In the field of dramatic poetry, a great difference is noticeable between Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, who belonged to different generations. is a representative of a generation that was still imbued with traditions of antiquity both religiously and politically. A patriotic hero who fought at Marathon, he ended his life in Syracuse at the court of the tyrant Hiero, leaving his native Attica when democracy gained predominance in Athens. The tone of his tragedies is sublime, religious, and his characters are not ordinary mortals, but gods and heroes. The most majestic image is Prometheus, chained to a rock by Zeus for stealing the divine fire, but not wanting to submit to Zeus. The hero takes credit for the benefit he has shown to the human race and loudly complains about the injustice of Zeus. This is a rebellion human spirit against the fate that weighs on him, but in the end Prometheus is punished for his resistance.
He already belonged to the generation in which a democratic system was established in Athens. The heroes of Sophocles' tragedies (“Oedipus the King”, “Antigone”, “Oedipus at Colonus”) are no longer gods and demigods, and ordinary people, and he depicts not only their external fate, but also the internal movements of their souls, their characters, the doubts of their conscience, their internal struggle. That's why his dramas are more humane, closer to real life than to mythological images created by the creative imagination of the Greeks. However, Sophocles still idealized the people depicted in the tragedy: his people, by his own admission, are not what they really are, but what they can be, i.e. either perfect examples of virtue, or, conversely, perfect villains. Not yet thirty years old, Sophocles defeated Aeschylus in a poetic competition, because he was more in line with the worldview and mood of the Athenians of the time of Pericles. The political direction of Sophocles is best indicated by the friendship that connected him with Pericles.
155. Euripides
The third great dramatic poet, Euripides, in years was very little younger than Sophocles, but he was already was brought up and lived in an era of full development of democracy and a new philosophical movement. Euripides was a decisive opponent of both oligarchy and tyranny and was the first in Athens to use theater stage in order to preach new ideas, using the techniques of rhetoric that was already emerging at that time. His characters are completely ordinary people with all the weaknesses characteristic of humans, and in his tragedies there are often disputes about various complex and difficult issues of morality or politics, and a direct and clear answer to them, without hesitation and doubt, is not given. That's why the audience left the show
Since ancient times, at festivals in honor of Dionysus, or Bacchus, the god of the vine and wine, villagers organized solemn processions to the temple and sacrificed goats to the god. They dressed up in goat skins, tied up their hooves, horns and tails, depicting the companions of Dionysus - goat-footed satyrs. In honor of God, the choir sang solemn chants (dithyrambs), accompanied by games and dancing. At the same time, a singer stood out from the choir, who portrayed Dionysus or some other mythical figure, and the singing was performed alternately by the choir and then by the singer. This is where the tragedy came from (“tragedy” in Greek means “song of the goats”). Initially, only the choir and the author himself participated in it as the only actor. The first tragedies set forth myths about Dionysus: about his suffering, death, resurrection, struggle and victory over his enemies. But then poets began to draw content for their works from other legends. In this regard, the choir began to portray not satyrs, but other mythical creatures or people depending on the content of the play.
The tragedy arose from solemn chants. She retained their majesty and seriousness; her heroes became strong personalities, endowed with a strong-willed character and great passions. Greek tragedy always depicted some particularly difficult moments in the life of an entire state or an individual, terrible crimes, misfortune and deep moral suffering. There was no place for jokes or laughter.
The tragedy reached its greatest flowering in the 5th century. BC e. in the works of three Athenian poets: Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides.
Before Aeschylus, dramatic performances were still very primitive, since the participation of just one actor did not allow poets to present a complex action, show the struggle of ideas, views, moods, etc. Only after Aeschylus, the “father of tragedy,” introduced a second actor and moved the focus of the play from the chorus to the dialogue of the actors, the tragedy became a real dramatic performance. But still, in the tragedies of Aeschylus, the choir still played an important role. Only with the appearance of a third actor in the drama, whom Sophocles introduced, did the chorus gradually lose its significance, and from the end of the 4th century. BC e. tragedies are written without a chorus at all.
Thus, in ancient Greek tragedy there was singing, dancing and music. In this way it differed from the tragedy of a later time.
Plays with a chorus of satyrs stood out in special genre- a comic, cheerful performance, a “satyr drama.” For the festival of Dionysus, every poet in Athens who wanted to take part in a dramatic competition had to present three tragedies - a trilogy and one satyr drama.
The eldest of the three great tragedians was Aeschylus. He was born in 525 BC. e. in the town of Eleusis, near Athens. The time of his life coincides with the era Greco-Persian wars and strengthening the democratic system in Athens. As a hoplite (heavily armed infantry warrior), Aeschylus fought for the happiness and freedom of his homeland against the Persian invaders.
The ancients attributed 72 or 90 plays to Aeschylus, of which only seven tragedies have come down to us in their entirety: “The Petitioners”, “The Persians”, “Seven Against Thebes”, “Chained Prometheus” and the “Oresteia” trilogy, consisting of tragedies: “Agamemnon”, "Choephori" ("Women pouring a funeral libation") and "Eumenides".
Aeschylus enjoyed fame among his contemporaries greatest poet: He was a winner in dramatic competitions 13 times and his plays received the exclusive right to be re-staged. A monument was erected to the poet in Athens. Towards the end of his life, Aeschylus moved to Sicily, where he died in 456 BC. e. in the city of Gela. The inscription on the grave glorifies him as a valiant warrior.
The plots of all Aeschylus’ tragedies, except for “The Persians,” are ancient myths about gods and heroes, but the poet puts into these mythical tales the ideas, concepts and views of his time, reflecting political life Athenian society of the 5th century. BC e. A supporter of the Athenian democratic system, Aeschylus appears in his works as a fiery patriot, an enemy of tyranny and violence, firmly believing in the victory of reason and justice. Using examples of heroic images ancient mythology Aeschylus raised his fellow citizens in the spirit of selfless devotion to the homeland, courage and honesty.
The idea of the advantages of a democratic system over monarchical despotism is expressed with great force by the poet in the tragedy “The Persians.” In it he glorifies the brilliant victory of the Greeks over the Persians at Salamis. The tragedy was staged 8 years after this battle. It is easy to imagine what a huge impression “The Persians” made on the audience, most of whom, like Aeschylus, were participants in the Greco-Persian War.
In ancient times of Greek history, myths arose about a curse that weighed down entire families. The tragedy of Aeschylus “Seven against Thebes” is dedicated to the ill-fated fate of the Labdacid family; three tragedies by Sophocles: “Oedipus the King”, “Oedipus at Colonus” and “Antigone” - and tragedies by Euripides: “The Phoenicians” and partly “The Petitioners”. But while presenting the same myth, each of the poets interpreted it in his own way, depending on the goals that he pursued in his tragedies.
IN ancient myth it was said that the Theban king Oedipus from the Labdacid clan, in complete ignorance, committed terrible crimes: he killed own father Laia and married his mother Jocasta. Only after many years did the terrible truth reveal itself to his eyes. Horrified by crimes committed Oedipus blinded himself. But the Labdacid family did not get rid of the curse. The sons of Oedipus, Eteocles and Polynnicus, attacked each other and both died in a fratricidal war.
The siege of the seven-gate Thebes by Polynnicos, who led a foreign army led by six Argive commanders to his homeland, his battle with Eteocles and the death of both brothers are the plot of Aeschylus’ tragedy “Seven against Thebes.”
Aeschylus presents the struggle of two brothers for royal power in the tragedy as the struggle of the free Theban people against foreign invaders - the Argives, who came to enslave the city, betray it to fire and violence. By creating a terrible picture of a besieged city, the poet evokes in the audience’s memory sentiments similar to those that the Greeks experienced during the years of the Persian invasion. The ruler of Thebes, Eteocles, according to myth, is a blind instrument in the hands of the gods. In the tragedy, he is depicted as a decisive, reasonable and courageous military leader. This is a man of strong will, going into battle with his brother consciously, in the name of protecting his fatherland. The image of Eteocles combines everything best qualities Greek fighters, heroes of Marathon and Salamis. Thus, under the influence of contemporary events, Aeschylus processed the ancient legend.
The poet’s tragedy “Chained Prometheus” is world famous, in which he immortalized the image of the tyrant-hater Titan Prometheus, a fighter for freedom, happiness and culture of mankind.
Wanting to save from death human race, Prometheus stole fire from Zeus and gave it to people. He taught them to build houses and ships, tame animals, recognize medicinal plants; taught them the science of numbers and literacy, endowed people with consciousness and memory. For this, Zeus severely punished the titan. In response to Zeus' messenger Hermes, who threatened him with new torment, Prometheus proudly declares:
Know well that I would not trade
Their sorrows into servile service...
A fighter for truth and justice, Prometheus says that he hates all gods. This tragedy was one of Karl Marx's favorite works.
The powerful characters of the images of Aeschylus' tragedies made a huge impression. To express the feelings and thoughts of these heroic individuals, a particularly majestic and solemn style was required. Therefore, Aeschylus created poetic speech, full of bright hyperboles, metaphors, composed Difficult words, consisting of several roots and prefixes. In this regard, the understanding of his tragedies gradually became more and more difficult and interest in his work among later generations decreased.
However, the influence of Aeschylus on all subsequent world literature huge. Poets of all eras and movements were especially attracted to the image of Prometheus, which we find in the works of almost all famous poets XVII - XIX centuries: Calderon, Voltaire, Goethe, Shelley, Byron and others. The Russian poet revolutionary-democrat Ogarev wrote the poem “Prometheus”, in which he protested against the tyranny of Nicholas I. The work of Aeschylus also had a great influence on composers: Liszt, Wagner, Scriabin, Taneyev and others.
The work of Aeschylus' younger contemporaries - Sophocles and Euripides - dates back to the period of the highest economic and cultural prosperity of the Athenian democratic state.
After the victory over the Persians, Athens became scientific and cultural center throughout Greece - the “school of Hellas”. Scientists, artists, sculptors, and architects come there. Are being created greatest works arts, among which one of the first places is occupied by the temple of Athena - the Parthenon. Works are written on history, medicine, astronomy, music, etc.
Particular interest is shown in the personality of the person himself. The beauty of the human body is depicted by the sculptors Phidias and Polykleitos. Inner world man, his moral experiences are revealed by the Greek tragedians Sophocles and Euripides. Like Aeschylus, they draw plots for their works from ancient mythological tales. But the heroes they created are no longer powerful, unshakable titans towering above mere mortals, but living people who evoke deep sympathy in the audience for their suffering.
In Sophocles' famous tragedy Oedipus the King, all attention is not focused on external events, but on the feelings that take possession of Oedipus as he learns about the crimes he committed. From a happy, beloved and respected king by his people, Oedipus turns into an unhappy sufferer, dooming himself to eternal blindness and exile. Another remarkable tragedy of Sophocles, “Antigone,” tells about the death of Oedipus’s children.
Euripides, like Sophocles, with subtle observation depicts in his tragedies the changing feelings and moods of the characters. He brings the tragedy closer to life, introduces a lot of everyday traits from family life their heroes. Being one of the most advanced people of his time, Euripides puts into the mouths of the characters discussions about the injustice of slavery, the advantages of a democratic system, etc. The best of Euripides' tragedies that have come down to us is “Medea.”
The works of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides played a colossal role in the education of many generations. Defense of the Athenian democratic system, defense of human rights, the spirit of patriotism and irreconcilable hatred of tyranny and violence, love of freedom - this is what forms the basis of the ancient Greek tragedy.
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The oldest of known forms tragedy. Comes from ritual actions in honor of Dionysus. Participants in these actions wore masks with goat beards and horns, depicting Dionysus' companions - satyrs. Ritual performances took place during the Great and Lesser Dionysias (festivities in honor of Dionysus). Songs in honor of Dionysus were called dithyrambs in Greece. The dithyramb, as Aristotle points out, is the basis of Greek tragedy, which at first retained all the features of the myth of Dionysus. The latter was gradually replaced by other myths about gods and heroes - powerful people, rulers - as cultural growth ancient Greek and his social consciousness. From mimic praises telling about the sufferings of Dionysus, they gradually moved on to showing them in action. The three greatest tragedians of Greece - Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides - consistently reflected in their tragedies the psycho-ideology of the landowning aristocracy and merchant capital at various stages of their development. The main motive of Aeschylus' tragedy is the idea of the omnipotence of fate and the doom of the fight against it. The tragedies of Sophocles reflect the era of the victorious war between the Greeks and the Persians, which opened up great opportunities for trading capital. Euripides motivates the dramatic action with the real properties of the human psyche. The tragedy begins with a (declamatory) prologue, followed by the exit of the choir with a song (parod), then episodies (episodes), which are interrupted by the songs of the choir (stasims), the last part is the final stasim (usually solved in the genre of commos) and departure actors and choir - exod. Choral songs divided the tragedy into parts that modern drama are called acts. The number of parts varied even among the same author.
The chorus (at the time of Aeschylus 12 people, later 15) did not leave its place throughout the entire performance, as it constantly intervened in the action: it assisted the author in clarifying the meaning of the tragedy, revealed the emotional experiences of his heroes, and assessed their actions from the point of view of the prevailing morality. The presence of a choir, as well as the lack of scenery in the theater, made it impossible to transfer the action from one place to another. We must also add that the Greek theater did not have the ability to depict the change of day and night - the state of technology did not allow the use of lighting effects.
This is where the three unities of Greek tragedy come from: place, action and time (the action could only take place from sunrise to sunset), which were supposed to strengthen the illusion of the reality of the action. The unity of time and place significantly limited the development of dramatic elements at the expense of epic ones, characteristic of the evolution of the genus. A number of events necessary in the drama, the depiction of which would violate unity, could only be reported to the viewer. The so-called “messengers” spoke about what was happening off stage.
Euripides introduces intrigue into the tragedy, which he, however, resolves artificially. The role of the choir is gradually reduced to only musical accompaniment representation.
Greek tragedy was greatly influenced by Homeric epic. Tragedians borrowed a lot of legends from him. The characters often used expressions borrowed from the Iliad. For dialogues and songs of the choir, playwrights (they are also melurgists, since the poems and music were written by the same person - the author of the tragedy) used iambic trimeter as a form close to living speech (about the differences in dialects in separate parts tragedy see ancient Greek).In Hellenistic times, tragedy follows the traditions of Euripides. The traditions of ancient Greek tragedy were picked up by the playwrights of Ancient Rome. Works in the traditions of ancient Greek tragedy were created in Greece until late Roman and Byzantine times (the unsurvived tragedies of Apollinaris of Laodicea, the Byzantine compilative tragedy “The Suffering Christ”).
(Prologue), skit, alternation of choral and dialogic scenes (episodies). At the end of the speech part, the actors leave the orchestra, and the choir, left alone, performs the stasim. Stasim the choir sings, remaining in the orchestra, but accompanying the singing with certain dance moves. Songs are divided into stanzas and antistrophes, which, as a rule, exactly correspond to each other in poetic size. Sometimes symmetrical stanzas end with an epod, a song conclusion; they may also be preceded by a brief introduction by the luminary. The latter also takes part in dialogic scenes, coming into direct contact with others actors. In addition to purely speech or choral scenes, the so-called commos is also found in tragedy - a joint vocal part of the soloist and choir, in which the plaintive lamentations of the actor are answered by the refrains of the choir. After the third and final stasim, the action of the tragedy moves towards its denouement. In Aeschylus, a small final dialogic scene is often accompanied by an extensive final song, the so-called exode. Each of the three competing playwrights presented at the Great Dionysia not one play, but a group of works, consisting of three tragedies and one satyr drama. This complex in its entirety was called a tetralogy, and if the tragedies included in it were connected by the unity of the plot, forming a coherent trilogy (as usual with Aeschylus), then the satyr drama was adjacent to them in content, depicting an episode of the same cycle of myths in a funny light. In those cases where there was no such connection (as is usually the case with Sophocles and Euripides), the theme of the satyr drama was freely chosen by the artist.
Greek tragedy was a popular and influential form of drama performed in the theaters of ancient Greece from the late 6th century BC. The most famous playwrights of the genre were Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, and many of their works were still performed centuries after their first premiere. Greek tragedy led to Greek comedy, and together these genres became the basis on which all modern theater is based.
ORIGIN OF THE TRAGEDY
The exact origins of the tragedy (tragida) are debated among scholars. Some have linked the growth of the genre, which began in Athens, to an earlier art form, the lyrical performance of epic poetry. Others suggest a strong connection with rituals performed in the worship of Dionysus, such as the sacrifice of goats—a song ritual called trág-ōdia—and the wearing of masks. Indeed, Dionysos became known as the god of the theater, and perhaps there is another connection - drinking rites that resulted in the worshiper losing complete control of his emotions and effectively becoming a different person, as actors (hupokritai) hope to do during speeches. The music and dance of the Dionysiacus ritual was most evident in the role of the chorus and music provided by the aulos player, but rhythmic elements were also retained through the use of first, trophy tetrameter and then iambic trimeter in the delivery of spoken words.
PLAY THE TRAGEDY
Performing in the theater under open air(theatron), such as Dionysos in Athens and seemingly open to the entire male population (the presence of women is disputed), the plot of the tragedy was almost always inspired by episodes from Greek mythology which we must remember were often part of the Greek religion. Because of this serious subject matter, which often concerned moral right and wrong, no violence was allowed on stage, and the death of a character had to be heard from offstage and not noticed. Likewise, at least in the early stages of the genre, the poet could not comment or make political statements through the play, and a more direct response to contemporary events had to wait for the emergence of a less severe and conventional genre, Greek comedy.
Early tragedies had only one actor who performed in costume and wore a mask, allowing him the presumption of impersonating a god. Here we can see perhaps a connection with an earlier religious ritual where a priest might conduct a trial. The actor later spoke frequently to the leader of the choir, a group of up to 15 actors who sang and danced but did not speak. This innovation is attributed to Thespis in c. 520 BC The actor also changed costumes during the performance (using a small tent behind the stage, a skin that would later become a monumental façade), and thus break up the play into separate sequences. Frinijos is credited with the idea of dividing the choir into different groups to represent men, women, elders, etc. (although all the actors on stage were actually male). Ultimately, three actors were allowed on stage, a restriction that allowed for equality between poets in the competition. However, the game could have as many non-speaking performers as possible, so no doubt playing with more financial backing could be a more glamorous production with more subtle costumes and sets. Finally, Agathon is credited with adding musical interludes unrelated to the story itself.
TRAGEDY IN THE COMPETITION
The most famous competition for performing tragedy was as part of the spring festival of Dionysus Eleuthera or Urban Dionysia in Athens, but there were many others. Those pieces attempted to be performed in the religious festival (agōn) competitions had to go through an audition process, the court of which was found by the archon. Only those deemed worthy of the festival will be given financial support, necessary to provide an expensive choir and rehearsal. The Archon would also appoint three choregoi, citizens who would each finance a chorus for one of the selected plays (the state would pay the poet and leading actors). The performances of the three selected poets were judged by the panel that day, and the prize for the winners of such competitions, in addition to honor and prestige, was often a bronze tripod cauldron. From 449 BC E. There were also prizes for leading actors (prōtagōnistēs).
WRITERS OF TRAGEDY
The first of the great tragic poets was Aeschylus (c. 525 – 456 BC). Innovative, he added a second actor for minor parts and by including more dialogue in his plays, he squeezed more drama from the age-old stories so familiar to his audience. Since the plays were submitted to the competition in groups of four (three tragedies and satirical play), Aeschylus often dealt with the theme between plays, creating sequels. One such trilogy is Agamemnon, the Liberators (or Ciofori), and the Furies (or Eumenides), known together as the Oresteia. Aeschylus is said to have described his work of at least 70 plays, of which six or seven survive, as “pieces from Homer's feast” (Burn 206).
The second great poet of the genre was Sophocles (ca. 496-406 BC). Very popular, he added a third actor to the action and used painted scenery, sometimes even changing the scenery of the play. The three actors now allow for much more sophistication in terms of plot. One of his most famous works is Antigone (c. 442 BC), in which the leading character pays the ultimate price for the funeral of his brother Polynix against the wishes of King Fiona of Thebes. This is a classic situation with tragedy - the political right that Pauline's traitor refused funeral rites is opposed to the moral right of the sister, who seeks to put her brother to bed. Other works include Oedipus the King and the Women of Trāchis, but he actually wrote over 100 plays, of which seven survive.
The last of the classical tragic poets was Euripides (c. 484-407 BC), noted for his clever dialogue, fine choral lyricism, and a certain realism in his textual and stage presentation. He enjoyed asking awkward questions and upsetting audiences with his thought-provoking attitude. general topics. This is probably why, although he was popular with the public, he only won a few festival competitions. Of the approximately 90 games, 19 survive, among the most famous is Medea - where Jason, of Golden Fleece fame, refuses the title character for the daughter of the King of Corinth, causing Medea to kill her children in revenge.
BREAKING TRAGEDY
Although the plays were specifically commissioned for competition during religious and other festivals, many were re-performed and copied into scripts for mass publication. These scripts, considered classics, especially the three great Tragedies, were even held by the state as official and unchangeable government documents. In addition, the study of "classical" plays became an important part of the school curriculum.
There were, however, new plays that were constantly being recorded and performed, and with the formation of actors' guilds in the 3rd century BC and the mobility of professional troupes, the genre continued to spread throughout the Greek world and theaters became common feature cityscape from Magna Graecia to Asia Minor.
In the Roman world, tragedy plays were translated and imitated into Latin, and the genre gave rise to new uniform art from the 1st century BC, pantomime, which took inspiration from the presentation and subject matter of Greek tragedy.
(festivities in honor of Dionysus).
Songs in honor of Dionysus were called dithyrambs in Greece. The dithyramb, as Aristotle points out, is the basis of Greek tragedy, which at first retained all the features of the myth of Dionysus. The latter was gradually replaced by other myths about gods and heroes - powerful people, rulers - as the ancient Greek grew culturally and his social consciousness.
From mimic praises telling about the sufferings of Dionysus, they gradually moved on to showing them in action. Thespis (a contemporary of Peisistratus), Phrynichus, and Cheryl are considered the first playwrights. They introduced an actor (the second and third were then introduced by Aeschylus and Sophocles). The authors played the main roles (Aeschylus was a major actor, Sophocles also acted as an actor), wrote the music for the tragedies themselves, and directed the dances.
These views expressed the protective tendencies of the ruling class - the aristocracy, whose ideology was determined by the consciousness of the need for unquestioning submission to this public order. The tragedies of Sophocles reflect the era of the victorious war between the Greeks and the Persians, which opened up great opportunities for commercial capital.
In this regard, the authority of the aristocracy in the country fluctuates, and this accordingly affects the works of Sophocles. At the center of his tragedies is the conflict between tribal tradition and state authority. Sophocles believed reconciliation was possible social contradictions- a compromise between the trade elite and the aristocracy.
Euripides motivates the dramatic action with the real properties of the human psyche. The majestic but spiritually simplified heroes of Aeschylus and Sophocles are replaced in the works of the younger tragedian by, if more prosaic, then complicated characters. Sophocles spoke of Euripides this way: “I portrayed people as they should be; Euripides depicts them as they really are.”
In Hellenistic times, tragedy follows the tradition of Euripides. The traditions of ancient Greek tragedy were picked up by the playwrights of Ancient Rome.
Works in the tradition of ancient Greek tragedy were created in Greece before late Roman and Byzantine times (unsurvived tragedies of Apollinaris of Laodicea, Byzantine compilative tragedy “The Suffering Christ”).