rhyme is created by the regular repetition of various poetic units, for example, a foot (in syllabic-tonic versification), verse, rhyme, stanza, etc. There is also rhyme in artistic prose, however, the principles of its organization are different (the rhythm of prose is based on the relative commensurability of intonation in syntagms and, moreover, has not a constant, but a variable, changeable character).

A RHETORICAL QUESTION- figure; a question that does not require an answer, uttered with a peculiar interrogative-exclamation intonation. R.V. may refer to an absent person, an inanimate object or phenomenon (for example, nature, etc.).

Where are you galloping, proud horse?

And where will you put your hooves?

(A.S. Pushkin. “The Bronze Horseman”)

RHETORICAL EXCLAMATION- figure; pronouncing a phrase with an affirmative-exclamatory intonation in order to significantly enhance a certain emotion expressed in it (for example, anger, admiration, contempt, etc.).

What a lamp of reason has gone out!

What heart has stopped beating!

(N.A. Nekrasov. “In Memory of Dobrolyubov”)

RHETORICAL APPEAL- figure; an appeal that is conditional in nature and has a purely emotional purpose. P.O. may refer to people, inanimate objects, or natural phenomena.

Oh Volga!.. my cradle!

Has anyone ever loved you like I do?

(N.A. Nekrasov. “On the Volga”)

RHYME - repetition of sounds and intonation connecting the endings of two or more lines. R. divides the poetic text into separate verses, organizes it into stanzas, and enhances the emotional expressiveness of poetry. Rhyme is distinguished:

1. EXACT and INACCURATE (according to the number of matching sounds: “Eugene-genius”, “got around-good”).

2. ADJACENT (verses rhyme in pairs); CROSS (even and odd verses rhyme with each other); COVERAGE (verses 1 and 4, 2 and 3 rhyme). These types of rhymes are distinguished by their relative position in the stanza. All these types of rhyme are presented in the Onegin stanza.

3. There are MEN’S RHYME (with emphasis on the last syllable of the word “bypassed - good”), FEMININE (with emphasis on the penultimate syllable: “Eugene is a genius”), DACTYLIC (with emphasis on the third syllable from the end: “appointed - captured”) . These types of rhymes are distinguished by the nature of the intonation created by the last stress in the line. Intonation M.R. energetic, J.R. and especially D.R. - smooth.

SYLLABIC VERSE- versification in which rhythm is created by repeating the same number of syllables in poetic lines. Depending on the number of syllables, sizes are distinguished: seven-syllable, eleven-syllable, thirteen-syllable, etc. Long poems (more than 8 syllables) are divided by a caesura (long pause) into hemistiches, which further rhythmizes the verse. Example of a thirteen syllable:

Whenever you see the need of your neighbor,

Give him a quick benefit and do it.

(S. Polotsky. “Manual”)

S.S. is originally inherent in languages in which words have stress on a certain syllable: French (on the last), Polish (on the penultimate), etc. In the Russian language, the stress is mobile, but at a certain historical stage, Russian poetic culture was influenced by S.S. (XVII - first third of the XVIII centuries). It was used by: Simeon of Polotsk, Feofan Prokopovich, Antioch Cantemir, Sylvester Medvedev and others.

SYLLAB-TONIC VERSE- a system of versification in which rhythm is created by the ordering of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry. The unit of measurement of rhythm is the foot (a certain combination of a stressed syllable with unstressed syllables adjacent to it in intonation). Depending on the nature of the repeating foot, five main syllabic-tonic meters are distinguished: trochee, iambic, dactyl, amphibrachium, anapest. However, the rhythmic richness of S.-T. S. is not limited to the five named meters, it is practically inexhaustible: the rhythm of syllabic-tonic meters is varied by additional or omitted stresses, various pauses, length of verse, etc. S.-T. S. is characteristic of languages in which the stress is varied, mobile, and stressed and unstressed syllables sound with different strength (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, English, German, etc.) - In Russia S.-T. S. has become widespread since the 30s. XVIII century, after the works of V.K. Trediakovsky (“A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems,” 1735) and M.V. Lomonosov (“Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry,” 1739), who reformed Russian versification. Russian classical versification of the 19th century. mainly S.-T. (A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.A. Nekrasov). S-.T. S. is the main one in Russian poetry of the 20th century. (which also uses purely tonic verse).

ARTISTIC SYMBOL- an independent artistic image that has a multi-valued emotional and figurative meaning. (Compare with the uniqueness of allegory). S.H. is based on the discovery of a certain relatedness in diverse phenomena of reality.Thus, the sail driven by the waves in the poem of the same name by M.Yu. Lermontov symbolizes the rebellious passions of the human soul, courage, struggle, etc.. S.H. It cannot be deciphered logically, you have to get used to it, feel it. The lyrics are especially rich in symbolism, because she is more emotional.

SYNECDOCHE - trope; a type of metonymy; a part of an object is called instead of a whole object, or a whole object instead of a part of it. For example,"Hey! Beard, how do you get from here to Plyushkin?” (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol).S., as it were, highlights in close-up that detail that at the moment is capable of very economically and expressively creating a picturesque image.

SYNONYMS - words that are identical or very similar in meaning, but differ in sound and stylistic nuances. For example: road - way - path. When choosing a particular word from synonyms, the writer strives for accuracy and a certain stylistic flavor. Sometimes S. are used in two or more, diversifying artistic speech and giving it a special charm. Eg:

I go out alone on the road;

Through the fog the flinty path shines.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “I go out alone on the road”)

SKAZ - a form of narration from the first linden with a pronounced focus on orality, conversational speech (both in intonation, and in vocabulary, and in phonetics). S. stylizes the speech not of an individual person, but of a typical representative of a certain socio-historical, ethnographic, or other environment.S. was often used by N.V. Gogol (“Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka”), N.S. Leskov (“Lefty”), M. Zoshchenko (“Bathhouse”).

SONNET (classical) - a lyric poem of 14 verses, grouped into two quatrains (with the same sounding sweeping rhyme: abba abba) and two tercets (with three other rhyming consonances: vvg dgd). In poetic practice, there are other - cross - variants of rhyming quatrains in S. The poetic size of S. is iambic penta (six) feet. The unity of the rhymes in the quatrains emphasizes the unity of the theme, which changes somewhat in the tercet and is, as it were, summed up by the last line (“the castle of the sonnet”).

The stern Dante did not despise the sonnet;

Petrarch poured out the heat of love in him.

The creator of Macbeth loved his game;

Camões clothed them with mournful thoughts.

And today it captivates the poet;

Wordsworth chose him as his instrument.

When away from the vain world

He paints an ideal of nature.

Under the shadow of the distant mountains of Tauris

Singer of Lithuania in the size of his sedate

He instantly concluded his dreams.

Our maidens didn’t know him yet,

How Delvig forgot for him

Hexameter sacred chants.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Sonnet”)

Delvig, Lermontov, Fet, Blok, Bryusov and others also wrote S. in Russian poetry.

COMPARISON - trope; one phenomenon or concept is clarified by comparing it with another phenomenon. S. always consists of two parts (what is compared and what is compared with), which are combined in a variety of ways:

1. Using the conjunctions “how”, “what” and the words “similar”, “as if”, etc.:“It looked like a clear moon” (M.Yu. Lermontov. “Demon”).

2. Using the instrumental case:“His beaver collar is silvered with frosty dust” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”).

3. Using negation:

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,

Streams did not run from the mountains.

Moroz the voivode on patrol

Walks around his possessions.

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Frost, Red Nose”)

S. can be deployed.A classic example of an expanded S that runs through the entire work is M.Yu. Lermontov’s poem “The Poet”, in which, through the comparison of the poet with a dagger, the contemporary state of poetry and the demands of a demanding artist are revealed for the poet.

POEM -

1. A unit of poetic rhythm, usually coinciding with a line. The page can also be divided into several graphic lines(N. Aseev, V. Mayakovsky).

2. Poetic speech, which differs from prosaic speech by a system of regular repetitions: sounds, pauses, stressed and unstressed syllables, etc.

POEM - a relatively small lyrical or lyric-epic work in verse.See, for example: “I loved you: love can still be...” by A.S. Pushkin; “Borodino” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

FOOT - in syllabic-tonic verse - a combination of a stressed syllable and unstressed syllables adjacent to it in intonation, which, when repeated, creates the rhythm of the verse. There are two types of disyllabic C: trochaic (with stress on the first syllable of two), iambic (on the second); trisyllabic: dactylic (with stress on the first syllable of three), amphibrachic (on the second), anapestic (on the third). S. is also found in ancient versification (but is based on the length and brevity of the syllable). In syllabic and tonic verses there is no S.

STANZA - a group of verses repeated throughout a poetic work, united by a common idea and rhyme. S. enhances the rhythm of the poetic text, gives it compositional harmony - Russian versification is rich in a variety of stanzas (see, for example, couplet, quatrain, octave, Onegin stanza). A poetic work not grouped in C is called astronomical(for example, “Ruslan and Lyudmila” by A.S. Pushkin).

PLOT - one of the main meanings: a system of events in a literary work, revealing the characters of the characters and the conflicting relationships between them.For example, events such as an escape or a fight with the leopard Mtsyri reveal significant traits of his character; courage, love of freedom, desire to live brightly, and also reveal a conflict between him and the lives of other monks.S. is typical for dramatic, epic and lyric-epic works. In the lyrics there is no S. as a system of events. In a story, a number of links are distinguished: prologue, exposition, plot, climax, denouement, and epilogue. Not all elements of S. must take place in every work. In addition, they can come in different sequences. The events of the plot can be presented by the author not in a natural chronological sequence, but in an artistic one, which serves as an additional means of revealing the character of the hero(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Hero of Our Time”).The page of a work can consist of not one, but several intertwining lines.

TONIC VERSE - a verse whose rhythm is created by a certain number of stresses in poetic lines. Depending on their number, sizes are distinguished: two-impact, three-impact, four-impact, etc. Example of a three-beat T.S.:

We sleep at night.

During the day we do things

We love our crush

Water in your mortar.

(V.V. Mayakovsky)

In T.S. there are no stops (unlike syllabic-tonic verse), i.e. the number of unstressed syllables between stresses is arbitrary: in the given example it ranges from 0 to 2. The tonic principle of rhythm organization is characteristic of Russian folk poetry. In Russian literary poetry of the 19th century. is quite rare, but developed quite widely in the poetry of the 20th century.(V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, L. Martynoz and others).

TROPE - the use of a word or expression in a figurative meaning to create an artistic image. T. include: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, partly epithet, etc.For example, cf. the direct and figurative meaning of the word: “dinner has cooled down” and “No: the feelings in him have cooled down early” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”). In the latter case, we are dealing with a trope (metaphor).

DEFAULT, or ELLIPSIS - figure; deliberate understatement of a phrase with the expectation that the reader will guess it. U. usually gives the speech increased emotionality, drama, gives it a touch of humor, satire, etc.

No, you don’t know red childhood,

You will not live calmly and honestly.

The lot is yours... but why repeat it?

Something that even a child knows.

(N.A.Nekrasov)

FABULA - the term is used in two equally common meanings:

1. main events in the development of action, i.e. its skeleton, what can be retold;

2. natural temporal sequence of events, in contrast to the artistic (plot) sequence in a literary work.

In both; In cases, the concept of “plot” is used for the purpose of a deeper understanding of the artistic richness and originality of the plot of a literary work.In plot order, the events of I. Bunin’s story “Easy Breathing” would begin with the heroine’s childhood and end with her death.F. may be very different from the plot (as in the named story), or may coincide with it(“Ionych” by A.P. Chekhov).

FIGURE - a special intonation-syntactic method of constructing a phrase in a literary work that goes beyond the framework of practically accepted norms. F. is used to enhance the artistic expressiveness of speech. K. F. include: rhetorical F., anaphora, epiphora, junction, gradation, inversion, non-union, polyunion, silence, etc.

HOREUS - in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a two-syllable foot with stress on the first syllable.

The hare ran through the meadow into the forest,

I was walking home from the forest.

Poor frightened hare

So he sat down in front of me.

(N. Rubtsov. “Hare”)

Some stressed syllables in trochaic verse can sometimes be replaced by unstressed ones, which diversifies its rhythm. This phenomenon is called pyrrhic (see example given).

AESOP'S LANGUAGE - artistic speech based on an allegory in which, under the images of animals, birds, etc. means a person. Aesop (the semi-mythical ancient Greek fabulist of the 5th-6th centuries BC) was a slave, so he could not openly express his thoughts. Later, censorship forced writers to make such allegory. The true content of a work of art went into the subtext, encrypted with seemingly harmless phrases, hints, associations, fables and fairy-tale images.A striking example of the use of E.Ya. are fables by I.A. Krylov, “Tales” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.Having arisen as a bitter necessity, the 3rd. became over time one of the methods of satire.

EXPOSITION - a conflict-free part of the text preceding the plot. E. provides an image of the initial situation, the environment, the background against which events will then unfold. The purpose of E. is to make the subsequent behavior of the characters more understandable(see, for example, the description of the life of young Onegin in Chapter I of L.S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin”),E. is most often given at the very beginning of the work, but can be in the middle or even at the end of it(see, for example: “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol).In this case, it carries an additional artistic load, for example, in the above example, for the time being, it gives the main character mystery, mystery, etc. and explains it to the reader only at the very end of the work.

EPILOGUE - the final part of the work following the denouement of the conflict, briefly informing about the further fate of the heroes. But the main purpose of E. is not event-related, but emotional, because First of all, it evokes in the reader one or another feeling about the final outcome of the depicted life of the characters.For example, E. in “The Noble Nest” by I.S. Turgenev gives rise to sadness and pain in the reader’s soul about the unfulfilled high aspirations of the heroes of this novel.

EPITHET - an artistic definition emphasizing k.-l. an important feature in the depicted phenomenon or giving it additional, additional meaning. E. may represent the direct meaning of the word(“September is cold”) or portable (“fading day”)The latter allows us to classify it as a trail. Grammatically, E. can be expressed by various parts of speech:

1. Adjective or participle (see examples given).

2. Noun:"Winter Sorceress"

3. With a pronominal word: “After all, there were battles, and they say what other ones!”(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Borodino”).

4. Adverb: “Why are you greedily looking at the road...”(N.A. Nekrasov. “Troika”);

5. Participle:“The skies are shining blue...” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”).

There is a special group of E., which are a constant combination of words:“blue sea”, “greyhound horse”, “good fellow”etc. These epithets are characteristic of folk art and are called permanent epithets.

LANGUAGE OF FICTIONis the language used to create works of art. Language is a means of communication between people. The language of fiction is, moreover, a figurative language: the laws of use and combination of words in it are not only logical, but (and above all) aesthetic.For example, A.S. Pushkin was indignant when the critic of “Eugene Onegin” rebelled against such expressions as “the fireplace is breathing,” “wrong ice,” etc.These laconic expressions are unusually precise in a figurative, but not logical sense. However, Y.H.L. not opposed to the common language. On the contrary, it is based on it. The largest source in terms of volume is Y.H.L. is a literary language (i.e. correct, standardized language). But the concept of “Y.H.L.” broader than the concept of “literary language”. Depending on the nature of the created image and other ideological and aesthetic tasks, the writer also uses other layers of the national language: archaisms, vernaculars, jargons, etc. From all that has been said, it follows that the literary analysis of Y.Kh.L. pursues goals other than linguistic analysis. A linguist is interested in the internal laws of language development, a literary critic is interested in the laws of creating an artistic image.

JAMB - in syllabic-tonic verse, a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a two-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable. A.S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin” was written in iambic:

The village where Evgeniy was bored,

It was a lovely corner.

Sometimes in iambic verse some stressed syllables can be replaced by unstressed ones, which diversifies the rhythm of this meter. This phenomenon is called pyrrhic (see example given).

Part II. General questions of literary theory

1. A. biographical (A.S. Pushkin, L.N. Tolstoy).

2. A. in its intratextual, artistic embodiment, i.e. the author's position, something close to the concept of “aesthetic idea” (I. Kant), which lies in the entire structure of the work (from the word to the system of images, construction, etc.). A. expresses his attitude through the title, and through the epigraph, and through the detail, and through the plot, that is, through the nature of the narration (author-narrator), and through the system of images. The ways of expressing a. (a.p.) in epic, dramatic and lyrical works are different.Thus, in drama there is no author-narrator; in the lyrics of A. (the author's consciousness) is associated with the concepts of “lyrical hero”, “role hero”, “the author himself”, “emotional tone”.

AUTHOR-NARRATOR- in an epic work, a presentation of artistic material from a third (i.e., not personified) person. A.-p. impersonal, but omniscient: he talks not only about events, but about barely noticeable movements of the hero’s soul, characterizes his nature, knows his past, present, future, etc. The narrator's omniscience is not motivated by anything (whereas the narrator often talks about what he witnessed and narrates in the first person). From A.-p. the story is being toldfor example, in L.N. Tolstoy’s epic “War and Peace”, I.S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons”, I.A. Bunin’s story “Easy Breathing” and many others. etc.A.-p. may be dispassionate in his words, or, on the contrary, may be evaluative, which depends on the writer’s individuality and artistic method (the desire for an objective manner of narration is a realistic tendency).

AUTHOR'S CONSCIOUSNESS- a category of literary analysis that expresses the writer’s attitude towards the world, which is embodied in the artistic images of the work and its entire structure. A.S. - this is a kind of writer’s assessment of what is depicted in the work. Forms of expression A.S. depending on the literary origin and genre are different. In the epic and lyric-epic works of A.S. is especially clearly manifested through the speech of the author-narrator, the author’s lyrical digressions, as well as the development of the plot.For example, in “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol A.S. consists of satirical intonations in the narrative, deep faith in the future of Russia, expressed in lyrical digressions, etc.A complex case of expression by A.S. in the epic genre is the use of the narrator form. The narrator can express A.S. in many ways.(for example, in “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev),or be very far from him(for example, in the early story of A.P. Chekhov “The Triumph of the Winner”),or be in a complex relationship with its assessment. So, in“The Man in a Case” by A.P. Chekhov, the narrator Burkin only partially expresses A.S.In dramatic works, the main form of expression of A.S. is the plot, because author's explanations (remarks) are kept to a minimum. In the lyrics, the most characteristic form of expression of A.S. associated with the categories of lyrical hero, role-playing hero, and the author himself. Forms of expression A.S. depend on the personality of the writer.For example, the narration in the works of Leo Tolstoy is quite expressive, and A.P. Chekhov strives to avoid expressing the author’s emotions. An analysis of an individual work, as well as the writer’s work as a whole, will be incomplete and shallow without understanding A.S. One should not draw a direct analogy between A.S. and the biographical author: these concepts are interrelated, but not identical. The term “image of the author” is often used in the meaning of A.S., which, however, is subject to fair criticism (M.M. Bakhtin, G.N. Pospelov).

BALLAD - a small lyric-epic (see gender) work in verse with intense development of action and intense character of the characters’ experiences. The heyday of B. is associated with the literature of romanticism; authors often created it on the basis of fantastic motifs, beliefs, fairy tales, etc.B. occupies a large place in the translations and original works of V.A. Zhukovsky (“Lyudmila”, “Svetlana”, “Eolian Harp”), P.A. Katenin (“Leshy”, “Killer”), as well as A.S. Pushkin (“Mermaid”, “Groom”) and M. Y. Lermontov (“Reed”, “The Sea Princess”).In the literature of realism, B. gradually loses its fantastic nature, but retains the general intense dramatic and exceptional character of the main event.

TIME AND SPACEin literature, or CHRONOTOP (connection of time and space) - an artistic category associated with the composition of the work and the transmission of the psychological state of the characters. Classicism, oriented toward imitation of reality, was characterized by the unity of place, time and action, which was recognized as the harmonic principle of constructing plays. Gradually, literature masters discontinuity, discreteness, inconsistency in the reflection of V. and the like, parallelism in the depiction of events, which allows one to expand the boundaries of what is depicted(for example, in I.A. Goncharov’s novel “The Cliff” the action is transferred from St. Petersburg to Malinovka, to the Volga, etc.).V. and p. can serve as a psychological characteristic of the character.For example, for the Demon in the poem of the same name by M.Yu. Lermontov, centuries pass “as if a minute passes,” but for the heroes of Oblomovka (in I.A. Goncharov’s novel “Oblomov”) it seems to have stopped.

DRAMA - has two meanings:

1. One of the main types of literature that reflects reality primarily in the form of actions, dialogues and monologues of characters. D. as a genus exists in specific dramatic genres: tragedy, drama (see 2nd meaning) and comedy. which are always intended to be staged;

2. A play depicting serious, significant conflicts of various nature: socio-political, family, everyday, moral, etc., which are often intertwined in one work. D. reflects life in all its complexity and contradictions. Painting arose in Russia in the 17th century and went through a long path of development, reaching its peak in realistic art. XIX literature V.(in the works of A.N. Ostrovsky (“Dowry”), L.N. Tolstoy (“The Living Corpse”), A.P. Chekhov (“Three Sisters”).D. is a living phenomenon of modern art.

GENRE - a set of the most general, typological features of content and form, repeated in many works throughout the history of the development of literature.For example, a literary novel is characterized by the depiction of the hero throughout his life and against the background of a certain historical era, the presence of public and personal conflict, diversity of plot and composition (M.Yu. Lermontov. “Hero of Our Time”). Zh. does not exist on its own, but in certain genre varieties. Zh.r. - a group of works of any genre that has its own distinctive features in content and form. For example, Zh.r. novel - historical novel, social novel, etc.

IDEA - the main generalizing idea that consistently follows from the entire figurative structure of the work. I. embodies the main task of literature - knowledge of reality and influence on it; “In addition to the reproduction of life, art also has another meaning - an explanation of life” (N.G. Chernyshevsky). I. always reflects the author’s attitude towards the phenomena depicted.For example, throughout the entire structure of the novel “Crime and Punishment,” F. M. Dostoevsky inspires the reader with the idea of the impossibility of transgressing the moral law “thou shalt not kill.”Often a work expresses not just one idea, but a combination of ideas; in this case, one speaks not only about the main idea, but about the ideological diversity of the work. Sometimes a truthful depiction of reality objectively leads the reader to thoughts that are different from the author’s(“They hit the government with me like a log,” said I.S. Turgenev about the ideological sound of “Notes of a Hunter,” while his political views were those of a liberal).Author's I. can be prophetic(A. Platonov. “Pit”),and sometimes - false(2nd volume of “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol).The value of any history lies in its depth and historical veracity.

COMEDY - one of the dramatic genres, a work in which a certain phenomenon is denied with the help of laughter. K. differ in the subject and nature of ridicule.For example, in satirical K., phenomena that pose a serious danger to society are ridiculed sharply, in a pointedly pointed, often grotesque form (“Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboyedov, “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol), and lyrical K. Using irony and humor, he depicts individual shortcomings in life, funny situations, while simultaneously affirming the new relationships of the characters (“Old-Fashioned Comedy” by A.N. Arbuzov).Comedy makes fun of negative phenomena, but for a positive hero, every “comedy has a happy ending” (Dante).

LYRICS - a literary genre that reveals a person’s experiences regarding various phenomena of reality. “Lyrics are a reflection of the entire diversity of reality in the mirror of the human soul” (L.I. Timofeev). The feeling expressed in a truly artistic lyrical work is always individual and at the same time always typical, because it evokes consonant experiences among a wide range of people.(For example, “These poor villages, this meager nature” by F.I. Tyutchev).Thus, literature directly captures the social consciousness of people, while the epic primarily depicts pictures of their social existence. In L., of course, there are elements of the image of the external world, but they have secondary importance and are subordinated to the experience being expressed. The artistic principle of true literature is laconicism. In L., the word has an exceptionally large load in lexical, syntactic and sound relations. As a rule, lyrical works do not have a plot (in its event meaning). But in addition to “pure” L., there is the so-called “narrative L.”, in which event elements are quite noticeable, i.e. plot. In literature of this type, “the content is epic in nature, but the treatment is lyrical” (Hegel). The works of narrative literature are close to the lyric-epic genre.For example, “Borodino” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Railway” by N.A. Nekrasov.The actual lyrical plot is the development of a feeling, an experience.

LYRICAL HERO- a holistic attitude towards the world, palpable behind the structure of feelings and experiences of a certain lyrical work, often expressing the ideological and aesthetic ideal of the poet. Introduction to L.G. The perception of this or that poet is formed in the reader from the totality of experiences expressed by him in his various poems.For example, for L.G. M.Yu. Lermontov is characterized by the denial of the emptiness and inaction of the generation and the resulting feeling of loneliness and passionate impulse, rebellion in search of an elevated spiritual principle that will be accessible to “other, purest beings” (“Excerpt”, 1830).Concept of L.G. not to be confused with "hero"(i.e., the “character” who is narrated in the poem in the 3rd person, for example, about the Belarusian in “The Railway” by N.A. Nekrasov):".role hero"(when the entire poem is written from an “objectified character”, for example, “Song of Kalistratushka” by N. Nekrasov), and also identify with the biographical author, who determines the originality of L.G., but often differs from him due to fiction or because not all of his spiritual life is reflected in the lyrics. L.G. - a conditional collective concept that reflects one of the forms of expression of the author's consciousness in lyrics, which arose in the era of romanticism (with its increased attention to the inner world of the individual) and assimilated by subsequent stages in the development of poetry. L.G. - as if an individual, artistic image of the author, which also reflects the mood of his generation, i.e. there is a typical beginning.

LITERATURE - in a broad sense - all writing that has social significance; in the narrow and more common sense - fiction, i.e. the art of the written word (H.L. was preceded by the oral art of the word - folklore). H.L. arises with the advent of printing. The uniqueness of literature as an art form is to a certain extent determined by the specificity of its means of creating artistic images, namely words (cf.: in music - sound, in painting - color). A word can evoke a variety of images in readers: sound, color, and many others. etc. Everything that is accessible to thought is accessible to the word, and all spheres of reality are accessible to thought, which is why artistic literature is capable of reflecting life in the most multidimensional and voluminous way.

LITERARY STUDIES- the science of literature. At the present stage, literature consists of several main sections:

1. Literary theory, which studies the aesthetic essence of literature and literary works, for example, artistic image, gender, genre, method, composition, language of fiction, and many others,

2. The history of literature, which studies its historical development, determines the place of the writer in the literary process. These sections are interconnected: “Without the history of the subject there is no theory of the subject, but without the theory of the subject there can be no thought about its history” (N.T. Chernyshevsky).

3. Literary criticism, which studies the modern literary process.

4. The methodology of literary criticism, which develops the most general principles of literary analysis, for example, the comparative historical study of literature, the study of literary phenomena in the unity of their content and form, the principles of structural and holistic analysis of a work, etc.

There are also auxiliary disciplines of literature: bibliography (records fiction and critical literature), historiography (describes the degree of study of any issue), textual criticism (analyzes manuscripts, compares editions of works, etc.).

ARTISTIC METHOD- a method of artistic reflection of reality, which is determined by the totality of the most general and stable features of literary creativity, namely: the nature of the selection of phenomena of reality, the means of artistic representation, the most general assessment of what is depicted and the correlation of the aesthetic ideal with the patterns of development of reality. Literature knows several Kh.M., for example, romanticism, realism, socialist realism (realism with socialist ideas), etc. Kh.M. reveals the commonality of writers of different national literatures and historical periods. For example, realist writers (A.S. Pushkin, O. Balzac, L.N. Tolstoy) in the above-mentioned features of creativity (selection of phenomena, means of artistic representation, etc.) are guided by the principle of objectivity, recreating all phenomena without embellishment reality, and romantic writers (A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, F. Novalis, V. Scott) to a greater extent follow the re-creating subjective principle, more often they depict not so much pictures of objective reality as their ideas about it. “The poet either recreates life according to his own ideal..., or reproduces it in all its nakedness and truth, remaining faithful to all the details, colors and shades of reality” (V.G. Belinsky). Principles of various H.M. are comprehended and formulated by scientists on the basis of generalizations of the artistic practice of writers. With the development of literature, the principles of H.M. themselves develop and deepen. For example, the realistic depiction of the life of serfs in the works of N.A. Nekrasov (“Who Lives Well in Rus'”) is much more multifaceted and deeper than its earlier depiction in the works of N.A. Radishchev (“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”) . The specific historical manifestation of H.M. in the works of a number of writers who are aware of their basic ideological and aesthetic principles and defend them in works of art, critical articles, keynote speeches, etc., are called literary movements. For example, the direction of realism of the Enlightenment era (A.N. Radishchev, I.A. Krylov), the direction of romanticism of the first third of the 19th century. (V.A. Zhukovsky, Decembrist poets), etc.

MODERNISM - non-realistic movements and other literary associations that contrast their aesthetic principles with realism, which unconditionally dominates literature (and other forms of art) of the 19th century. In Russia, M. has been appearing since the early 1890s. (and in some ways influences the poetics of the works of realists, for example, I.A. Bunin). The main trends of modernism are symbolism, acmeism, futurism. Their representatives (with all the differences in aesthetic views) believed that the idea of public service of literature and “artistic materialism”, coming from the 60s. (Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Pisarev) led literature into an aesthetic impasse, narrowed the subject of literature, leaving outside its boundaries, for example, mystical spheres, the unconscious principle in man, and many others. etc. None of the movements of M. has ever been internally unified, for example, Acmeism (N.S. Gumilev; A.A. Akhmatova; O.E. Mandelstam sang different things: exoticism; subtlety and complexity of the soul; culture in its various types). Modern (since the 1970s) non-realistic movements (conceptualism, social art, etc.) are usually called the general term postmodernism,

NATIONALITY OF LITERATURE- an aesthetic category that emerged as a result of the long development of aesthetic thought. Initially in Russia under N.L. understood works for the poorly educated common people (during the Enlightenment of the 18th century). In the era of romanticism (the beginning of the 18th century - the first third of the 19th century), which attached great importance to N.L., it was understood as the national uniqueness of literature: “people” and “nation” for the romantics were identical concepts. By the 40s XIX century Based on the study of the works of L.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, N.A. Nekrasov and others, a democratic doctrine about N.L. is emerging. V.G. Belinsky, which is then developed by N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov. N.L. - this is, first of all, a deep, comprehensive and true depiction of the phenomena of reality that are important to the people. N.L. manifests itself not only in the content, but also in the artistic form of the work - its accessibility to the people and national identity. N.L. - a historically changing category, therefore the content and forms of its expression, for example, in the works of I.A. Krylov will be different than in the works of N.A. Nekrasov or A.T. Tvardovsky. About the people and N.L., their relationship with national problems in the 20th century. I.A. Bunin (see the writer’s diaries) and A.I. Solzhenitsyn (in his works) talked interestingly.

NATIONAL IDENTITY OF LITERATURE- artistic reflection in literature of the peculiar features of a particular nation: the life and way of life of people, mentality and character of feelings, customs and traditions, clothing and speech. “Climate, government, faith give everyone a people; a special physiognomy, which is more or less reflected in the mirror of poetry. There is a way of thinking and feeling, there is a darkness of customs, beliefs and habits that belong exclusively to some people” (A.S. Pushkin). N.S.L. manifests itself in the theme of the work, its images, visual and expressive means of language. The problem of N.S.L. was especially acute. in the era of romanticism and then realism.The greatest Russian national poet is A.S. Pushkin. The “Song of the Merchant Kalashnikov” by M.Yu. Lermontov, the poem “Frost, Red Nose” by N.A. Nekrasov are clearly national.; especially bright N.S.L. noticeably in comparison with other national literatures, in which universal human problems are clothed in unique verbal and figurative forms.

ARTISTIC IMAGE- first of all, the image-character; a specific and at the same time generalized picture of human life, created by the creative imagination of the artist in the light of his aesthetic ideal.

But in a work of art there are different levels of imagery: landscape image, interior image, figurative detail, etc., which are always subordinate to the expression of the character image. In addition, in most works there is a system of interacting images-characters. Various character images, as well as images of other levels subordinate to them, are united by a common idea of a work of art, without the organizing principle of which they would crumble into links independent from each other and would lose their aesthetic significance. All other images work to create an image of a person.For example, such image-details as withered aspen, leaky roofs, windows covered with rags help create the image of Plyushkin. And his interaction with the images of other landowners creates a satirical image of serf Russia as a whole (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol).Those. imagery is a way of reflecting and cognizing reality through art, in contrast to science, which cognizes it through abstract concepts. OH. has some common properties, which are as follows:

A combination of fictional and authentic. Without fiction there is no artistic creativity, even realistic creativity. However, fiction is often the result of the writer’s comprehension of reliable facts and phenomena:the images of “War and Peace” are the fruit of Leo Tolstoy’s imagination, but many of them have life prototypes;

A combination of objective and subjective. Different artists evaluate the same phenomena of objective reality differently.Thus, the objective basis for the image of Napoleon in the works of M.Yu. Lermontov and L.N. Tolstoy is one: a real historical person. But the subjective author's coverage of them is different. In M.Yu. Lermontov’s ballad “Airship,” the personality of Napoleon is the ideal of the author, and in L.N. Tolstoy’s epic “War and Peace” the commander is condemned for individualism and personal ambitions.

A combination of specific and general. OH. is depicted by the author in his specific individual characteristics, this is the strength of his direct emotional and aesthetic impact. But true O.H. The essence of many similar phenomena is always generalized.Thus, the image of Eugene Onegin in the novel of the same name by A.S. Pushkin is very specific in appearance, actions, feelings, i.e. it is an individual character. But at the same time, he also contains the most important common features characteristic of the noble youth of that time: Onegin is not only a character, but also a type.Typification is the highest degree of artistic generalization.

All of the above-mentioned properties internally interact in every true O.H., but depending on the method, type, genre and author’s individuality of the writer, one or another principle is expressed in him to a greater or lesser extent. Thus, the fictional is more clearly expressed in a fairy tale than in a realistic novel, and the reliable in a documentary story than in a romantic poem; the subjective is always more clearly expressed in lyrics, and the objective in epic.

PATHOS - an excited ideological and emotional mood that permeates the work and stems from the nature of the writer’s ideal. P. is unthinkable without the artist’s passionate conviction in a certain assessment of this or that phenomenon of reality. In its most general form, a poem can be either affirmative or negative in relation to what is depicted (heroic, tragic, satirical, etc.). The specification of P. depends on the theme and ideological orientation of the work.For example, A.I. Kuprin’s story “The Garnet Bracelet” is permeated with a tragic, cleansing pathos that affirms true love as the highest human value.

STORY - the epic genre is medium in volume, as well as coverage of reality (in comparison with the novel and short story). In P., as a rule, several episodes are described, the focus is on one or two heroes; In addition, in P. there is often a tendency to rely on the reliable.P. includes “Taras Bulba” by N.V. Gogol, “Asya” by I.S. Turgenev, “The Tale of a Real Man” by B.P. Polevoy, etc. Sometimes, in terms of the scope of reality, P. comes close to a novel (“ Captain's daughter"A.S. Pushkin).For this and other reasons, the question of the genre characteristics of literature in modern literary criticism remains debatable: some literary scholars do not see the fundamental difference between literature and the novel, others see it in a calmer (rather than action-packed) presentation, and still others see it in the fact that literature was previously gives everything a “moral snapshot of reality.”

POSITIVE HERO- in fiction, an image of a person that expresses the ideals of the writer and at the same time embodies the advanced trends of a certain historical time (socio-political, moral, etc.).For example, images of Dobrolyubov (N.A. Nekrasov. “In Memory of Dobrolyubov”) or Tatyana Larina (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”).The concept of P.G. should not be replaced. the concept of “ideal hero”. P.G. reflects all the contradictions of human character, the formation and formation of a positive principle in it, often in an internal struggle with oneself.For example, the image of Andrei Bolkonsky (L.N. Tolstoy. “War and Peace”).Writers sometimes create subjective, false images of P.G. due to a lack of understanding of the advanced trends of the era. The falsity of such “P.G.” is proven by the objective course of the historical process.For example, the image of the landowner Konstanzhoglo, a benefactor of serfs, is historically false (N.V. Gogol. “Dead Souls”, 2nd volume).Society and its ideals change historically, therefore they replace each other in literature and P.G., while remaining at the same time, to a greater or lesser extent, close to our time. A special concept of P.G. was characteristic of the literature of socialist realism, in which P.G. was an exponent of socialist and communist ideals. Modern literature sometimes also gives interesting images of P.G.(A. Volos. “Real Estate”).

MESSAGE - a poem written in the form of a written address. The flourishing of this genre in Russian lyrics is associated with the work of the Decembrists and A.S. Pushkin, under whose pen it received a sharp socio-political sound, for example,“Message to Siberia” by A.S. Pushkin, “Fiery Sounds of Prophetic Strings” by A.I. Odoevsky. P. is found in the lyrics of S. Yesenin, V. Mayakovsky, I. Brodsky.

POETRY - original meaning - all fiction, as opposed to non-fiction, for example, scientific, etc. This usage is found in the articles of V.G. Belinsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov. In modern literary criticism, poetry is the general name for works of art (lyrical, epic, dramatic, lyric-epic) written in verse. In comparison with prose, it is a much more ancient way of organizing artistic speech, which consists in the presence of a pronounced poetic rhythm.

POEM - a large poetic work of the lyric-epic (less often - epic or lyrical) kind. As a rule, in the center of poetry is the fate of an individual, and its genre pathos is characterized by a “glorifying” (A.N. Sokolov) beginning. The heyday of this genre is associated with the era of romanticism, whose poems praise various manifestations of the love of freedom of the heroes;“Voinarovsky” by K.F. Ryleev, “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “Bakhchisarai Fountain”, “The Robber Brothers” by A.S. Pushkin, “Mtsyri” and “Demon” by M.Yu. Lermontov, etc.. P. received further development in the era of realism of the 19th-20th centuries:“Frost, Red Nose” by N.A. Nekrasov; “Requiem” by A. Akhmatova, “By Right of Memory” by A. T. Tvardovsky.In the 20th century, as a rule, the nature of the epic beginning changes: it more often represents not a plot development, but the subject of reflection of the lyrical hero - the fate of the people in a certain era.

PROBLEM - a question generated by the material depicted in the work, which worries the author and is conveyed by him to the reader. P.’s task is to push the reader to the importance of the phenomenon, to make him think about its essence.Thus, the main question in “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky can be formulated as follows: is it allowed to a strong man to break the moral law of ordinary people?The problematics (the totality of a number of themes) of one work can combine moral, philosophical, social, etc. themes, as, for example, in the above-mentioned novel. P. directly connects the theme and idea of the work, being an expression of its ideological and thematic unity.

PROSE - the general name for non-poetic works of art. Until the end of the 18th century. Russian literature existed on the periphery of the literary movement, then developed in the work of L.N. Radishchev. There is no one N.M. Karamzin, A.A. Bestuzhev-Marley, but starting with A.S. Pushkin, P. occupies a leading position in Russian literature, without, of course, canceling poetry. In terms of content, poetry, in comparison with poetry, strives to a greater extent to master the everyday and multifaceted existence of people, and in form it differs significantly from poetry in the nature of the rhythm: in poetry it is natural and constant, and in II. - free and changeable character throughout the work.

LITERARY PROCESS- the progressive development of literature in a certain era (and in a broad sense - from its origins to the present day). PL. in the most general terms, it is determined by socio-historical periods in the development of society and expresses their existence and spiritual content. Distinctive features P.L. unique in a certain era. Thus, the world of ideas and images in the works of L.N. Tolstoy could not have arisen in the 17th century, and the type of ancient artistic thinking could not have been repeated in later eras. P.L. manifests itself in the evolution of literary methods, genres, genres, themes, ideas, and many others. etc.For example, realism of the 19th century. - a phenomenon deeper and more developed than the realism of the 18th century. Driving force P.L. is the interaction of literary tradition and innovation.

STORY - a small epic work of the most diverse content, arising mainly from a specific episode, event, human fate or character. R. is free and flexible in its structure, but the general principle of his poetics is laconicism. Because of this, detail carries an exceptionally large artistic load in painting, being one of the most important means of creating a typical image.For example, the constant “galoshes” and “umbrella” characterize Belikov’s spiritual “case” (“Man in a Case” by A.P. Chekhov).A variety of R. is the short story, characterized by intense development of action and an unexpected denouement(“Easy Breathing” by I.A. Bunin).

REALISM - an artistic method, according to which the main task of literature is to understand and depict the objective laws of reality through typification. According to the expression of F. Engels, true to this day, “R. involves, in addition to the truthfulness of details, the truthful reproduction of typical characters in typical circumstances"(“Letter to Margaret Harkness,” 1888).R. strives to depict all aspects of life; for him there are no restrictions, themes or plots. R.'s images predominantly (though not always) correspond to the figurative forms of life itself. R. as a method did not arise suddenly; its concrete historical manifestation varies. In relation to the early stages of the development of literature, it is customary to talk not about realism, but about realism, i.e. about realistic trends in depicting everyday details, conveying individual psychological character traits, etc. (for example, in folklore or ancient Russian literature). In the second half of the 18th century. R. receives significant development and is formed as a literary movement, called “R. the Age of Enlightenment." Enlightenment R. truthfully depicts not only individual details, but also social contradictions, which reached exceptional severity in A.N. Radishchev’s “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” (1790). The deepest and most striking manifestation of R. is the literary era of the 19th century, starting from the 30s. XIX century, when the new quality of painting lies primarily in the depiction of a person as a product of a certain social environment and historical era, as well as in the depiction of not only an individual person, but also the people as a whole. Through a detailed analysis of R. XIX, and then XX-XXI centuries. tries to reveal the essence of various life phenomena in all their inconsistency. From here quite often follows the critical pathos of R., directed against the inhumane foundations of society (serfdom, wars, the power of money, etc.), as well as the affirmation of an aesthetic ideal, which is given in different ways: either in the images of positive heroes, or in the subtext of the work as something opposite to the negative phenomena depicted. The principles of R. were especially deeply developed and shaped in the works of N.V. Gogol, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L.N. Tolstoy, and A.P. Chekhov. R. is a living phenomenon in the era Silver Age(along with various non-realistic movements), both in the era of so-called socialist realism, and in the literature of our days(for example, the novel by A. Volos “Real Estate”).

ROD literary- the most common historically stable ways of creating an artistic image, characteristic of very large groups of works. Since the time of Aristotle, three main styles have been distinguished: epic, lyrical and dramatic, which communicate reality in different ways: “... as something separate from oneself” (epic), “without changing its face” (lyrics), “ presenting all depicted persons as acting and active” (drama). Different poems, which is very important, also differ in the subject of the image: in the epic the main thing is the event, stated, as a rule, by the author-narrator, in the lyrics - the experience, in the drama - the action reproduced by the heroes on the sienna. R. do not exist on their own, but in epic, lyrical and dramatic genres. In artistic practice, various R. sometimes interact. Literature knows intermediate generic forms: lyric-epic, lyric-dramatic, etc.

ROLE HEROES - in the lyrics, the disclosure of feelings, emotions, experiences of a soul other than the author’s. Principle R.G. originated in romantic lyrics(for example, “Alone with you, brother, I would like to be” by M.Yu. Lermontov),but it receives widespread development in realistic lyrics, especially in the worksN.A.Nekrasoea (“Kalistrat”, “Katerina”). R.G., and more broadly, role-playing lyrics are “a lyrical way of mastering epic content” (B.O. Korman), i.e. the poet’s desire for objectivity, a truthful conveyance of the diversity of human souls.

NOVEL - an epic genre depicting human life in broad connections with society. R. received great development in Russian literature from the middle of the 19th century. For Russian R. of the second half of the 19th century. Characterized by a comprehensive portrayal of the hero, attention to the process of his formation, complex composition (the presence of several storylines, author's digressions, introductory episodes, etc.). R. has a number of genre varieties: socio-psychological R.(“Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov), satirical (“The History of a City” by M. Saltykov-Shchedrin), historical (“Peter I” by A.N. Tolstoy)and others. A peculiar phenomenon is represented by R. in verse(for example, “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin), in which, along with the epic, the lyrical principle is clearly expressed.

ROMANTICISM - an artistic method that attaches paramount importance to the writer’s subjective position in relation to the depicted reality. R. is characterized by:

1. Increased attention to the inner world of the individual, depicted outside the objective socio-historical reality and in contrast with it, which forms the conflict of the work.E.g. hero romantic poem A.S. Pushkin’s “Prisoner of the Caucasus” is a non-historical, bright “person in general” by nature.

2. Re-creation of reality in accordance with the subjective ideas of the author.For example, in the aforementioned poem by A.S. Pushkin, the Caucasus appears as an ideal harmonious reality.

3. The predominance of convention in artistic forms: fantasy, grotesque, symbolism (although, of course, realistic forms are also used) and the strengthening of emotional and evaluative elements in the author’s speech and other poetic techniques.

R.'s method was especially fully manifested in Russian literature in the first third of the 19th century. Russian R. reflected dissatisfaction with the existing reality, which was expressed in different ways:

1. On the one hand, in the charm of the first bourgeois revolution in France and the national liberation movement of their country and other countries, which was expressed in freedom-loving pathos early works A.S. Pushkin, Decembrist poets (K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, V.F. Raevsky, A.I. Odoevsky), M.Yu. Lermontov and other writers of active romanticism;

2. On the other hand, among representatives of contemplative romanticism (V.A. Zhukovsky, I.I. Kozlov), dissatisfaction with reality was expressed in the desire to escape into the world of intimate (and not civil, as in active romanticism) feelings, the expression of which they found in medieval and otherworldly themes, as well as in popular beliefs and superstitions. The turn of active and contemplative romantics to folklore is due to the fact that R., as one of the most important, posed the problem of nationality, the national uniqueness of literature. Later, R.'s method received a certain expression in Russian literature at the end of the 19th century, as well as in the 20s and 30s of the 20th century.for example, M. Gorky (“Old Woman Izergil”), A. Green (“Scarlet Sails”).

ROMANCE - one of the varieties of pathos, expressing the author’s excited and positive attitude towards the depicted. R., infecting the reader, evokes in him a desire for the ideal. R. can be inherent in works of different artistic methods and movements: romanticism(“Mtsyri” by M.Yu. Lermontov), realism (“The Bride” by A.P. Chekhov), futurism (“Left March” by V.V. Mayakovsky).

SATIRE - the castigating, denouncing laughter of a work, aimed at the inconsistency of certain negative social phenomena. S. denies the ridiculed phenomenon not in particulars, but in general, in its very essence. S. presupposes a high ideal of the writer. She is characterized by special techniques for creating a typical image (hyperbole, grotesque, fantasy, etc.). S. may or form the basis of the entire work(“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol), or act as individual satirical motifs in works that are not generally satirical. C - diverse in genre manifestation. The actual satirical genres include the fable, epigram, pamphlet, and feuilleton. S. finds expression in a satirical novel, satirical comedy, etc., as well as in various parodies.Great satirists of Russian literature of the 19th century. - N.V. Gogol and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. In the literature of the 20th century. S. occupies a large place in the works of V.V. Mayakovsky, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, M. Zoshchenko, S. Cherny and others.

SYMBOLISM - literary movement of the late XIX - early XX centuries. In Russian literature, the names of D. Merezhkovsky, K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, A. Blok, V. Ivanov, A. Bely and others are associated with S. S. is a complex and varied phenomenon, but in general its artistic principles are characterized by subjectivism and aestheticism. The subject of knowledge and reflection of literature, the symbolists considered the invisible being hidden behind the external forms of reality, which they understood as the highest organizing spiritual principle of the world. The artist, in S.'s interpretation, is the exponent of this world, and the symbol is a way of expressing it, covering the entire structure of the work from sound to word and image, which are thought of as infinitely polysemantic. Extreme manifestations of this understanding of creativity often led to vacuity and formalism. In general, S. is characterized by a desire for spiritual beauty, an ideal (albeit illusory, mystical), for example, in “Poems about a Beautiful Lady” by A. Blok. The presence of a positive ideal significantly distinguishes S. from decadence (the art of extreme disbelief and pessimism). Symbolism received its greatest development in Russian poetry at the beginning of the 20th century. In a complex form, indirectly, S. reflects the tragic gap between the individual and society, the uncompromising denial of the latter’s lack of spirituality.

SOCIALIST REALISM- an artistic method that began to take shape at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, which developed in the 20s - 30s of the 20th century. and existed before perestroika. SR. - this is realism, reflecting the development of socialist and communist ideas in society and their approval in art. SR. - an international phenomenon: its formation in Russia is associated with the name of A.M. Gorky (“Mother”), in France - A. Barbusse (“Fire”), in Germany - A. Segers (“Trust”), etc. Main features Wed:

1. Understanding socialism and communism as an objective, logical and only historical perspective for the development of reality. The latter indicates the ideological one-sidedness of SR's works.

2. SR. He attached especially great importance to the problem of a positive hero as a person who actively and confidently defends socialist and communist ideals.

3. In the literature SR. A special normative poetics has developed (the type of positive hero, the nature of his conflict with reality, a certain slogan-like quality of the characters’ speech, etc.). The concepts “literature of the SR” should not be identified. and “literature of the era of socialism”, because During the Soviet era, many deeply realistic works were created that cannot be measured by SR criteria.(eg " Quiet Don"M. Sholokhov, "Live and Remember" by V. Rasputin, "House on the Embankment" by Y. Trifonov).

CONTENT AND FORM IN LITERATURE- inextricably interconnected in artistic reality aspects of a work that are highlighted only when analyzing it for the purpose of a deeper understanding of the work. S. works are not so much a list of events and situations, but also the entire range of his ideas and emotions, i.e. C is the unity of what is depicted and expressed in a work, which is emphasized in such a literary expression as “the ideological and thematic content of the work” (see: theme, idea). S. of L.N. Tolstoy’s story “After the Ball” - scenes of the ball, execution and, most importantly, the author’s thoughts and emotions about them. F is a material (i.e. sound, verbal, figurative, etc.) manifestation of S. and its organizing principle. Turning to a work, we directly encounter the language of fiction, composition, etc. and through these components F, we comprehend the S. of the work. For example, through a change in language bright colors dark, through the contrast of actions and scenes in the plot and composition of the above-mentioned story, we comprehend the author’s angry thought about the inhumane nature of society. Thus, S. and F. are interconnected: F. is always meaningful, and S. is always formed in a certain way, but in the unity of S. and F., the initiative always belongs to S: new F. are born as an expression of a new S.

STYLE - in literary criticism: a set of individual characteristics of artistic techniques (linguistic, rhythmic, compositional, etc.) or a certain work, or genre, or period of the writer’s work, determined by the content.For example, Gogol the satirist is characterized by comparisons of heroes with the world of domestic animals, tongue-tied speech of characters, attention in their appearance not to the eyes, but to the nose, anti-aesthetic actions (spit, sneezed), etc., which are connected together by the thought of the lack of spirituality of the people depicted ( “Dead Souls”, “How Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforov and why”, etc.).In linguistics, the concept of S. is somewhat narrower (linguistic style).

SUBJECT - is interpreted differently in literary criticism:

1. As a problem posed in the work. In this case, the originality of the concepts “topic” and “problem” is lost,

2. How life events, which form the basis of the work. But with this understanding it is impossible to define T., for example, a science fiction novel.

3. As the main circle of events depicted in the work itself. The last understanding is the most common.For example, T. story “The Death of Ivan Ilyich” by L.N. Tolstoy - the fate of a man who devoted his entire life to the organization of everyday well-being. T. is revealed through a plot in which it deepens and is concretized in a number of pictures of the life, illness and death of Ivan Ilyich. T. is the path to understanding the problem and idea of the work. Thus, the comprehension of the life of Ivan Ilyich by the reader and the hero himself before his death leads to the idea of its falsity, the absence of great human meaning in it. In relation to a work, they often talk about its theme, i.e. a set of T series.For example, L.N. Tolstoy’s epic “War and Peace” is dark.When talking about T. in lyrics, one should take into account its generic specificity. Lyrical poetry reflects the nature of the main experiences expressed in the poem: love lyrics, civil lyrics, etc.

LITERARY TYPE- an artistic image in which, despite its individual uniqueness, embodies the most important, natural features characteristic of people of a particular group, class, nation, etc.For example, in the unique, extremely individualized image of Eugene Onegin, certain common features are expressed: secular appearance, demeanor, and most importantly, the emptiness and aimlessness of a boring existence that many of his peers eke out.T.L. always reflects the patterns of a certain era. Any era is heterogeneous in its content, and T.L. reflect its various phenomena: obsolete, firmly rooted, and also just emerging.For example, the types of landowners in N.V. Gogol’s “Dead Souls” reflect the established system of serf Russia, and the Bazarov type (“Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev) are only emerging manifestations of a new nihilistic attitude to life in Russian society,T.L. always nationally and historically specific. But along with this, it often embodies certain universal and eternal traits,for example, in Romeo and Juliet (“Romeo and Juliet” by W. Shakespeare), Khlestakov (“The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol), Molchalin (“Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboyedov).

TYPICAL - the most general, significant, natural phenomena of reality, as well as the leading trends in its development. The task of literature is to understand T. in life through the creation of typical characters (types), typical circumstances, and the transfer of typical processes. The revelation in artistic images of the general, natural in the life of human society is artistic typification, which is always associated with the liberation of the displayed phenomenon from the random, unimportant and emphasizing, focusing attention on the essential. Creating a typical image can go in different ways:

a) through a generalization of widespread phenomena: “... you need to observe many similar people in order to create one literary type"(L.N. Tolstoy);

b) by bringing barely emerging but important phenomena of reality to a high and logical degree of manifestation in an artistic image. For example, according to I.S. Turgenev, the basis for the image of Bazarov was that “still fermenting principle, which later received the name of nihilism.” The typical is expressed most fully, multifacetedly and clearly in the images of epic and drama (see 1st meaning). But in a unique form, the typical is also embodied in the lyrics: it conveys, through individual experiences, typical moods that are most characteristic of people of a certain society or era. The general, typical always manifests itself through the specific, individual. However, depending on the artistic method and individual style writer, the degree of concretization, the very relationship between the individual and the general principles in the artistic image is different.

TRAGEDY - one of the genres of drama (see 1st meaning); a work with an insoluble conflict between the high aspirations of a spiritually strong personality and the objective impossibility of their implementation. T. most often ends with the death of the hero, who has not deviated from his humanistic ideals, which leads the viewer to catharsis (purification of the soul through compassion for the hero). T. originated in antiquity (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides), and received great development during the periods of the Renaissance (Shakespeare) and classicism (Cornel, Racine). In Russian literature of the 18th century. T. is associated with the name of A.P. Sumarokov; in the XJX century. - with the names of romantics and A.S. Pushkin, who first expressed “people's thought” (“Boris Godunov”) in T., created a unique genre of “small tragedies.” In business since the middle of the 19th century. in Russian literature, T. as a genre gives way to the novel, which uses tragic situations, for example, in the works of F. M. Dostoevsky.

TRADITHIAAndINNOVATIONin literature, two dialectically interconnected aspects of the literary process: T. - the transfer to subsequent eras of the previous ideological and artistic experience of literature, and N. - the enrichment of literary T. with new characters, ideas, techniques, etc. etc. So, the image “ extra person"is traditional for Russian literature, but at various periods of its development it also bears innovative features. For example, Evgeny Onegin in A.S. Pushkin’s novel of the same name is a “bored egoist,” and Pechorin in M.Yu. Lermontov’s “Hero of Our Time” is a “suffering egoist”; one in his own way; one is inactive in character, while the other is unusually active, although his actions do not ultimately have a great purpose.

FORMALISM- a movement in literature and literary criticism, the defining aesthetic principle of which is the absolutization of form as an end in itself of art while ignoring content as an extra-artistic category. One should not confuse the writer's high demands on form (as evidenced by the drafts of A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, etc.) and F., in which the main function of art - the reflection of reality - is destroyed. “Form without content is vulgarity, often quite specious...” (V.G. Belinsky). In Russian literature, F. most clearly manifested itself in the 10-20s. in extreme manifestations of futurism, symbolism, etc., for example, in the abstruse language of V. Khlebnikov and A-Kruchenykh. Many writers (V.V. Mayakovsky, A.A. Blok, V.Ya. Bryusov), overcoming purely formalistic tendencies, enriched literature with a variety of artistic techniques that contribute to the expression of new ideas and moods.

FUTURISM- Russian F., which emerged in the 1910s, on the one hand, was a vivid manifestation of formalism (in its extreme manifestations), on the other hand, it enriched literature with new ideas, moods, and artistic techniques. Its representatives: V. Khlebnikov, V. Kamensky, the Burliuk brothers and others. F.’s program asserted the “inherent value” of the form of poetry, regardless of its content, as well as (in contrast to symbolism) anti-aestheticism, i.e. denial of beauty in general, which was manifested in the language of their works, named collections (“A Slap in the Face of Public Taste”, “Dead Moon”), etc. F. advocated the unlimited freedom of the artist, which was manifested, for example, in the abolition of punctuation marks, in word creation, reaching the point of absurdity (see: abstruse language). Over time, the artistic practice of some F. poets increasingly contradicted his program. V.V. Mayakovsky, N.N. Aseev and others, formally starting out as futurists, later became the largest original poets.

ARTISTRYliterature - has two meanings:

1. Figurative form of reflection of reality.

2. The degree of poetic perfection of the work. X. depends on the combination of a number of features: on the importance of the theme, the persuasiveness of the characters, the skill of the writer and, of course, on the significance and truthfulness of the artistic images and ideas of the work: “If the idea is false, there can be no talk of X.” (N.G. Chernyshevsky).

LYRICAL CYCLE- genre education, which has a special artistic possibility of the emergence of additional meanings hidden in the order of arrangement of poems, their leitmotifs, a single or changing emotional tone, etc. Thus, Ts.L. is not reduced to the totality of meanings of individual poems, but is something more in terms of content(“Denisevsky cycle” by F.I. Tyutchev, “Snow Mask” by A.A. Blok).

ELEGY- one of the genres of lyrics; a work that expresses the mood of sadness and sadness caused by reflections on life. E. in Russian literature flourished in the era of romanticism in lyric poetryV.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov and especially E.A. Baratynsky (“Disbelief”), found in A.S. Pushkin (“I wander along the noisy streets”), M.Yu. Lermontov (“I go out I’m alone on the road”).N.A. Nekrasov turned Elegy into a means of exposing ugly social phenomena (“Elegy”).

EPIGRAM- a short poem that maliciously ridicules a person or social phenomenon. For example, A.S. Pushkin addressed the following E. to Count I.S. Vorontsov:

Half my lord, half merchant,

Half-sage, half-ignorant,

Semi-scoundrel, but there is hope

Which will be complete at last.

In the literature of the 19th century. E. was a sharp weapon in the social and literary struggle. E. can also be of a comic nature.

EPOS- a literary genre in which the subject of the image is, as a rule, important social phenomena. The image is primarily of a narrative (event) nature. Events in E. are depicted as occurring independently of the will of the author-narrator, in their self-development. The author-narrator is, as it were, an observer, narrating what is happening from the third person. But in addition to this historically traditional form of presentation of material for E., striving for omniscience (for example, about the life of the hero, his soul, fate, etc.) and universal coverage of reality, gradually in E. a form of narration from the narrator (from “I” - a witness or participant in events). In order to report events, E. also uses the experience of drama, introducing messages about what happened into the system of dialogues and monologues. The writer 8 E. acts as an analyst of the objective life process, resurrecting the root causes that determined the character and behavior of the hero. Over time, epic genres (epic, novel, story, short story, etc.) lose their generic purity, i.e. Dialogues and monologues (dramatic techniques) are widely used, conveying the emotional state of the characters, as well as the author’s lyrical digressions. This contributes to the development of forms that are transitional in terms of gender (for example, lyric-epic: N.V. Gogol’s poem “Dead Souls”). Due to the mastery of various methods of presenting material (subordinate to the main one, that is, narration), E. provides the writer with great opportunities for depicting a person and reality.

EPIC- the largest genre of epic, existing in two genre varieties:

1. Classical E. - a monumental work of national heroic character, created on the basis of the cyclization of folk tales and songs. K.E. (or epic) as a genre is created in the era of the early formation of nationalities, reflecting an understanding of the world in the spirit of folklore and mythological images.For example: “The Iliad” by Homer, “The Song of the Nibelungs”, cycles of Russian epics about the heroes Ilya Muromets, Mikul Selyaninovich, Alyosha Popovich, etc..

2.E. modern times (epic novel) - a large-scale work depicting events of national significance.For example: “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov.

AESTHETICS- the science of art and aesthetic qualities of reality. E. - “philosophy of art” (Hegel). The main question of E. is the relationship between aesthetic consciousness and social existence. Based on the understanding of this issue, scientists dealing with aesthetic problems reveal the general laws of art (its origin, essence, connection with other forms of consciousness), features of the artistic image, the interaction of content and form in art, the main aesthetic categories (beautiful, ugly, tragic, comic) etc. Writers of various literary movements, movements, and artistic methods have different aesthetic views.For example, symbolists see the ideal in the mystical spiritual foundations of the world, and realists - in a plausible, seemingly real reality (cf., the images of the Beautiful Lady in A.A. Blok’s cycle “Poems about the Beautiful Lady” and Tatyana Larina in the novel by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin").

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M.: Education, 1988. - 335 p.

The book consists of two sections. The first section - "A Brief Dictionary of Literary Terms" (3rd edition, revised, 2nd edition published in 1985) - will help answer questions related to understanding a wide variety of phenomena in fiction (romanticism, realism, critical...

Kozhevnikov V.M. (ed.) Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary (LES)

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The publication contains 752 pages. Year of publication - 1987. This is a fundamental edition of the “Soviet Encyclopedia” (now the publishing house “Big Russian Encyclopedia”), which contains systematized information about a set of terms and concepts used in literary criticism, folkloristics, literary criticism, and also partially in whether...

Theory of literature. Reading as creativity [textbook] Krementsov Leonid Pavlovich

5. General literary concepts and terms

ADEQUATE – equal, identical.

ALLUSION is the use of a word (combination, phrase, quotation, etc.) as a hint that activates the reader’s attention and allows one to see the connection of what is depicted with some known fact of literary, everyday or socio-political life.

ALMANAC is a non-periodic collection of works selected according to thematic, genre, territorial, etc. characteristics: “Northern Flowers”, “Physiology of St. Petersburg”, “Poetry Day”, “Tarusa Pages”, “Prometheus”, “Metropol”, etc.

“ALTER EGO” – second “I”; reflection of a part of the author’s consciousness in a literary hero.

ANACREONTICA POETRY - poems celebrating the joy of life. Anacreon is an ancient Greek lyricist who wrote poems about love, drinking songs, etc. Translations into Russian by G. Derzhavin, K. Batyushkov, A. Delvig, A. Pushkin and others.

ANNOTATION (Latin “annotatio” – note) is a brief note explaining the contents of the book. The abstract is usually given on the back of the title page of the book, after the bibliographic description of the work.

ANONYMOUS (Greek “anonymos” - nameless) is the author of a published literary work who did not give his name and did not use a pseudonym. The first edition of “Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow” was published in 1790 without indicating the author’s surname on the title page of the book.

DYSTOPIA is a genre of epic work, most often a novel, that creates a picture of the life of a society deceived by utopian illusions. – J. Orwell “1984”, Eug. Zamyatin “We”, O. Huxley “O Brave New World”, V. Voinovich “Moscow 2042”, etc.

ANTHOLOGY – 1. A collection of selected works by one author or group of poets of a certain direction and content. – Petersburg in Russian poetry (XVIII – early XX century): Poetic anthology. – L., 1988; Rainbow: Children's Anthology / Comp. Sasha Cherny. – Berlin, 1922, etc.; 2. In the 19th century. Anthological poems were those written in the spirit of ancient lyric poetry: A. Pushkin “The Tsarskoye Selo Statue”, A. Fet “Diana”, etc.

APOCRYPH (Greek “anokryhos” - secret) - 1. A work with a biblical plot, the content of which does not completely coincide with the text of the holy books. For example, “Limonar, that is, Dukhovny Meadow” by A. Remizov and others. 2. An essay attributed to any author with a low degree of reliability. In ancient Russian literature, for example, “Tales of Tsar Constantine”, “Tales of Books” and some others were supposed to have been written by Ivan Peresvetov.

ASSOCIATION (literary) is a psychological phenomenon when, when reading a literary work, one idea (image) by similarity or contrast evokes another.

ATTRIBUTION (Latin “attributio” - attribution) is a textual problem: identifying the author of a work as a whole or its parts.

APHORISM - a laconic saying that expresses a capacious generalized thought: “I would be glad to serve, but it’s sickening to be served” (A.S. Griboyedov).

BALLAD - a lyric-epic poem with a historical or heroic plot, with the obligatory presence of a fantastic (or mystical) element. In the 19th century the ballad was developed in the works of V. Zhukovsky (“Svetlana”), A. Pushkin (“Song of the Prophetic Oleg”), A. Tolstoy (“Vasily Shibanov”). In the 20th century the ballad was revived in the works of N. Tikhonov, A. Tvardovsky, E. Yevtushenko and others.

A FABLE is an epic work of an allegorical and moralizing nature. The narrative in the fable is colored with irony and in the conclusion contains the so-called moral - an instructive conclusion. The fable traces its history back to the legendary ancient Greek poet Aesop (VI–V centuries BC). The greatest masters of the fable were the Frenchman Lafontaine (XVII century), the German Lessing (XVIII century) and our I. Krylov (XVIII-XIX centuries). In the 20th century the fable was presented in the works of D. Bedny, S. Mikhalkov, F. Krivin and others.

BIBLIOGRAPHY is a section of literary criticism that provides a targeted, systematic description of books and articles under various headings. Reference bibliographic manuals on fiction prepared by N. Rubakin, I. Vladislavlev, K. Muratova, N. Matsuev and others are widely known. The multi-volume bibliographic reference book in two series: “Russian Soviet prose writers” and “Russian Soviet poets” provides detailed information on how about publications of literary texts, as well as about scientific and critical literature for each of the authors included in this manual. There are other types of bibliographic publications. Such are, for example, the five-volume bibliographic dictionary “Russian Writers 1800–1917,” “Lexicon of Russian Literature of the 20th Century,” compiled by V. Kazak, or “Russian Writers of the 20th Century.” and etc.

Current information about new products is provided by a special monthly newsletter “Literary Studies”, published by the RAI Institute of Scientific Information. The newspaper “Book Review”, the magazines “Questions of Literature”, “Russian Literature”, “Literary Review”, “New Literary Review”, etc. are also systematically reported on new works of fiction, scientific and critical literature.

BUFF (Italian “buffo” - buffoonish) is a comic, mainly circus genre.

WREATH OF SONNETS - a poem of 15 sonnets, forming a kind of chain: each of the 14 sonnets begins with the last line of the previous one. The fifteenth sonnet consists of these fourteen repeated lines and is called the "key" or "turnpike." A wreath of sonnets is presented in the works of V. Bryusov (“Lamp of Thought”), M. Voloshin (“Sogopa astralis”), Vyach. Ivanov (“Wreath of Sonnets”). It is also found in modern poetry.

VAUDEVILLE is a type of situation comedy. A light entertaining play of everyday content, built on an entertaining, most often love affair with music, songs, and dances. Vaudeville is represented in the works of D. Lensky, N. Nekrasov, V. Sologub, A. Chekhov, V. Kataev and others.

VOLYAPYUK (Volapyuk) – 1. An artificial language that they tried to use as an international language; 2. Gibberish, meaningless set of words, abracadabra.

DEMIURG – creator, creator.

DETERMINISM is a materialistic philosophical concept about objective laws and cause-and-effect relationships of all phenomena of nature and society.

DRAMA – 1. A type of art that has a synthetic nature (a combination of lyrical and epic principles) and belongs equally to literature and theater (cinema, television, circus, etc.); 2. Drama itself is a type of literary work that depicts acute conflict relations between man and society. – A. Chekhov “Three Sisters”, “Uncle Vanya”, M. Gorky “At the Depth”, “Children of the Sun”, etc.

DUMA – 1. Ukrainian folk song or poem on a historical theme; 2. Lyric genre; meditative poems dedicated to philosophical and social problems. – See “Dumas” by K. Ryleev, A. Koltsov, M. Lermontov.

SPIRITUAL POETRY - poetic works of different types and genres containing religious motifs: Y. Kublanovsky, S. Averintsev, Z. Mirkina, etc.

GENRE is a type of literary work, the features of which, although they have developed historically, are in the process of constant change. The concept of genre is used at three levels: generic - the genre of epic, lyric or drama; specific – the genre of novel, elegy, comedy; genre itself - historical novel, philosophical elegy, comedy of manners, etc.

IDYLL - a type of lyric or lyric poetry. An idyll, as a rule, depicts the peaceful, serene life of people in the lap of beautiful nature. – Ancient idylls, as well as Russian idylls of the 18th – early 19th centuries. A. Sumarokov, V. Zhukovsky, N. Gnedich and others.

HIERARCHY is the arrangement of elements or parts of a whole according to the criteria from highest to lowest and vice versa.

INVECTIVE - angry denunciation.

HYPOSTASE (Greek “hipostasis” - person, essence) - 1. The name of each person of the Holy Trinity: The One God appears in three hypostases - God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit; 2. Two or more sides of one phenomenon or object.

HISTORIOGRAPHY is a branch of literary studies that studies the history of its development.

HISTORY OF LITERATURE is a branch of literary criticism that studies the features of the development of the literary process and determines the place of a literary movement, a writer, a literary work in this process.

TALKING - a copy, an exact translation from one language to another.

CANONICAL TEXT (correlates with the Greek “kapop” - rule) - is established in the process of textual verification of publishing and handwritten versions of the work and corresponds to the last “author’s will”.

CANZONA is a type of lyric poetry, mainly love. The heyday of the canzone was the Middle Ages (the work of the troubadours). It is rare in Russian poetry (V. Bryusov “To the Lady”).

CATharsis - cleansing of the soul of the viewer or reader, experienced by him in the process of empathy literary characters. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the goal of tragedy, which ennobles the viewer and reader.

COMEDY is one of the types of literary creativity that belongs to the dramatic genre. Action and characters In comedy, the goal is to ridicule the ugly in life. Comedy originated in ancient literature and is actively developing right up to our time. There is a distinction between sitcoms and character comedies. Hence the genre diversity of comedy: social, psychological, everyday, satirical.

COMMENTS – notes, interpretation; explanatory notes to the text of a work of art. Comments can be biographical, historical-literary, textual, etc. in nature.

CONTAMINATION (Latin “contaminatio” – mixing) – 1. Formation of a word or expression by connecting parts of words or expressions associated with each other associatively; 2. Combining texts from different editions of one work.

CONTEXT (Latin “contextus” – connection, connection) – 1. A semantically complete passage of text in which the word acquires the meaning necessary for the author. Taken out of context it may have a different meaning; 2. The amount of information necessary to understand the meaning of the work in the historical and aesthetic circumstances of its Appearance and functioning.

CONJUNCTURE (Latin “conjungere” - to bind, connect) is a set of conditions that influence the development of the situation and are considered in their interrelation.

LITERARY CRITICISM is a type of fiction, the art of analyzing both individual works of art and the entire work of the Writer with the aim of interpreting and evaluating them in connection with modern problems of life and literature. It is carried out in the process of co-creation.

LYRICS is a type of literature that recreates the subjective experiences of the author and character, their relationship to what is depicted. The speech form of lyrics is usually an internal monologue, mainly in poetry. Types of lyrics are sonnet, ode, elegy, song, epigram, etc., genres are civil, love, landscape, philosophical, etc.

LYRO-EPIC TYPES - a ballad, a poem, a novel in verse combine the features of depicting reality inherent in epic and lyric poetry, and represent their organic, qualitatively new unity:

LITERARY STUDIES - a cycle of scientific disciplines that study the essence, specificity, functions of fiction, features of literary works; patterns of the literary process, etc.

MADRIGAL – a type of lyric poetry; a short poem of complimentary content, usually addressed to a woman. Being a type of salon, album poetry, the madrigal has not been widely used lately.

MEDITATIVE LYRICS is a genre containing philosophical reflections on the main problems of existence:

We can't predict

How will our word respond?

And we are given sympathy,

How grace is given to us.

F. Tyutchev

MELODRAMA is a genre of drama devoted primarily to love themes and characterized by intense intrigue, sentimentality, and instructive intonation.

MEMOIRS (Memoirs) – autobiographical works about persons and events in which the author was a participant or witness. - “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself,” “People, Years, Life” by I. Ehrenburg, “Epilogue” by V. Kaverin, etc.

METHOD (Greek “meta” - through; “hodos” - path; literally “path through material”) – 1. A way of knowing, researching, depicting life; 2. Reception, principle.

METHODS OF LITERATURE – studies a set of methods and techniques for the most appropriate teaching of literature at school, gymnasium, lyceum, university, etc.

METHODOLOGY – a set of research methods and techniques.

MYTH (Greek “mithos” - word, legend) - legends about the structure of the world, natural phenomena, gods and heroes. These are, for example, the myths of Ancient Greece. Myths can be reinterpreted in a unique way in literary creativity, performing different functions at different stages of the literary process.

NOVELLA (Italian “novella” - news) is a prose (less often poetic) genre of epic with a sharp plot, a laconic narration and an unexpected ending. – Novels by Maupassant, O. Henry, A. Chekhov, L. Andreev, I. Bunin, V. Shukshin, Y. Kazakov and others.

ODA – type of lyrics; a work of a solemn, pathetic nature, containing praise for a person or event. The subject of the ode is the sublime in human life. In Russian literature, the ode appeared in XVIII V. (In: Trediakovsky, M. Lomonosov, V. Maikov, G. Derzhavin and others), in the 19th century. ode acquires a civil character (A. Pushkin “Liberty”).

ESSAY - a type of epic work that belongs mainly to journalism. The essay is distinguished by the authenticity of its depiction of real life facts and mainly touches on topical social problems. – Essays G. Uspensky, V. Ovechkin, Y. Chernichenko and others.

PAMPHLET is a genre of journalism, an accusatory polemical work of socio-political content: M. Gorky “The City of the Yellow Devil”, “Belle France”, etc.

PARODY is a comic reproduction of the features of the content and form of a work or the artist’s work as a whole. A parody can be an independent work or part of a major work - “Gargantua and Pantagruel” by F. Rabelais, “The History of a City” by M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, “New Moscow Philosophy” by V. Pietsukh, etc. The goals of the parody are different. It can act as a form of criticism, ridicule of some stylistic or thematic preferences of the author, discrepancy between content and form - burlesque, travesty - using the comic effect that arises from the movement of the hero of some famous literary work to other space-time coordinates. This is E. Khazin’s parody:

Our Evgeniy gets on the tram.

Oh, poor, dear man!

I didn’t know such movements

His unenlightened age.

Fate kept Evgeniy

His leg was only crushed,

And just once, with a push in the stomach,

They told him: “Idiot!”

He, remembering the ancient customs,

I decided to end the dispute with a duel,

He reached into his pocket... But someone stole

It's been a long time since his gloves have been worn.

In the absence of such

Onegin remained silent and became silent.

High examples of various parodies can be found in the book “Parnassus Standing on End” (M., 1990).

PATHOS (Greek “pathos” - feeling, passion) - the emotional coloring of a literary work, its spiritual content, purposefulness. Types of pathos: heroic, tragic, romantic, etc.

CHARACTER (Latin “persona” - personality) is a character in a work of art.

PERSONIFICATION – attributing thoughts, feelings of a character or author to another person.

SONG – 1. Type of lyrical kind; a short poem, usually with a quatrain and a refrain; 2. A special type of creativity created by the efforts of a poet, composer, singer. Type of song - original song: V. Vysotsky, A. Galich, Y. Vizbor, etc.

PLAGIARISM is literary theft.

STORY is a type of epic work in which the narrative principle predominates. The story reveals the life of the main character within a few episodes. The author of the story values the authenticity of what is described and instills in the reader the idea of its reality. (A. Pushkin “Tales of the late Ivan Petrovich Belkin”, I. Turgenev “Spring Waters”, A. Chekhov “Steppe”, etc.).

SUBTEXT is the internal, not verbally expressed meaning of the text. The subtext is hidden and can be restored by the reader taking into account the specific historical situation. Most often present in psychological genres.

MESSAGE – type of lyrics; a poem in the form of a letter or address to a person or group of people: A. Pushkin “In the depths of Siberian ores”, F. Tyutchev “K.B. (“I met you...”), S. Yesenin “Letter to Mother”, etc.

POETRY -1. The art of words; 2. Fiction in poetic form.

POEM is a type of lyric-epic work that “captures life in its highest moments” (V. G. Belinsky) with a laconic plot. The genres of the poem are heroic and satirical, romantic and realistic, etc. In the 20th century. Poems of an unusual, non-traditional form appear in Russian literature - A. Akhmatov’s “Poem without a Hero”.

POETICS – 1. The general name of aesthetic treatises devoted to the study of the specifics of literary creativity (“Poetics” by Aristotle, “Poetic Art” by Boileau, etc.) and serving as instruction for novice writers; 2. A system of artistic means or techniques (artistic method, genres, plot, composition, verse, language, etc.) used by a writer to create an artistic world in a single work or creativity as a whole.

PRESENTATION - mannerism, deliberateness; desire to make an impression.

PARABLE (one of the meanings) is a genre of story containing teaching in an allegorical, allegorical form. Parables are possible in verse (parables by A. Sumarokov and others).

PSEUDONY - a fictitious signature hiding the name of the writer: Sasha Cherny - A. M. Glikberg; Maxim Gorky - A. M. Peshkov, etc.; or a group of writers, this was the collective pseudonym Kozma Prutkov, under which A.K. Tolstoy and the Zhemchuzhnikov brothers - Alexey, Vladimir and Alexander Mikhailovich - were hiding.

PUBLISHING (Latin “publicus” - public) - a type of literature; a journalistic work is created at the intersection of fiction and journalism and examines current problems of society - political, economic, etc. In a journalistic work, an artistic image performs an auxiliary illustrative function and serves to help the reader understand the author’s main idea: L. N. Tolstoy “I Can’t Be Silent” ", M. Gorky "Untimely Thoughts", etc.

PLAY is the general name for dramatic works.

STORY – a type of epic; the work is small in volume, containing a description of some brief episode from the personal life of the hero (or narrator), which, as a rule, has universal significance. The story is characterized by the presence of one storyline and a small number of characters. A variation is a mood story that conveys a certain state of mind (events do not play a significant role).

REMINISTENCE is a special type of association that arises from the reader’s personal feelings, forcing him to remember a similar image or picture.

RECIPIENT (Latin “recipientis” – recipient) – a person who perceives art.

GENUS LITERARY – type of literary works. The division of works into types is based on the purpose and method of their creation: an objective narration of events (see. Epic); subjective story about the inner world of a person (see. Lyrics); a method that combines objective and subjective display of Reality, a dialogic depiction of events (see. Drama).

NOVEL – a type of epic; a work based on a comprehensive analysis of a person’s private life throughout its entire length and in numerous connections with the surrounding reality. Mandatory features of a novel are the presence of several parallel storylines and polyphony. The genres of the novel are social, philosophical, psychological, fantasy, detective, etc.

A NOVEL IN VERSE is a lyric-epic type of literary creativity; a form that combines the epic scope of depicting reality with the lyrical self-expression of the author. – A. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”, B. Pasternak “Spectorsky”.

ROMANCE is a short lyric poem, either set to music or designed for such a set. Romance has a long past. Its history goes back to the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Time of greatest popularity: the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. Among the masters of romance are V. Zhukovsky, A. Pushkin, Evg. Baratynsky and others:

Don't say: love will pass,

Your friend wants to forget about that;

He trusts in her for eternity,

He sacrifices happiness to her.

Why extinguish my soul

Barely sparkling desires?

Just for a moment let me without grumbling

Surrender to your tenderness.

Why suffer? What's in love for me

Got it from cruel skies

Without bitter tears, without deep wounds,

Without tedious melancholy?

Love's days are short,

But I can’t bear to ripen it cold;

I'll die with her, like a dull sound

A suddenly broken string.

A. Delvig

SAGA – 1. A type of Old Irish and Old Norse epic; 2. Epic narrative - “The Forsyte Saga” by D. Galsworthy.

SATIRE – 1. A unique way of depicting reality, with the goal of identifying, punishing and ridiculing vices, shortcomings, shortcomings of society and the individual. This goal is achieved, as a rule, through exaggeration, grotesque, caricature, and absurdity. Genres of satire - fable, comedy, satirical novel, epigram, pamphlet, etc.; 2. Lyric genre; a work containing an exposure of a person or vice. – K. Ryleev “To a temporary worker.”

SERVILE - servile, obsequious.

SKAZ is a method of storytelling focused on the monologue of the character-narrator. It is most often conducted in the first person. The work can either be entirely based on a tale (“Evenings on a farm near Dikanka” by N. Gogol, some stories by N. Leskov, M. Zoshchenko), or include it as a separate part.

STANCES - in Russian poetry of the 18th–19th centuries. a short poem of a meditative nature. The stanza is usually a quatrain, the meter is most often iambic tetrameter (A. Pushkin. Stanzas (“In the hope of glory and goodness…”); M. Lermontov. Stanzas (“Instantly running through the mind…”), etc.).

TAUTOGRAM - a poem in which all words begin with the same sound. A tautogram is sometimes called poetry “with alliteration taken to the extreme” (N. Shulgovsky):

Lazy years are easy to caress

I love lilac meadows,

I love the glee of the glee

I catch fragile legends.

Radiant flax lovingly sculpts

The azure of caressing forests.

I love the crafty lily babble,

Flying incense of petals.

V. Smirensky

TANKA is a genre of Japanese poetry; a five-line stanza of a meditative nature using blank verse:

Oh don't forget

Like in my garden

You broke a white azalea branch...

It shone a little

Thin crescent moon.

TEXTOLOGY – a branch of literary criticism; a scientific discipline that studies a literary text by comparing different versions of the work.

THEORY OF LITERATURE is a branch of literary criticism that studies the types, forms and laws of artistic creativity, its social functions. Literary theory has three main objects of study: the nature of fiction, the literary work, and the literary process. Literary theory determines the methodology and technique for analyzing literary works.

LITERARY TYPE is an artistic embodiment of the characteristic stable characteristics of a personality at a specific historical stage in the development of society. The literary type is psychologically motivated and conditioned by the socio-historical situation. V. Belinsky called the literary type a “familiar stranger,” meaning the embodiment of the general in the individual.

TRAGEDY is a type of drama. At the heart of the tragedy is an insoluble conflict that ends in the death of the hero. The main goal of tragedy, according to Aristotle, is catharsis, the purification of the soul of the viewer-reader through compassion for the hero, who is a toy in the hands of Fate. – Ancient tragedies Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides; tragedies by W. Shakespeare, P. Corneille, J.-B. Racine, F. Schiller, etc. In Russian literature, tragedy is a rare genre that existed mainly in the 18th century. in the works of M. Kheraskov, A. Sumarokov and others.

UNIQUE – inimitable, one of a kind, exceptional.

UTOPIA is a genre of fiction containing a description of an ideal social structure: “City of the Sun” by T. Campanella, “Red Star” by A. Bogdanov, etc.

Farce is a light comedy, vaudeville of rough content.

FEULUETON – journalistic genre; a small work on current topic, usually of a satirical nature, usually published in newspapers and magazines.

PHILOLOGY (Greek “phileo” - love; “logos” - word) is a set of humanities that study written texts and, based on their analysis, the history and essence of the spiritual culture of society. Philology includes literary criticism and linguistics in their modern and historical aspects.

FANTASY is a genre of non-scientific fiction that traces its ancestry to various types of myth-making, legends, fairy tales, and utopias. Fantasy, as a rule, is built on antithesis: good and evil, order and chaos, harmony and dissonance; the hero embarks on a journey, fighting for truth and justice. The book by J. R. R. Tolkien “The Lord of the Rings” (1954) is recognized as a classic work in the fantasy genre. Such fantasy masters as Ursula K. Le Guin, M. Moorcock, and R. Zelazny are widely known. In Russian literature, the genre is represented in the works of M. Semenova, N. Perumov.

HOKKU is a genre of Japanese poetry; a lyric poem of one tercet (17 syllables) without rhyme.

From branch to branch

The drops are quietly running down...

Spring rain.

On a bare branch

Raven sits alone.

Autumn evening.

ARTISTIC METHOD – 1. General principles of working on a text, based on which the writer organizes his creative process. The components of the artistic method are: the writer's worldview; depicted reality; writer's talent; 2. The principle of artistic depiction of reality in art. At a specific historical stage, the artistic method appears in the form of a literary movement and can represent the features of three different options: realistic, romantic and modernist.

AESOP'S LANGUAGE is a way of expressing thoughts through allegories, hints, and omissions. The traditions of the Aesopian language were founded in the works of the ancient Greek fabulist Aesop. In literature it was most often used during the years of censorship persecution.

ELEGY is a short poem colored with sad reflections, melancholy, and sorrow:

The people's thunderstorm is still silent,

The Russian mind is still shackled.

And oppressed freedom

Conceals impulses of bold thoughts.

Oh, long chains of centuries

The ramen of the fatherland will not fall off,

The centuries will pass menacingly, -

And Russia will not awaken!

N. Yazykov

EPATAGE is a scandalous act, a challenge to generally accepted norms.

EPIGON - a follower of any direction, devoid of originality, the ability to think and write independently, originally; an imitator repeating the master's motifs.

EPIGRAM (literally from Greek “inscription”) is a small poem of ironic content. E. Baratynsky wrote:

The consummate flyer

Epigram - laughing,

Epigram Egoza,

Rubbing and weaving among the people,

And only the freak is envious,

At once he will grab your eyes.

The characteristic features of the epigram should be brevity, accuracy, and wit:

Viktor Shklovsky about Tolstoy

He composed a substantial volume.

It's good that this volume

It did not come out into the world under Tolstoy.

A. Ivanov

EPISTOLARY FORM OF LITERATURE (Greek “epistola” - letter, message) - is used both in documentary, journalistic and artistic genres (A. Pushkin “A Novel in Letters”; N. Gogol “Selected Passages from Correspondence with Friends”; F . Dostoevsky “Poor People”; I. Bunin “Unknown Friend”; V. Kaverin “Before the Mirror”, etc.).

EPITHALAMA – a genre of ancient lyric poetry; wedding song with wishes to the newlyweds. It is rare in the poetry of modern times - V. Trediakovsky, I. Severyanin.

EPITAPH - a gravestone inscription, sometimes in verse:

EPIC – a type of epic; a large-scale work reflecting the central problems of the life of the people, depicting the main strata of society in detail, down to the details of everyday life. The epic describes both the turning points in the life of the nation and the little things in the everyday existence of the characters. – O. Balzac “Human Comedy”, L. N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”, etc.

EPOS – 1. A type of art; way of depicting reality - an objective showing by the artist of the surrounding world and the people in it. An epic presupposes a narrative beginning; 2. Type of folk art; a large-scale work containing myths, legends, tales: the ancient Indian epic “Ramayana”, the Finnish “Kalevala”, the Indian “Song of Hiawatha”, etc.

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