Effective attention. Functions and types of attention

13.10.2019

Types and properties of attention.

Attention is the direction and concentration of consciousness for a more complete and clear reflection of reality.

Attention organizes and regulates functioning cognitive processes, is associated with all sensory and intellectual processes.

The manifestation of attention is due to:

Internal reasons - desires, needs, feelings, intentions, attitudes, etc.

External causes - objects, their properties and qualities, structural features and so on.

Thus, attention is a special mental phenomenon that expresses the relationship between the subject and surrounding reality, manifested in the form of direction and concentration of the subject’s consciousness on the object.

The focus of attention allows for the selection of objects for inclusion in cognitive or practical activities.

Focus is the result of concentrating consciousness on an object in order to obtain more complete information about it.

Types of attention:

1. Involuntary attention – occurs unintentionally, as:

Reaction to strong stimuli: loud sound, bright light, Strong smell;

Properties and qualities of objects and phenomena of the external world that are significant for the subject;

A new object affecting the senses for the first time;

Stimuli that correspond to the needs, interests and attitudes of the individual.

2. Voluntary attention - occurs deliberately, if there is volitional efforts, directed and focused on an external object or mental action.

3. Post-voluntary attention - occurs when the goal of paying attention remains, but volitional efforts disappear. Attention is supported by enthusiasm and is carried out without much difficulty, ensuring high productivity of cognitive and practical activities.

4. Sensory attention - arising from the action of objects on the senses, provides a clear reflection of objects and their properties in the sensations and perceptions of a person.

5. Motor attention - the direction and concentration of a person’s attention on movements and actions. Allows you to clearly understand the techniques and methods necessary in practical activities.

6. Intellectual attention - has an internal nature, is associated with the direction and concentration of thought, aimed at the functioning of cognitive processes, memory, thinking, imagination.

7. Natural attention is the innate ability of the subject to selectively respond to external or internal stimuli.

8. Socially conditioned attention - the result of upbringing and training, is associated with a conscious selective response to objects, with volitional regulation of behavior.

9. Direct attention - directed to an object that corresponds to the actual needs and interests of a person.

10. Indirect attention - regulated with the help of pointing signs, gestures, words, objects.

Properties of attention:

1. Sustainability of attention is its temporary characteristic, the period of time during which attention can be directed and focused on objects or activities.

2. Concentration of attention is a dynamic characteristic, the degree of a person’s depth in an activity. Increases and decreases in concentration depend on the nature of the activity and the attitude towards it.

3. Switching attention is a deliberate movement of attention from one object to another, from one activity to another, in connection with new goals and objectives that arise for the subject in the process of carrying out cognitive activity. Switching can be:

Complete and incomplete;

Completed - attention is completely focused on a new object or activity;

Unfinished – attention is still partly focused on previous activities.

4. Distraction is the result of an unintentional shift of attention from an activity to distracting stimuli.

5. Distribution of attention - the ability to simultaneously engage in several types of activities, is associated with the acquisition personal experience. Distribution of attention is successful when combined mental activity From a practical point of view, it is more difficult to distribute attention when performing two types of intellectual activity.

6. Volume of attention – the number of stimuli in the focus of attention at the same time. An adult has from 4 to 6 objects, a child has no more than 2 to 3 objects.

Depending on the particularity of attention, there are:

1. Attentive people are able to immediately focus attention on the most important thing, quickly switch and distribute attention, treat any activity responsibly, are capable of long and hard work, and are highly resistant to interference.

2. Inattentive people are unable to distribute attention to several objects, are easily distracted in the presence of extraneous stimuli, cannot concentrate on the work at hand, their attention is impulsive.

3. Absent-minded people, due to poor attention, cannot hold their attention for a long time on any object, are often distracted, do everything at random, and do not notice anything that is happening around them.

As a result of high concentration of attention, people who are very busy and who are completely absorbed in their activities may experience so-called apparent absent-mindedness. Because of this, a person reacts inadequately to distracting influences.

3.5. Memory and ways of its development.

Memory is a form mental reflection, which consists in capturing, storing and subsequently reproducing information received by the senses.

Memory is an important cognitive process that ensures the transfer of incoming information about outside world to the internal intellectual process - consolidation and systematization of the information received.

Memory allows the subject to accumulate experience for use in his life, to understand his personality, to reproduce skills.

In psychology, memory is called a mnemonic activity, named after the goddess of memory and mother of the nine muses, Mnemosyne.

Functions performed by memory in cognitive activity:

1. Selection and consolidation of the necessary information coming through the senses.

2. Accumulation and storage of received information in the human mind.

3. Reproduction of information needed in this moment.

Basic memory processes:

1. Memorization is a process of active interaction between a subject and an object that carries important information. Memory strength is related to:

Selectivity of information;

Human activity;

If the installation is present, remember the information;

The emotional state of a person that arises at the moment of perception of information.

2. Preservation - the process of consolidating, systematizing and retaining information in the mind of the subject, has a selective nature. Saved long time:

Information that ensures the implementation of practical and theoretical activities;

Information related to needs, wants, interests, behavior, goals and aspirations.

All information of vital importance is stored completely and securely.

3. Reproduction is the process of restoring acquired information in a person’s mind, carried out after a certain period of time.

Restoring up-to-date information can be carried out in different forms as:

Recognition is the simplest process of updating information when it is re-perceived;

Memories are the process of retrieving information previously perceived;

Recalling is the most difficult process of information recovery, to restore it in in full necessary information, the subject must carry out complex mental and mnemonic actions;

Reproduction is a complex process of restoring information in oral or written form, in external terms through oral or written speech, drawings, drawings, diagrams, etc.

Recognition, recollection and recollection are mnemonic processes taking place on the internal plane, silently aimed at restoring information.

4. Forgetting is an expedient process that can be partial or complete, permanent or temporary.

Types of memory:

1. Involuntary memory - carried out without any purpose, easily and freely, associated with active mental or practical activity, with the use of vital information.

2. Voluntary memory - always carried out with a specific purpose, aimed at acquiring complex scientific information, which is abstract in nature, requires great volitional efforts from the subject, and therefore it acquires an arbitrary character.

3. Short-term memory is an indicator of limited capacity upon one-time presentation. A person remembers from 5 to 9 words, numbers, pictures, from one presentation.

4. Long-term memory - an indicator of the period of time during which information is stored.

5. Working memory – is determined by a certain activity and manifests itself during its implementation.

6. Intermediate memory - caused by storing information for several hours, then it is transferred to long-term memory.

7. Figurative memory - due to existing ideas in the mind that reflect previously perceived phenomena and objects. Representations can be: gustatory, visual motor, auditory, olfactory and tactile. Since on the basis of visual, auditory and motor representations, orientation in space occurs and object-related Practical activities, they have the most higher value In human life.

8. Semantic memory – due to the assimilation of the semantic content of information.

9. Mechanical memory - caused by verbatim memorization, without logical processing of acquired information.

10. Emotional memory is determined by a person’s ability to remember emotions and feelings that he experienced before.

11. Motor memory ensures the assimilation and successful execution of various movements that are an integral part of motor skills and abilities.

The main condition for the development of memory is the active cognitive activity of the subject, the correct organization of the memorization process, special training aimed at imprinting, preserving and reproducing the information received.

Aristotle believed that a person remembers due to the fact that connections and associations are formed between the images of objects. When one object is perceived, an image associated with it of another object appears. Aristotle described three types of associations:

1. Associations by contiguity - a person remembers objects located in the same place at the same time.

2. Associations by similarity - a person remembers objects that have the same characteristics: size, smell, volume, shape, color, etc.

3. Associations by contrast - objects with opposite qualities are remembered: long - short, round - square, large - small, white - black, thick - thin, light - dark.

Special mnemonic techniques aimed at processing and understanding the material being studied include the following operations:

1. Orientation in the semantic structure of the material.

2. Division and grouping of semantic elements.

3. Establishing connections between structural units of the text, recoding verbal information into figurative information.

4. Consolidation of memorized material in whole and in parts.

Methods of mnemonic processes include:

1. Mechanical techniques - due to repeated memorization.

2. Logical techniques - due to the establishment of semantic connections of the material, generalization, systematization, selection main idea, translating information into diagrams, graphs, retelling in your own words, etc.

3. Mnemonic techniques are secondary, based on logically meaningful connections between memorizing the material and what is already known.

Grouping method – assumes a semantic group of 7 ± 2 units;

Methods of rhythm and rhyme. Thanks to rhythm, rhyme serves as a support for groupings;

Chain method - involves a certain interconnected sequence of images;

Method of places, known as Cicero's method. Mentally imagine that the information you need to remember is located in a place that is well known to you, for example: in your office, your room or the road you walk along every day.

Definition, types, functions of attention. Attention in classical psychology of consciousness and its modern understanding. Basic properties and their experimental studies. Attention disorders.

Response Plan

Definition of attention.

Types of attention.

Functions of attention.

Properties and experiments.

Attention disorders.

Answer:

Definition of attention.

Attention is the focus of the psyche and consciousness on a specific object that has stable or situational significance for the individual. It involves increasing the functioning of sensory, memory, and intelligence. Attention can be directed to processes occurring within us and to objects in the surrounding world. Attention provides a positive delay of activity on a particular object. The attitude determines the choice of certain impressions, events, and the concentration of psychic energy on them. Thus, attention is a specific human mental activity that serves to transform certain attitudes of impulsive behavior. Attention is a cross-cutting mental process, since it never appears separately, but only together with any activity, as its side or characteristic. Attention has no special content; it is located within all processes. The essence of attention lies in direction, which determines the selection of information, which involves voluntary and involuntary selection of objects and longer processing that remains in consciousness. The essence also lies in the subject's concentration on the object.

Types of attention.

There are three types of attention (Dobrynin):

1- involuntary attention as an unintentionally occurring orienting reaction;

2- voluntary attention associated with targeted volitional efforts; And

3- post-voluntary attention, when, as a result of a shift of the motive to the goal, the action is carried out without significant volitional efforts.

In an involuntary highlight:

forced – determined by the subject’s specific experience and conditioned external factors environment;

involuntary - depends on individual experience, manifests itself in moments of rest, can be long-lasting and stable with strong interest, it is attracted to objects that are closest, more significant and more striking;

habitual – determined by the subject’s attitudes and intention to perform this or that activity, attention to the activity algorithm (driver – signs).

In the free:

volitional - manifests itself in conditions of interference, when there is a conflict between want and need;

expectant – manifests itself in all vigilance tasks;

actually voluntary - conscious attention, but proceeding quite easily, with a minimum of effort;

spontaneous – highest form attention development, similar to post-voluntary, this is when it is difficult for us to start something, but once we start there is no longer any need to make an effort.

Functions of attention.

(a) selectivity of activity - selection of material

(b) focus of activity

(d) improving the quality of any activity

(e) selection and retention of significant influences

(f) regulation and control of activity - directing energy (integration, embedding, expansion and deepening of knowledge)

Attention in the psychology of consciousness and modern understanding.

1. Attention and psychology of consciousness.

Since attention was a fundamental property of consciousness - the central subject in this school, a lot of research was devoted to attention.

In the psychology of consciousness, there were three metaphors of consciousness and three metaphors of attention associated with it:

1. Wundt’s structural metaphor of consciousness:

Wundt "Consciousness and Attention".

Attention is the process that occurs with a clearer perception of a limited content of consciousness compared to the entire field.

"Attention is defined as a state of consciousness, a degree of consciousness that ensures improved performance. Attention is associated with a state of interest (affective experience), as well as a certain complex of skin and kinesthetic sensations, which can be represented as an empirical reality for the colloquial term attention. When attention suddenly arises in consciousness, a restructuring of all its contents occurs according to the principle of clarity and contents being in focus or on the periphery. In this sense, attention becomes identical to sensory clarity. The distribution of contents into clear or dark is the only and characteristic sign of attention as a mental process (the presence of feelings or kinesthetic sensations in consciousness). is not obligatory, however, the clarity of the representation depends rather on the own concentration of consciousness on something and the possibility of its arbitrary switching, than on the nature of the representation itself.

James. Flow metaphor. Consciousness is a flow, one of the most important properties of the flow is selectivity - attention is the selectivity of the flow of consciousness. The main function is selection, selection.

Titchener. Wave metaphor. Consciousness is a river; there may be an obstacle in the way of the flow of consciousness. Attention is a wave, the effects of the wave characterize it:

Criteria for attention from within:

1. clarity of conscious ideas. At the crest of a wave, all sensory experiences are clear.

2. distinctness. (all sensory experiences are separate from each other)

3. self-delay. Fixation of consciousness on some impressions.

Criteria describing external attention:

1. productivity

2. physical accompaniment of activities.

7. Theories of attention in cognitive psychology. This modern approach. Focuses on selectivity and attention span.

Approaches of cognitive psychology to the study of attention mechanisms.

Here it is necessary to distinguish three classes of theories:

1. Attention as selection.

This approach was focused on the study of the mechanisms of selection, the choice of one or another object, mainly on the material of perceptual material. These studies began with an examination of the cocktail party phenomenon - a situation where a subject makes a voluntary or involuntary perceptual choice. This led to the creation of Cherry's selective listening (repetition) technique: a situation of choosing one and ignoring other simultaneously presented messages. Repetition consisted of the task of instantly reproducing a relevant (task-defined) message, tuning out from irrelevant channels. This made it possible to create several models of selective attention, the first of which (the early selection model) was created by Broadbent in his work “Perception and Communication”. The functioning of attention was compared with the operation of an electromechanical device - a filter that selects information based on sensory cues and operates on an “all or nothing” principle. He proceeded from the following: the processing, perceptual system is a channel with limited capacity (perception of a limited amount of information per unit of time). The limited ability is determined by the presence of a certain block, a mechanism in front of this channel, called a filter, working according to certain laws of the task, its settings. Information enters from the outside into the sensory register, then into the CP (here the information enters and is stored completely and processed in parallel); after the filter, part of the information remains, since the filter is connected to the long-term memory system (a repository of conditional probabilities of past events), which determines what needs to be extracted from this information flow (for example, an instruction that tunes a filter to a specific aspect of information). Thus, attention is a filter in the information processing system, making perception possible in a system with limited bandwidth, tuned to certain aspects of stimulation ( physical signs: left-right, louder-quieter, male-female). However, the problem that arises is precisely the physical signs of the setting (one’s own name at a “cocktail party” is recognized immediately, although the filter is not configured). And here the idea of tuning a filter to semantic features arises and the debate about where the filter is located - either before the perceptual processing system, or right before the answer. Norman and Deutsch's theory: attention is not a filter and the entire perceptual system works in parallel, but attention is tuning to response level. There are central detectors in memory, the activation of which serves with the mechanism of perception. These structures are influenced by two streams of information - peripheral and central, the latter stream is determined by the integral characteristic of the significance of a given message or object (pertinense - model of relevance). A. Treisman took an intermediate position: there is a filter tuned to physical characteristics and to more complexly organized aspects of information (phonetic, grammatical, semantic) and, depending on the importance of the signal, processing is possible even from a non-relevant channel. This is a “tree” model - there are several levels of filtering depending on the complexity of the task, meaning, expectations - at any level, information that was previously delayed could be missed. Thus, selective theories of attention are models in which the mechanism of filtering out one information and skipping another plays an important role. The problem was the location of the filter or the layering of the filter. (Experiments to configure what is hell!).

2. Attention as mental effort or resources.

Theories aimed at studying the power characteristics of attention by D. Kahneman * answered the question of what determines the policy of distributing the degree of attention and energy to different objects. Several points of this approach:

Attention is a waste of mental energy on something and the act of attention is correlated with mental effort (activation), which is determined not so much by the desires and conscious intentions of the subject, but by the objective complexity of the task. The equivalent of mental expended energy in physiology is activation. (An illustration of this thesis is possible using the example of the York-Dodson law: where activation is high, there the effectiveness of activity or waste of attention is strongest. Where activation is low, there is little mental energy, for example, during light, automated work. With maximum activation, the solution is destroyed difficult task. Attention is spent on focusing on some motivational aspect and is not enough for the rest.

The laws of distribution of mental energy resources allow us to construct a model: the policy of distribution of attention resources allows us to select and implement specific forms of response activity. Resources (or activation) are limited at any given moment depending on the state of the subject (sleep, arousal, hyperarousal, etc.). The main factor in the distribution of resources for a person is the block for assessing the task requirements for attention resources (). This is a control block that determines complexity, necessity, etc. tasks. Here there is another block of “constant rules” that works according to the laws of involuntary attention and can intervene at the moment of solving a problem and take into account changes in the situation and redistribute energy between tasks. Also, the distribution of energy is influenced by the block of intentions operating at the moment, working on the principle of voluntary actions. Politics is also influenced by the general activation state. If it falls below a certain value, tasks cannot be completed. For activation in general view influenced by all sorts of factors (arousal) - Determinants of activation. Activation itself can manifest itself not only in productive problem solving during the distribution of attention, but also in the manifestation of physiological indicators of activation (evoked potentials, alpha waves, changes in pupil diameter (the most important indicator that directly correlates with attention processes)).

The question of the possibility of distributing attention to several tasks (which in the Broadbent model cannot be distributed, but can only be quickly switched) is solved by Kahneman by introducing a hypothetical ratio of the effort expended and required for a task (Here we need a graph of the relationship between the actual effort expended and the objective complexity of the task, including the concept of resource limits and delta resources) In this way, attention can be distributed if there are sufficient resources to solve them. To test this, an experimental study of the situation of two tasks was carried out: the primary task (which is motivated: for a successful solution over a long period of time, $10-15 was added for each hour for the successful solution of the primary task). The task consisted of an easy * (requiring few resources) and a difficult (pumping them out). (Graph of results). The percentage of errors was plotted along the y-axis. The second task is observing different objects on the screen with instructions to immediately react to the appearance of the letter D. Along the OX axis is the effectiveness of solving both tasks. In solving the main problem there is a small percentage of errors, while in the second there is a sharp increase in the number of errors during the transition from perception to counting. Conclusions: a sharp increase in the number of errors when moving to the difficult part of the main task indicates that all the subject’s attention was switched to the main task and there were no resources left for the additional task. (# Break in recording).

In Romanov's laboratory, both of these positions are considered simultaneously.

All these stimuli have a specific effect on the nervous system: intensity of excitation, special sensitivity of the nervous system, summation of excitations, sequence of excitation without fatigue and adaptation, coincidence of excitations.

The current state of the study of attention in cognitive psychology is similar in scope of research to the psychology of consciousness.

3. Attention as a perceptual action (Neisser).

Properties and experiments.

Static characteristics of attention: volume, stability, concentration. Dynamic characteristics: selectivity, intensity, distribution, switching, oscillations.

Volume – to determine the volume they used a tachistoscope (studied by Wundt, for example). The number of homogeneous objects that simultaneously fall into the zone of clear and distinct perception. The number of objects in the field of our attention is mobile and depends on their content.

Sustainability – determined by the duration during which concentration of attention is maintained. The duration depends on the ability to reveal new aspects and connections in the subject.

Concentration - this is concentration. Concentration means that there is a focus in which mental and conscious activity is concentrated. Concentration is determined by an increase in signal intensity when the field of perception is limited. Includes unity of intensity and narrowness of attention span.

Selectivity – characteristic of attention, associated with the peculiarities of the functioning of the dominant focus. It speaks of the ability of our attention to isolate from the surrounding sensory “noise” only the essential (relevant) information for us in a given situation, the ability to filter out the irrelevant.

Intensity – characterized by a high degree of concentration of consciousness on a specific object or aspect of activity. Energy characteristics.

Distribution – the ability to hold in the field of attention to manage, as it were, several actions at once, keeping them in the field of attention. Distribution is carried out by fast transfer. Depends on how connected various objects are to each other and how automated the actions between which attention should be distributed are.

Switching – conscious and meaningful movement of attention at one speed or another from one object to another. Transfer is always realized by volitional effort.

Oscillations – subject to primary involuntary fluctuations. First of all, fluctuations in sensory clarity.

Properties and experimental studies

1. Concentration (concentration) – highlighting an object with the consciousness and directing attention to it.

2. Stability – greater resistance to distractions, thanks to which a person can be focused on some object or action for a long time.

3. Volume of attention – the number of objects perceived simultaneously.

4. Distribution - the ability to simultaneously monitor several objects or perform various actions.

5. Switching - consciously moving attention to a new object.

Sustainability.

If you hold a watch to your ear, you will notice that its ticking intensifies, then weakens, and suddenly disappears for a moment. Fluctuations in attention are easy to observe when visual perceptions using dual images. What do you see in the picture: a vase on a black background or two profiles on white? As soon as a person sees both images, fluctuations in attention come into force: the image seems to pulsate - you see first the vase, then the profiles.

The image of a truncated pyramid is also dual. It appears either convex, with its apex facing the viewer, or deep with the back wall extending into the distance. And again, here there is a fluctuation of attention: the wall seems to be approaching and then moving away from the viewer. However, hesitation can be removed if you don’t just look at the figure, but set yourself a new, more complex task. Let's imagine that in front of us is an image of a room that needs to be furnished: on the right we will put a table and chairs, on the left it would be good to hang a picture on the wall, to lay a carpet on the floor, to a chandelier on the ceiling, etc. While you are “furnishing” the room, there will be no fluctuations in attention... From this experience we can draw conclusions regarding maintaining stability of attention: external and internal activity of the individual is necessary, we must set ourselves more and more new tasks.

Of great interest are methods for studying the stability of attention, which have already become classical. Typically, Bourdon tables are used, consisting of a random alternation of individual letters, with each letter repeated in the line the same number of times. The subject is asked to cross out given letters for a long time (3,5,10 minutes). The experimenter notes the number of letters crossed out during each minute and the number of omissions. The stability of attention is similarly measured using Kraepelin tables, consisting of columns of numbers that the subject must add over a long period of time. Work productivity and the number of errors made can serve as an indicator of fluctuations in attention.

Dichotomous listening.

Concentration.

The next property of attention is concentration. Concentration refers to the degree or intensity of concentration. A.A. Ukhtomsky believed that concentration of attention is associated with the peculiarities of the functioning of the dominant focus of excitation in the cortex; he believed that concentration is a consequence of excitation in the dominant focus with simultaneous inhibition of other areas of the cerebral cortex.

Distribution.

Bourdon test

The distribution of attention is understood as a person’s subjectively experienced ability to remain in the center of attention. certain number different objects at the same time. It is this ability that allows you to perform several actions at once, keeping them in the field of attention. A textbook example is the phenomenal abilities of Julius Caesar, who, according to legend, could simultaneously do seven unrelated things. It is also known that Napoleon could simultaneously dictate seven important diplomatic documents to his secretaries. However, as life practice shows, a person is capable of performing only one type of conscious mental activity, and the subjective feeling of simultaneous execution of several is due to rapid sequential switching from one to another. It was also shown by W. Wundt that a person cannot concentrate on two simultaneously presented stimuli. However, sometimes a person is actually able to perform two types of activities simultaneously. In fact, in such cases, one of the activities performed should be completely automated and not require attention. If this condition is not met, combining activities is impossible. The study of attention distribution is of great practical importance. For this purpose, the so-called Schulte tables are used. These tables depict two rows of randomly scattered numbers, red and black. The subject must name a series of numbers in a certain sequence, alternating each time a red and a black number. Sometimes the experiment is complicated - the red number must be shown in the forward order, and the black number in the reverse order. As studies have shown, there are clearly significant individual differences among individual subjects. Researchers (in particular, A.R. Luria) believe that these differences can reliably reflect some variations in the strength and mobility of nervous processes and can be successfully used for diagnostic purposes.

Switching.

The next property of attention is switching. Switching means a conscious and meaningful movement of attention from one object to another. Switchability of attention means the ability to quickly navigate a complex, changing situation. Switchability of attention is determined covertly, moving from one type of activity to another.

Ease of switching different people is different and depends on a number of conditions (primarily the relationship between previous and subsequent activities and the attitude of the subject to each of them). The more interesting the activity, the easier it is to switch to it and vice versa. Switchability is one of the well-trained qualities. Switching attention, if it occurs on an involuntary basis, may indicate its instability, but such instability is not always reason to be considered as negative quality. It often promotes temporary rest of the body, analyzer, preservation and restoration of performance nervous system and the body as a whole.

Two differently directed processes are functionally associated with the switchability of attention: inclusion and distraction of attention. The first is characterized by the way a person switches his attention to something and concentrates completely on it; the second is how the process of distraction is carried out.

To study attention switching, the Landolt ring technique is often used; it is a universal tool that can be used to study the attention of people of different ages. To study the switching of attention, the subject is given the task: during the first minute, he needs to find and cross out rings of one type (with one gap orientation) in one way, during the next minute - rings of a different type, and so on in turn for 5 minutes. When processing the results, the experimenter determines the number of rings viewed in each minute and in 5 minutes in general. The number of errors is also determined.

Volume.

The next property of attention is its volume. Attention span refers to the number of objects that a person can cover with sufficient ease at the same time. It is known that a person cannot think about different things and perform a variety of jobs at the same time. This limitation forces information coming from outside to be divided into parts that do not exceed the capabilities of the processing system.

In the same way, a person has very disabilities simultaneously perceiving several objects independent of each other - this is the volume of attention. An important and defining feature of it is that it is practically impossible to regulate during training and training.

The study of attention span is usually carried out by analyzing the number of simultaneously presented elements (numbers, letters, etc.) that can be clearly perceived by the subject. For these purposes, a device is used that makes it possible to present a certain number of stimuli so quickly that the subject cannot move his eyes from one object to another. This allows you to measure the number of objects available for simultaneous identification using an instrument called a tachistoscope. Usually it consists of a window separated from the object in question by a falling screen, the slot of which can be arbitrarily changed so that the object in question appears in it for a very short period of time (from 10 to 50-100 ms). The number of clearly perceived objects is an indicator of the volume of attention. If the presented objects are quite simple and scattered in disorder across the demonstrated field, the amount of attention ranges from 5 to 7 simultaneously clearly perceived objects. In fact, attention span is a variable that varies individually, but the classic indicator of attention span in people is considered to be 5±2.

Volume+intensity+duration=sustainability

Attention disorders.

Attention disorders are painful disorders, observed to varying degrees with fatigue and organic brain damage, primarily frontal lobes. They are characterized by inadequate changes in the direction, selectivity of activity and coordination of individual actions. They can manifest themselves in a narrowing of the scope of attention, in its instability (distraction by side stimuli). When the frontal lobes of the brain and related nonspecific structures are damaged, attention disturbances can be modality-nonspecific and manifest themselves in many types of activities, with the perception of any modality. When a certain analytical system is damaged, attention disorders can be modality-specific and manifest themselves in the work of only one modality. In particular, when the occipital region of the cortex is damaged, disturbances in visual attention occur, and when the temporal cortex is damaged, auditory attention occurs.

Attention- this is the focus and concentration of the subject at a given moment in time on any real or ideal object.

1. Selection function - the essence of attention is manifested primarily in the selection of significant, relevant to the needs, corresponding to the given activity, influences and ignoring (inhibiting, eliminating) others - unimportant, side, competing influences.

2. The function of retaining (preserving) a given activity (preserving images of a certain objective content in the mind) until the act of behavior is completed, cognitive activity, until the goal is achieved.

3. The function of attention is the regulation and control of the flow of activity.

1. Involuntary- this is the concentration of consciousness on an object due to some of its characteristics. (Any stimulus, changing the strength of its action, attracts attention. The novelty of the stimulus also causes involuntary attention.

Objects that evoke a bright emotional tone in the process of cognition ( rich colors, melodious sounds, pleasant smells) cause involuntary concentration of attention. Intellectual, aesthetic and moral feelings are even more important for the emergence of involuntary attention. An object that has caused a person’s surprise, admiration, delight, attracts his attention for a long time)

2. Free- This is a consciously regulated concentration on an object. (A person focuses not on what is interesting or pleasant for him, but on what he should do. This type of attention is closely related to the will. By voluntarily focusing on an object, a person makes a volitional effort that maintains attention throughout the entire process of activity. With his the origin of voluntary attention is due to work. Voluntary attention arises when a person sets a goal for an activity, the implementation of which requires concentration. Voluntary attention requires volitional effort, which is experienced as tension, mobilization of forces to solve the task. , not to be distracted, not to make mistakes in actions. The reason for the emergence of voluntary attention to any object is the setting of the goal of the activity, the practical activity itself, for the implementation of which a person is responsible).

3. Post-voluntary - entry into activity and the interest arising in connection with this. Focus is reduced and tension is relieved.

Properties:

1. Concentration - the degree of concentration on an object:

High; - low

2. Volume - the number of objects that can be captured by attention at the same time:

3. Switching - deliberate transfer of attention from one object to another:

Difficult; - lung

4. Distribution - the ability to hold several objects in the sphere of attention at the same time.

5. Stability - duration of focusing attention on an object:

Sustainable

As you know, attention plays a big role in the life of every person. But not everyone knows that there is a fairly large number of its types, forms and qualities, the characteristics of which differ significantly from each other.

Concept of attention

Attention is not an independent cognitive process. If you ask the question about what attention is, then we can say that in itself it does not show anything and separately, however, it represents one of essential components as part of cognitive activity, as it creates and controls functioning. Any activity is carried out consciously, so attention is also carried out

As a rule, it is a special state of consciousness. Thanks to attention, various things are directed and focused in order to more fully and clearly reflect reality. In addition, this concept is closely related to many sensory and mental processes. And this connection is most noticeable in sensations and numerous perceptions.

Characteristics of attention and its processes

Stability is presented in the form of the duration of attracting attention to the same objects or to the same tasks.
The process of concentration and forms of attention are an increase in the intensity of signals when the field of perception is limited. They offer a long delay of attention on some object, and also distract from other influences that do not matter to a person at this moment.
Concentration is seen as the result of concentrating on a specific object in order to obtain the most full information and the necessary information about it.
The distribution function and attentional processes are considered to be the subjectively experienced ability to hold a specific number of different objects at the same time.
The method of switchability represents the degree of speed of transition from a certain one type of activity to a completely different one (in the case of absent-mindedness, there is poor switchability).
Subjectivity is associated, first of all, with the ability to highlight any signals according to the task, significance, relevance, and so on.

Main types of attention

Attention is manifested through sensory and intellectual processes, as well as through practical actions using goals and objectives various activities. Thanks to this, there are the following main types of attention: motor, sensory, intentional, intellectual and unintentional.

The amount of volume is determined by the number of objects where the subject’s attention can be directed and concentrated in specific seconds of time. It is calculated through special devices - tachistoscopes. In an instant, a person can turn his attention to several present objects at once, as a rule, their number is from four to six.

Motor attention

What attention is is known to many, and if we are talking about its motor form, then it is characterized by certain additions. As a rule, motor attention is usually directed to movement and actions performed by a person. It allows you to more firmly and clearly understand the different techniques and methods that are used in practice. The motor type of attention directs and controls movements and actions. They, as a rule, are aimed at a specific subject, especially when they must be very clear and precise.

Sensory attention

Sensory attention can occur when objects affect sensory organs. Such forms of attention provide a fairly clear reflection of all objects and their characteristics. This manifests itself in the person’s present sensations. Because of sensory attention, the images that can appear in the mind are clear and distinct objects. This type can be visual, auditory, olfactory, and so on. As a rule, people especially exhibit visual and auditory types, the first of which have been studied best in psychology, since they are quite easy to understand and record.

Intelligent attention

The qualities of attention of the intellectual type are aimed at more serious functioning and efficient work such necessary cognitive processes as thinking, memory and imagination. Because of this, a person can remember and reproduce the information received much better, as well as create clearer images in the process of imagination and think productively. Due to the fact that this type is characterized by the presence internal character and almost inaccessible for research, it is the least studied, so it is difficult to give a clear definition of what attention is.

Voluntary attention

Voluntary or intentional attention appears when a person has a goal or task to be attentive to some object and to mental actions. Typically, this type of attention is aimed at regulating sensory and motor processes, as well as internal cognitive actions. The intentional variety may well become arbitrary in cases where a person needs to exercise volitional efforts so that his attention is directed and focused on a specific object that should be cognized.

Voluntary is also called active or volitional. The characteristic of this type of attention is that the direct initiative for its occurrence belongs to the person, and the method of its appearance is already carried out through the effort and will of the subject.

When the focus of attention is closely related to a conscious goal, then we are talking about the so-called voluntary form, which naturally accompanies human activity. It appears in situations where the subject is absorbed in some activity. In addition, such attention is closely related to the system of associations. This can be very relevant when the object of attention continues to fixate the goal, but at the same time destroys it. This type begins to manifest itself in cases where the activity becomes more exciting and is carried out without any special effort.

As for the conditions for the formation of a voluntary type of attention, here we can highlight a clear systematic organization of work, the use of the properties of mental activity, and the ability to concentrate for a long time. These are the main features of this type of attention.

Involuntary attention

In the same situation, when direction and concentration are involuntary, involuntary attention is relevant. One of the main forms of this type is considered to be an attitude, that is, a state of complete readiness or predisposition of a person to any action.

An unintentional (involuntary) type of attention appears independently without a specific goal on the part of the subject. It is caused by the qualities of various objects and numerous phenomena that are essential to a person. The characteristic of this type of attention comes down to the fact that the main of its manifestations and provoking factors is the novelty of the subject.

In addition, many bright stimuli (sudden light, loud sounds, strong odors, etc.) can attract involuntary attention. In some cases, this type can also cause not very visible stimuli (when they fully correspond to the interests, needs and attitudes of the person).

With involuntary attention it is quite great importance belongs to the design of the text (especially in children's books). This form primarily depends on various external properties of stimuli and is forced in nature, and it does not last long. Internal reasons involuntary attention are presented in anticipation of some specific impressions. Therefore, before you start reading, it is important to get a rough idea of this book.

Drugs to improve attention

Reception medicines and supplements that stimulate the nutrition of brain cells, have a positive effect on productivity and improve concentration. Among modern drugs, Mildronate has proven itself well: it optimizes intracellular metabolic processes, allowing you to maintain the nutrition of neurons at the required level even at times when there is not enough oxygen, for example, during intense intellectual work. Protected from starvation, brain cells work much more efficiently, the building of neural connections accelerates, which has a beneficial effect on attention and intellectual activity in general.

The meaning of attention

In general, the characteristics of attention are such that it is the main condition for the successful result of any. Its functions represent an improvement in other types of work to which it is assigned, but at the same time it does not have its own special active product. In addition, in some sources on psychology you can read that attention is such an organization of mental activity with the help of which perceptions, sensations, thoughts are realized more clearly than others, and the latter, in turn, fade into the background or are not perceived at all.

Thus, attention is a consciously regulated concentration on some object. It does not depend on the present properties of this object (attractiveness, external and internal qualities, interest of the observer). It is fixed thanks to the person himself, depending on his activities.

If a person knows approximately what attention is, then he understands that a good result and success various jobs depend precisely on how correctly the goal is set and how the stages to achieve it are planned. Also of no small importance is the point associated with the degree of clarity of the direction of his efforts in the process of activity.

The nature and essence of attention cause serious controversy in psychological science. Some experts even doubt the existence of attention as a special independent function; they consider it only a side or moment of other mental processes. But the discovery of attention neurons, novelty detector cells, the study of the peculiarities of the functioning of the reticular formation and especially the formation of dominants, which are the physiological correlate of attention, allows us to assert that it is a mental formation, whose structures are anatomically and physiologically relatively independent of sensory processes. The difficulties in explaining the phenomenon of attention are caused by the fact that it is not found in a “pure” form; functionally it is always “attention to something.” Therefore, attention should be considered as a psychophysiological process, a state that characterizes the dynamic features of cognitive processes.

When we talk about attention, we also mean concentration, depth into activity. The more difficult the task facing a person, the more intense, intense, and in-depth his attention will obviously be, and, conversely, the easier the task, the less in-depth his attention will be (the function of selecting significant influences).

At the same time, as it has been shown, concentration is associated with distraction from everything extraneous. The more we focus on solving a given problem, the less we notice everything around us, or rather, we notice what is happening, but not clearly.

Thus, when careful attention to any object, it (this object) turns out to be in the center of our consciousness, everything else is perceived at this moment weakly, it turns out, figuratively speaking, on the periphery of what is perceived (the function of ignoring unimportant influences). Thanks to this, the reflection becomes clear, distinct, ideas and thoughts are retained until the activity is completed, until its goal is achieved. Thus, attention provides another function - control And regulation of activities.

Attention is usually expressed in facial expressions, posture, and movements. An attentive listener is easy to distinguish from an inattentive one. But sometimes attention is directed not to surrounding objects, but to thoughts and images in the human mind. IN in this case they talk about intellectual attention, which is somewhat different from sensory (external) attention. It should also be noted that in some cases, when a person shows increased concentration on physical actions, it makes sense to talk about motor attention. All this indicates that attention does not have its own cognitive content and only serves the activity of other cognitive processes.

Among modern domestic psychologists, P.Ya. Galperin proposed an original interpretation of attention.

The main provisions of his concept can be summarized as follows:

Attention is one of the moments of orientation-research activity and is a psychological action aimed at the content of an image, thought, or other phenomenon currently present in the human psyche;
By its function, attention represents control over this content. Every human action has an orienting, performing and control part. This latter is represented by attention as such;
Unlike actions aimed at producing a specific product, the activity of control, or attention, does not have a separate, special result;
From the point of view of attention as an activity of mental control, all specific acts of attention - both voluntary and involuntary - are the result of the formation of new mental actions.

It is quite obvious that these theories are based on real facts However, by absolutizing the selected phenomena, they ignore all other manifestations. The phenomenon of attention can be correctly understood only in the totality of all its properties. Currently, the following definition is generally accepted.

Attention- this is the orientation and concentration of consciousness on any real or ideal object, implying an increase in the level of sensory, intellectual or motor activity of the individual.

Voluntary and involuntary attention

Based on their origin and methods of implementation, there are usually two main types of attention: involuntary and voluntary. Involuntary attention, the simplest and most genetically original, is also called passive, forced, since it arises and is maintained regardless of the goals facing a person. The activity captures the person in these cases by itself, due to its fascination, entertainingness or surprise. A person involuntarily surrenders to the objects and phenomena of the activity that influence him. We should hear it on the radio interesting news, how we involuntarily distract ourselves from work and listen. The occurrence of involuntary attention is associated with various physical, psychophysiological and mental reasons. These reasons are closely related to each other.

Unlike involuntary voluntary attention driven by conscious purpose. They are closely related to the will of a person and were developed as a result of labor efforts, which is why it is also called strong-willed, active, intentional. Having decided to engage in some activity, we carry out this decision, consciously directing our attention even to what is not interesting to us at the moment, but what we consider necessary to do. The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of mental processes.

The reasons for voluntary attention are not biological in origin, but social: it does not mature in the body, but is formed in the child during his communication with adults. It should also be noted the close connection of voluntary attention with speech.

A number of psychologists identify another type of attention, which, like voluntary attention, is purposeful in nature and requires initial volitional efforts, but then the person, as it were, “enters” into the work: the content and process of the activity, and not just its result, become interesting and significant. Such attention was called N.F. Dobrynin post-arbitrary. Imagine a person solving a difficult problem. Initially, she may not interest him at all. He takes on it only because it needs to be done. The task is difficult and at first cannot be solved; the person is constantly distracted: he either looks out the window, then listens to the noise in the corridor, or aimlessly moves his pen over the paper. He has to bring himself back to solving the problem through constant effort. But now the solution has begun; the right move is outlined more and more clearly, the task becomes more and more clear. Although it turns out to be difficult, it is possible to solve. A person becomes more and more captivated by it, it captures him more and more. He stops being distracted: the task has become interesting to him. Attention went from being voluntary to becoming, as it were, involuntary.

However, unlike truly involuntary attention, postvoluntary attention remains associated with conscious goals and is supported by conscious interests. At the same time, it is also different from voluntary attention, since there is no or almost no volitional effort.

Basic properties of attention

As already mentioned, attention means the connection of consciousness with a certain object, its concentration on it. The features of this concentration are determined by the basic properties of attention: stability, concentration, distribution, switching and volume of attention.

The volume of attention is determined by the number of “simultaneously” (within 0.1 sec) perceived objects. Distribution of attention is characterized by the ability to simultaneously successfully perform several various types activities (actions). Switching is determined by the speed of voluntary transfer of attention from one object to another. Concentration of attention is expressed in the degree of its concentration on an object, and stability is determined by the duration of concentration of attention on the object.

Sustainability of attention

Sustainability- this is a temporary characteristic of attention, the duration of attracting attention to the same object.

Resistance can be determined by peripheral and central factors. Experimental studies have shown that attention is subject to periodic involuntary fluctuations. The periods of such oscillations, in particular according to N. Lange, are usually 2-3 s, reaching a maximum of 12 s. If you listen to the ticking of a clock and try to concentrate on it, then a person will either hear it or not hear it. Fluctuations of a different nature are observed when observing more complex figures- in them, alternately one or the other part will act as a figure. This effect, for example, is given by the image of a truncated pyramid: if you look closely at it for some time, it will alternately appear convex and concave.

However, attention researchers believe that the traditional interpretation of the stability of attention requires some clarification, because in reality such short periods of fluctuations in attention are by no means a universal pattern. In some cases, attention is characterized by frequent periodic fluctuations, in others - by much greater stability.

If attention were unstable under all conditions, more or less effective mental work would be impossible. It turns out that the very inclusion of mental activity, which reveals new aspects and connections in a subject, changes the laws of this process and creates conditions for stability of attention. In addition, the stability of attention depends on a number of conditions. These include the characteristics of the material, the degree of its difficulty, familiarity with it, understandability, attitude towards it on the part of the subject, as well as individual characteristics personality.

Concentration of attention

Concentration of attention is the degree or intensity of concentration, i.e. the main indicator of its severity, in other words, the focus in which mental or conscious activity is concentrated.

A. A. Ukhtomsky believed that concentration of attention is associated with the peculiarities of the functioning of the dominant focus of excitation in the cortex. In particular, concentration is a consequence of excitation in the dominant focus with simultaneous inhibition of other areas of the cerebral cortex.

Distribution of attention

Under distribution of attention understand the subjectively experienced ability of a person to hold a certain number of heterogeneous objects in the center of attention at the same time.

It is this ability that allows you to perform several actions at once, keeping them in the field of attention. A textbook example is the phenomenal abilities of Julius Caesar, who, according to legend, could simultaneously do seven unrelated things. It is also known that Napoleon could simultaneously dictate seven important diplomatic documents to his secretaries. However, as life practice shows, a person is capable of performing only one type of conscious mental activity, and the subjective feeling of simultaneously performing several is due to rapid sequential switching from one to another. It was also shown by W. Wundt that a person cannot concentrate on two simultaneously presented stimuli. However, sometimes a person is actually able to perform two types of activities simultaneously. In fact, in such cases, one of the activities performed should be completely automated and not require attention. If this condition is not met, combining activities is impossible.

Switching attention

Many authors believe that the distribution of attention is essentially the reverse side of it. switchability. Switchability or switching of attention is determined covertly, moving from one type of activity to another. Switching means a conscious and meaningful movement of attention from one object to another. In general, switching attention means the ability to quickly navigate a complex, changing situation. The ease of switching attention varies from person to person and depends on a number of conditions (this is, first of all, the relationship between previous and subsequent activities and the subject’s attitude towards each of them). How more interesting activity, the easier it is to switch to it, and vice versa. Switching attention is one of the well-trained qualities.

Attention span

The next property of attention is its volume. Attention span is a special issue. It is known that a person cannot think about different things and perform a variety of jobs at the same time. This limitation forces information coming from outside to be divided into parts that do not exceed the capabilities of the processing system. In the same way, a person has very limited abilities to simultaneously perceive several objects independent of each other - this is the volume of attention. An important and defining feature of it is that it is practically impossible to regulate during training and training.

Absent-mindedness

Absent-mindedness is a person's inability to concentrate on anything specific for a long time.

There are two types of absent-mindedness: imaginary and genuine.

Imaginary absent-mindedness- this is a person’s inattention to the immediately surrounding objects and phenomena, caused by the extreme concentration of his attention on some object.

Imaginary absent-mindedness is the result of great concentration and narrowness of attention. Sometimes it is called “professorial”, since it is often found among people of this category. A scientist’s attention can be so concentrated on the problem that occupies him that he does not hear questions addressed to him, does not recognize acquaintances, and answers inappropriately.

Absent-mindedness as a consequence of internal concentration does not cause much harm to the cause, although it makes it difficult for a person to orient himself in the world around him. Worse is genuine absent-mindedness. A person suffering from this type of absent-mindedness has difficulty establishing and maintaining voluntary attention on any object or action. To do this, he requires significantly more volitional efforts than a non-absent-minded person. The voluntary attention of an absent-minded person is unstable and easily distracted.

Genuine absent-mindedness

The reasons are genuine distracted attention varied. The cause of genuine absent-mindedness may be a general disorder of the nervous system (neurasthenia), anemia, diseases of the nasopharynx, which impede the flow of air into the lungs. Sometimes absent-mindedness appears as a result of physical and mental fatigue and overwork, difficult experiences.

One of the reasons for true absent-mindedness is the overload of the brain with a large number of impressions. This is why you shouldn't school time years, often send children to the cinema, theater, take them on visits, and allow them to watch TV every day. Scattered interests can also lead to genuine absent-mindedness. Some students enroll in several clubs at once, take books from many libraries, are interested in sports, collecting, and so on, but do not do anything seriously. The reason for genuine absent-mindedness can also be the improper upbringing of a child in the family: the absence of a certain regime in the child’s activities, entertainment and recreation, fulfillment of all his whims, exemption from work duties. Boring teaching, which does not stimulate thought, does not touch feelings, and does not require effort of will, is one of the sources of scattered attention of students.