Despite all the differences from realism in aesthetics and method, romanticism has deep internal connections with it. They are united by a sharply critical position in relation to epigonic classicism, the desire to free themselves from the shackles of classicist canons, break out into the vastness of life's truth, and reflect the richness and diversity of reality. It is no coincidence that Stendhal, in his treatise “Racine and Shakespeare” (1824), which puts forward new principles of realistic aesthetics, speaks under the banner of romanticism, seeing in it the art of modernity. The same can be said about such an important, programmatic document of romanticism as Hugo’s “Preface” to the drama “Cromwell” (1827), in which a revolutionary call was openly made to break the rules pre-established by classicism, outdated norms of art and ask advice only from life itself.
There have been and are ongoing great debates around the problem of romanticism. This controversy is due to the complexity and contradictory nature of the phenomenon of romanticism itself. There were quite a few misconceptions in solving the problem, which reflected in the underestimation of the achievements of romanticism. The very application of the concept of romanticism to music was sometimes questioned, while it was in music that it gave the most significant and enduring artistic values.
Romanticism is associated with the flourishing of the 19th century musical culture Austria, Germany, Italy, France, the development of national schools in Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and later in other countries - Norway, Finland, Spain. The greatest musicians of the century - Schubert, Weber, Schumann, Rossini and Verdi, Berlioz, Chopin, Liszt, Wagner and Brahms, right up to Bruckner and Mahler (in the West) - either belonged to the romantic movement or were associated with it. Romanticism and its traditions played a big role in the development of Russian music, manifesting itself in its own way in the works of composers of the “mighty handful” in Tchaikovsky, and further – in Glazunov, Taneyev, Rachmaninov, Scriabin.
Soviet scientists have revised a lot in their views on romanticism, especially in the works of the last decade. A tendentious, vulgar sociological approach to romanticism as a product of feudal reaction, an art that leads away from reality into the world of the artist’s arbitrary fantasy, that is, anti-realistic in its essence, is being eliminated. The opposite point of view, which makes the criteria for the value of romanticism entirely dependent on the presence in it of elements of another, realistic method, has not justified itself. Meanwhile, a truthful reflection of the essential aspects of reality is inherent in romanticism itself in its most significant, progressive manifestations. Objections are also raised by the unconditional opposition of romanticism to classicism (after all, many advanced artistic principles of classicism had a significant influence on romanticism), and the exclusive emphasis on the pessimistic features of the romantic worldview, the idea of “world grief”, its passivity, reflection, and subjectivist limitations. This point of view affected the general concept of romanticism in musicological works of the 30s and 40s, expressed, in particular, in Article II. Sollertinsky “Romanticism, its general and musical aesthetics.” Along with the work of V. Asmus “Musical Aesthetics of Philosophical Romanticism”4, this article is one of the first significant generalizing works on romanticism in Soviet musicology, although time has made significant amendments to some of its main provisions.
Currently, the assessment of romanticism has become more differentiated, its various trends are considered in accordance with historical periods of development, national schools, types of art and major artistic individuals. The main thing is that romanticism is assessed in the struggle of opposing tendencies within itself. Particular attention is paid to the progressive sides of romanticism as the art of a subtle culture of feeling, psychological truth, emotional wealth, art that reveals the beauty of the human heart and spirit. It was in this area that romanticism created immortal works and became our ally in the fight against the anti-humanism of modern bourgeois avant-gardeism.
In interpreting the concept of “romanticism,” it is necessary to distinguish two main, interconnected categories—artistic movement and method.
How artistic direction Romanticism arose at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries and developed in the first half of the 19th century, during a period of acute social conflicts associated with the establishment of the bourgeois system in Western Europe after the French bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794.
Romanticism went through three stages of development - early, mature and late. At the same time, there are significant temporary differences in the development of romanticism in different Western European countries and in different types of art.
The earliest literary schools of romanticism arose in England (the Lake School) and Germany (the Vienna School) at the very end of the 18th century. In painting, romanticism originated in Germany (F. O. Runge, K. D. Friedrich), although its true homeland is France: it was here that the general battle of classicist painting was fought by the heralds of romanticism, Kernko and Delacroix. In music, romanticism received its earliest expression in Germany and Austria (Hoffmann, Weber, Schubert). Its beginning dates back to the second decade XIX century.
If the romantic trend in literature and painting basically completes its development by mid-19th centuries, then life musical romanticism in the same countries (Germany, France, Austria) it is much longer. In the 30s, he entered only the time of his maturity, and after the revolution of 1848-1849, his last stage began, lasting approximately until the 80-90s (late Liszt, Wagner, Brahms; the work of Bruckner, early Mahler). In some national schools, for example in Norway and Finland, the 90s constituted the culmination of the development of romanticism (Grieg, Sibelius).
Each of these stages has its own significant differences. Particularly significant changes occurred in late romanticism—in its most complex and contradictory period, marked simultaneously by new achievements and the emergence of moments of crisis.
The most important socio-historical prerequisite for the emergence of the romantic movement was the dissatisfaction of various strata of society with the results of the French Revolution of 1789-1794, with that bourgeois reality, which turned out to be, according to F. Engels’ definition, “a caricature of the brilliant promises of the Enlightenment.” Speaking about the ideological atmosphere in Europe during the period of the emergence of romanticism, Marx in his famous letter to Engels (dated March 25, 1868) notes: “The first reaction to the French Revolution and the Enlightenment associated with it, naturally, was to see everything in the medieval, romantic light, and even people like Grimm are not free from this." In the quoted passage, Marx speaks of the first reaction to the French Revolution and the Enlightenment, which corresponds to the initial stage in the development of romanticism, when reactionary elements were strong in it (Marx associates the second reaction, as is known, with the direction of bourgeois socialism). They expressed themselves most actively in the idealistic premises of philosophical and literary romanticism in Germany (for example, among representatives of the Viennese school - Schelling, Novalis, Schleiermacher, Wackenroder, the Schlegel brothers) with its cult of the Middle Ages and Christianity. The idealization of medieval feudal relations is inherent in literary romanticism in other countries (the Lake School in England. Chateaubriand, de Maistre in France). However, it would be incorrect to extend the above statement of Marx to all movements of romanticism (for example, revolutionary romanticism). Generated by enormous social upheavals, romanticism was not, and could not be, a single movement. It developed in the struggle of opposing tendencies - progressive and reactionary.
A vivid picture of the era and its spiritual contradictions was recreated in the novel “Goya or the Hard Path of Knowledge” by L. Feuchtwanger:
“Humanity is tired of passionate efforts to create in an extremely short time new order. At the cost of the greatest effort, peoples tried to subordinate public life to the dictates of reason. Now their nerves gave way, people ran back from the blinding bright light of the mind - into the twilight of feelings. All over the world the old reactionary ideas were being uttered again. From the coldness of thought, everyone strived for the warmth of faith, piety, and sensitivity. Romantics dreamed of a revival of the Middle Ages, poets cursed a clear sunny day, and admired the magical light of the moon.” Such is the spiritual atmosphere in which the reactionary movement within Romanticism matured, the atmosphere that gave rise to such typical works as Chateaubrnac's story "René" or Novalis's novel "Heinrich von Ofterdingen." However, “new ideas, clear and precise, already dominated the minds,” continues Feuchtwanger, “and it was impossible to uproot them. Privileges, hitherto unshakable, were shaken, absolutism, the divine origin of power, class and caste differences, the preferential rights of the church and the nobility - everything was questioned.”
A. M. Gorky correctly emphasizes the fact that romanticism is a product of the transitional era; he characterizes it as “a complex and always more or less unclear reflection of all the shades, feelings and moods that embrace society in transitional eras, but its main note is the expectation of what something new, anxiety before the new, a hasty, nervous desire to learn this new.”
Romanticism is often defined as a rebellion against the bourgeois enslavement of the human person and is rightly associated with the idealization of non-capitalist forms of life. It is from here that the progressive and reactionary utopias of romanticism are born. An acute sense of the negative aspects and contradictions of the emerging bourgeois society, a protest against the transformation of people into “mercenaries of industry”3 was strong point romanticism.! “Awareness of the contradictions of capitalism puts them (the romantics - N.N.) above the blind optimists who deny these contradictions,” wrote V.I. Lenin.
Different attitudes towards ongoing social processes, towards the struggle between the new and the old, gave rise to deeply fundamental differences in the very essence of the romantic ideal, in the ideological orientation of artists of different romantic movements. Literary criticism distinguishes between progressive and revolutionary movements in romanticism, on the one hand, and reactionary and conservative movements, on the other. Emphasizing the opposition of these two movements in romanticism, Gorky calls them “active; and "passive". The first of them “seeks to strengthen a person’s will to live, to arouse in him a rebellion against reality, against all its oppression.” The second, on the contrary, “tries to either reconcile a person with reality, embellishing it, or to distract him from reality.” After all, the romantics' dissatisfaction with reality was twofold. “Discord is different from discord,” Pisarev wrote on this occasion. “My dream can overtake the natural course of events, or it can go completely to the side, to where no natural course of events can ever come.” The criticism expressed by Lenin addressed economic romanticism: “The plans of romanticism are portrayed as very easy to implement precisely because of that ignorance of real interests, which is the essence of romanticism.”
Differentiating the positions of economic romanticism, criticizing Sismondi’s projects, V.I. Lenin spoke positively about such progressive representatives of utopian socialism as Owen, Fourier, Thompson: “These writers anticipated the future, brilliantly guessed the trends and tone of the “breaking” that the former was undergoing before their eyes machine industry. They looked in the same direction where actual development was going; they really were ahead of this development.”3 This statement can also be applied to progressive, primarily revolutionary, romantics in art, among whom the figures of Byron, Shelley, Hugo, and Manzoni stood out in the literature of the first half of the 19th century.
Of course, living creative practice is more complex and richer than the scheme of two currents. Each movement had its own dialectic of contradictions. In music, such differentiation is especially difficult and hardly applicable.
The heterogeneity of romanticism was sharply revealed in its attitude towards the Enlightenment. Romanticism's reaction to enlightenment was by no means direct and one-sidedly negative. The attitude towards the ideas of the French Revolution and the Enlightenment was the point of collision between different directions of romanticism. This was clearly expressed, for example, in the contrast to the positions of the English romantics. While the poets of the Lake School (Coleridge, Wordsworth and others) rejected the philosophy of the Enlightenment and the traditions of classicism associated with it, the revolutionary romantics Shelley and Byron defended the idea of the French Revolution of 1789-1794, and in their work followed the traditions of heroic citizenship, typical for revolutionary classicism.
In Germany, the most important link between Enlightenment classicism and romanticism was the Sturm und Drang movement, which prepared the aesthetics and images of German literary (partly musical - early Schubert) romanticism. Enlightenment ideas are heard in a number of journalistic, philosophical and artistic works of German romantics. Thus, “Hymn to Humanity” by Fr. Hölderlin, an admirer of Schiller, was a poetic adaptation of Rousseau’s ideas. The ideas of the French Revolution are defended in his early article “Georg Forster” by Fr. Schlegel, the Jena romantics highly valued Goethe. In the philosophy and aesthetics of Schelling, then generally recognized as the head of the romantic school, there are connections with Kant and Fichte.
In the work of the Austrian playwright, a contemporary of Beethoven and Schubert, Grillparzer, romantic and classicist elements (appeal to antiquity) were closely intertwined. At the same time, Novalis, called by Goethe “the emperor of romanticism,” writes treatises and novels that are sharply hostile to Enlightenment ideology (“Christianity or Europe,” “Heinrich von Ofterdingen”).
In musical romanticism, especially Austrian and German, the continuity from classical art is clearly visible. It is known how significant the connections of the early romantics - Schubert, Hoffmann, Weber - with the Viennese classical school (especially with Mozart and Beethoven) were. They are not lost, but in some ways become stronger later (Schumann, Mendelssohn), right up to his late stage (Wagner, Brahms, Bruckner).
At the same time, progressive romantics opposed academicism, expressed acute dissatisfaction with the dogmatic provisions of classicist aesthetics, and criticized the schematism and one-sidedness of the rationalist method. The greatest opposition to French classicism of the 17th century was marked by the development of French art in the first third of the 19th century (although here, too, romanticism and classicism crossed, for example, in the work of Berlioz). The polemical works of Hugo and Stendhal, the statements of George Sand, and Delacroix are permeated with heated criticism of the aesthetics of classicism of both the 17th and 18th centuries. For writers, it is directed against the rational-conventional principles of classicist drama (in particular, against the unity of time, place and action), the immutable distinction between genres and aesthetic categories (for example, the sublime and the ordinary), and the limitations of the spheres of reality that can be reflected by art. In their desire to show all the contradictory versatility of life, to connect its most diverse aspects, the romantics turn to Shakespeare as an aesthetic ideal.
The dispute with the aesthetics of classicism, going in different directions and with varying degrees of severity, also characterizes the literary movement in other countries (in England, Germany, Poland, Italy, and very clearly in Russia).
One of the most important incentives for the development of progressive romanticism was the national liberation movement awakened by the French Revolution, on the one hand, and the Napoleonic Wars, on the other. It gave rise to such valuable aspirations of romanticism as interest in national history, the heroism of popular movements, the national element and folk art. All this inspired the struggle for national opera in Germany (Weber) and determined the revolutionary-patriotic orientation of romanticism in Italy, Poland, and Hungary.
The romantic movement that swept the countries of Western Europe and the development of national romantic schools in the first half of the 19th century gave an unprecedented impetus to the collection, study and artistic development of folklore - literary and musical. German romantic writers, continuing the traditions of Herder and the Sturmers, collected and published monuments of folk art - songs, ballads, fairy tales. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the collection “The Wonderful Horn of the Boy,” compiled by L. I. Arnim and C. Brentano, for further development German poetry and music. In music, this influence extends throughout the 19th century, right up to the song cycles and symphonies of Mahler. Gatherers folk tales the brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm did a lot to study German mythology and medieval literature, laying the foundation for scientific German studies.
In the field of development of Scottish folklore, the great merits of W. Scott, the Polish - A. Mickiewicz and J. Slovacki. In musical folkloristics, which was at the cradle of its development at the beginning of the 19th century, the names of composers G. I. Vogler (teacher of K. M. Weber) in Germany, O. Kohlberg in Poland, A. Horvath in Hungary, etc. are put forward.
It is known what fertile soil folk music provided for such clearly national composers as Weber, Schubert, Chopin, Schumann, Liszt, Brahms. Appeal to this “inexhaustible treasury of melodies” (Schumann), a deep comprehension of the spirit of folk music, genre and intonation principles determined the power of artistic generalization, democracy, and the enormous universal impact of the art of these romantic musicians.
Like any artistic movement, romanticism is based on a specific creative method peculiar to it, typical of this direction principles of artistic representation of reality, approach to it, understanding of it. These principles are determined by the artist’s worldview, his position in relation to contemporary social processes (although, of course, the connection between the artist’s worldview and creativity is by no means direct).
Without touching on the essence of the romantic method for now, we note that certain aspects of it find expression in later (relative to the movement) historical periods. However, going beyond the specific historical direction, it would be more accurate to talk about romantic traditions, continuity, influences, or about romance as an expression of a certain elevated emotional tone associated with a thirst for beauty, with the desire to “live tenfold life”
So, for example, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the revolutionary romanticism of early Gorky flared up in Russian literature; the romance of dreams, poetic fantasy determines the originality of A. Green’s work and finds its expression in the early Paustovsky. In Russian music of the early 20th century features of romanticism, which at this stage merges with symbolism, marks the work of Scriabin and the early Myaskovsky. In this regard, it is worth recalling Blok, who believed that symbolism is “connected with romanticism more deeply than all other movements.”
In Western European music, the line of development of romanticism in the 19th century was continuous until its later manifestations, such as the last symphonies of Bruckner, early work Mahler (late 80s-90s), some symphonic poems by R. Strauss (“Death and Enlightenment”, 1889; “Thus Spoke Zarathustra”, 1896) and others.
In the characteristics artistic method Romanticism usually involves many factors, but they cannot give an exhaustive definition. There is debate about whether it is even possible to give a general definition of the method of romanticism, because, indeed, it is necessary to take into account not only the opposing trends in romanticism, but also the specifics of the art form, time, national school, and creative individuality.
And yet, I think, it is possible to generalize the most significant features of the romantic method as a whole, otherwise it would be impossible to talk about it as a method at all1. It is very important to take into account the complex of defining features, since, taken separately, they may be present in another creative method.
Belinsky has a general definition of the two most essential aspects of the romantic method. “In its closest and most essential meaning, romanticism is nothing more than the inner world of a person’s soul, the innermost life of his heart,” writes Belinsky, noting the subjective and lyrical nature of romanticism, its psychological orientation. Developing this definition, the critic clarifies: “Its sphere, as we said, is the entire inner soulful life of a person, that mysterious soil of the soul and heart, from where all vague aspirations for the better and sublime rise, trying to find satisfaction in the ideals created by fantasy.” This is one of the main features of romanticism.
Another fundamental feature of it is defined by Belinsky as “a deep internal discord with reality.” II, although Belinsky gave a sharply critical shade to the last definition (the desire of the romantics to go “past life”), he puts the right emphasis on the conflictual perception of the world by the romantics, the principle of contrasting the desired and the actual, caused by the conditions of the very social life of the top era.
Similar provisions were found earlier in Hegel: “The world of the soul triumphs over outside world. and as a result, the sensory phenomenon is devalued.” Hegel notes the gap between desire and action, the “longing of the soul for the ideal” instead of action and implementation4.
It is interesting that A. V. Schlegel came to a similar characterization of romanticism, but from a different perspective. Comparing ancient and modern art, he defined Greek poetry as the poetry of joy and possession, capable of concretely expressing the ideal, and romantic poetry as the poetry of melancholy and longing, unable to embody the ideal in its desire for the infinite5. From this follows the difference in the character of the hero: the ancient ideal of man is internal harmony, the romantic hero is internal duality.
So, the desire for the ideal and the gap between dream and reality, dissatisfaction with the existing and the expression of a positive principle through images of the ideal, the desired - another important feature of the romantic method.
The promotion of the subjective factor constitutes one of the defining differences between romanticism and realism. Romanticism “hypertrophied the individual, the individual, and imparted universality to his inner world, tearing him off from the objective world,” writes Soviet literary critic B. Suchkov
However, one should not elevate the subjectivity of the romantic method to an absolute and deny its ability to generalize and typify, that is, ultimately, to objectively reflect reality. The very interest of the romantics in history is significant in this regard. “Romanticism not only reflected the changes that occurred after the revolution in public consciousness. Sensing and conveying the mobility of life, its variability, as well as the mobility of human feelings, changing with the changes taking place in the world, romanticism inevitably resorted to history when defining and comprehending the prospects for social progress.”
The setting and background of action appear brightly and in a new way in romantic art, constituting, in particular, a very important expressive element of the musical image of many romantic composers, starting with Hoffmann, Schubert and Weber.
The conflictual perception of the world by the romantics is expressed in the principle of polar antitheses, or “two worlds.” It is expressed in polarity, two-dimensionality of dramatic contrasts (real - fantastic, man - the world around him), in a sharp comparison of aesthetic categories (sublime and everyday, beautiful and terrible, tragic and comic, etc.). It is necessary to emphasize the antinomies of romantic aesthetics itself, in which not only deliberate antitheses operate, but also internal contradictions - contradictions between its materialistic and idealistic elements. This refers, on the one hand, to the sensualism of the romantics, attention to the sensory-material concreteness of the world (this is strongly expressed in music), and on the other hand, the desire for some ideal absolute, abstract categories - “eternal humanity” (Wagner), “eternal femininity” "(Leaf). Romantics strive to reflect the concreteness, individual uniqueness of life phenomena and at the same time their “absolute” essence, often understood in an abstract-idealistic sense. The latter is especially characteristic of literary romanticism and its theory. Life and nature appear here as a reflection of the “infinite,” the fullness of which can only be guessed by the inspired feeling of the poet.
Philosophers and theorists of romanticism consider music to be the most romantic of all arts precisely because, in their opinion, it “has as its subject only the infinite”1. Philosophy, literature and music, as never before, united with each other (a striking example of this is the work of Wagner). Music took one of the leading places in the aesthetic concepts of such idealist philosophers as Schelling, the Schlegel brothers, and Schopenhauer2. However, if literary and philosophical romanticism was most affected by the idealistic theory of art as a reflection of the “infinite”, “divine”, “absolute”, in music we will find, on the contrary, the objectivity of “image”, unprecedented before the romantic era, determined by the characteristic, sound-painted colorfulness of images . The approach to music as a “sensual realization of thought”3 is at the heart of Wagner’s aesthetic principles, who, contrary to his literary predecessors, affirms the sensual concreteness of the musical image.
In assessing life phenomena, romantics are characterized by hyperbolization, expressed in the sharpening of contrasts, in a gravitation towards the exceptional, unusual. “The ordinary is the death of art,” proclaims Hugo. However, in contrast to this, another romantic—Schubert—speaks with his music about “man as he is.” Therefore, to generalize, it is necessary to distinguish at least two types of romantic hero. One of them is an exceptional hero, towering above ordinary people, an internally divided tragic thinker, who often comes to music out of fear; literary works or epics: Faust, Manfred, Childe Harold, Wotan. It is characteristic of mature and especially late musical romanticism (Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner). Another - ordinary person, deeply feeling life, closely connected with the life and nature of his native land. Such is the hero of Schubert, Mendelssohn, partly Schumann, Brahms. Romantic affectation is contrasted here with sincerity, simplicity, and naturalness.
Equally different is the embodiment of nature, its very understanding in romantic art, which devoted enormous space to the theme of nature in its cosmic, natural-philosophical, and, on the other hand, lyrical aspect. Nature is majestic and fantastic in the works of Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner and intimate, hidden in Schubert’s vocal cycles or in Schumann’s miniatures. These differences are also manifested in musical language: the songfulness of Schubert and the pathetically elevated, oratorical melodicism of Liszt or Wagner.
But no matter how different the types of heroes, the range of images, the language, in general, romantic art is distinguished by special attention to the individual, a new approach to it. The problem of the individual in its conflict with the environment is fundamental to romanticism. This is precisely what Gorky emphasizes when he says that the main theme literature of the 19th century century, “the individual in its opposition to society, the state, nature” appeared, “the drama of a person to whom life seems cramped.” Belinsky writes about this in connection with Byron: “This is a human personality, indignant against the common and, in its proud rebellion, leaning on itself”2. With great dramatic force, the romantics expressed the process of alienation of the human personality in bourgeois society. Romanticism illuminated new aspects of the human psyche. He embodied personality in its most intimate, psychologically multifaceted manifestations. The romantics, due to the revelation of their individuality, appear to be more complex and contradictory than in the art of classicism.
Romantic art generalized many typical phenomena of its era, especially in the field of human spiritual life. IN different options and decisions is embodied in romantic literature and music “the confession of the son of the century” - sometimes elegiac, like Musset, sometimes heightened to the point of grotesque (Berlioz), sometimes philosophical (Liszt, Wagner), sometimes passionately rebellious (Schumann) or modest and at the same time tragic (Schubert). But in each of them the leitmotif of unfulfilled aspirations sounds, “the melancholy of human desires,” as Wagner said, caused by rejection of bourgeois reality and the thirst for “true humanity.” The lyrical drama of personality essentially turns into a social theme.
The central point in romantic aesthetics was the idea of a synthesis of arts, which played a huge positive role in the development of artistic thinking. In contrast to classicist aesthetics, romantics argue that not only are there no uncrossable boundaries between the arts, but, on the contrary, there are deep connections and commonality. “The aesthetics of one art is also the aesthetics of another; only the material is different,” wrote Schumann4. He saw in F. Rückert “the greatest musician of words and thoughts” and strove in his songs to “convey the thoughts of the poem almost word for word”2. In his piano cycles, Schumann introduced not only the spirit of romantic poetry, but also forms, compositional techniques - contrasts, interruption of narrative plans, characteristic of Hoffmann's short stories. II, on the contrary, in Hoffmann’s literary works one can feel “the birth of poetry from the spirit of music”3.
Romantics of different directions come to the idea of a synthesis of arts from opposite positions. For some, mainly philosophers and theorists of romanticism, it arises on an idealistic basis, on the idea of art as an expression of the universe, the absolute, that is, a certain unified and infinite essence of the world. For others, the idea of synthesis arises as a result of the desire to expand the boundaries of the content of an artistic image, to reflect life in all its multifaceted manifestations, that is, essentially, on a real basis. This is the position, the creative practice of the greatest artists of the era. Putting forward the well-known thesis about theater as a “concentrated mirror of life,” Hugo argued: “Everything that exists in history, in life, in man, should and can find its reflection in it (in the theater. - N.N.), but only with the help of the magic wand of art."
The idea of a synthesis of arts is closely connected with the interpenetration of various genres—epic, drama, lyric poetry—and aesthetic categories (sublime, comic, etc.). The ideal of modern literature becomes “drama that fuses in one breath the grotesque and the sublime, the terrible and the clownish, tragedy and comedy.”
In music, the idea of a synthesis of arts was especially actively and consistently developed in the field of opera. The aesthetics of the creators of German romantic opera - Hoffmann and Weber, and the reform of Wagner's musical drama are based on this idea. On the same basis (synthesis of arts) the program music of the romantics developed, such a major achievement of the musical culture of the 19th century as program symphonism.
Thanks to this synthesis, the expressive sphere of music itself expanded and enriched. For the premise about the primacy of the word, poetry in a synthetic work does not at all lead to a secondary, complementary function of music. On the contrary, in the works of Weber, Wagner, Berlioz, Liszt and Schumann, music was the most powerful and effective factor, capable in its own way, in its “natural” forms, of embodying what literature and painting bring with it. “Music is the sensual realization of thought” - this thesis of Wagner has a broad meaning. Here we come to the problem of second-order s and n-thesis, an internal synthesis based on the new quality of musical imagery in romantic art. With their creativity, the romantics showed that music itself, expanding its aesthetic boundaries, is capable of embodying not only a generalized feeling, mood, idea, but also “translating” into its own language with minimal help from words or even without it, images of literature and painting, recreating the course of development of literary plot, to be colorful, picturesque, capable of creating a vivid characteristic, a portrait “sketch” (remember the amazing accuracy of Schumann’s musical portraits) and at the same time not losing its fundamental property of an expresser of feelings.
This was realized not only by great musicians, but also by writers of that era. Noting the unlimited possibilities of music in revealing the human psyche, Georges Sand, for example, wrote that music “recreates even the appearance of things, without falling into petty sound effects or into a narrow imitation of the noises of reality.”i. The desire to speak and paint with music was the main thing for the creator of the romantic program symphony of Berlioz, about which Sollertinsky so vividly said: “Shakespeare, Goethe, Byron, street battles, orgies of bandits, philosophical monologues of a lonely thinker, the vicissitudes of the secular love story", storms and thunderstorms, the riotous fun of the carnival crowd, performances of farce comedians, funerals of heroes of the revolution, funeral speeches full of pathos - Berlioz strives to translate all this into the language of music." At the same time, Berlioz did not attach such a decisive meaning to the word as it might seem at first glance. “I don’t believe that in terms of strength and power of expression, such arts as painting and even poetry could be equal to music!” - said the composer3. Without this internal synthesis of musical, literary and pictorial principles in the musical work itself, there would not have been Liszt’s program symphony, his philosophical musical poem.
The synthesis of expressive and figurative principles, new in comparison with the classical style, appears in musical romanticism at all its stages as one of specific features. In Schubert's songs, the piano part creates the mood and “outlines” the setting of the action, using the possibilities of musical painting and sound recording. Vivid examples of this are “Margarita at the Spinning Wheel”, “The Forest Tsar”, many of the songs of “The Beautiful Miller’s Woman”, “Winter Retreat”. One of the striking examples of precise and laconic sound recording is the piano part of “The Double.” Picturesque storytelling is characteristic of Schubert's instrumental music, especially his symphony in C major, sonata in B major, and fantasy “The Wanderer.” Schumann’s piano music is permeated with a subtle “sound recording of moods”; it is no coincidence that Stasov saw him as a brilliant portrait painter.
Chopin, like Schubert, alien to literary programming, in his ballads and fantasies in f-minor creates a new type of instrumental drama, which reflects the diversity of content, dramatic action and picturesque imagery characteristic of a literary ballad.
Based on the dramaturgy of antitheses, free and synthetic musical forms arise, characterized by the isolation of contrasting sections within a one-part composition and the continuity and unity of the general line of ideological and figurative development
We are talking, in essence, about the romantic qualities of sonata dramaturgy, a new understanding and application of its dialectical capabilities. In addition to these features, it is important to emphasize the romantic variability of the image, its transformation. The dialectical contrasts of sonata dramaturgy acquired a new meaning among the romantics. They reveal the duality of the romantic worldview, the above-mentioned principle of “two worlds.” This is expressed in the polarity of contrasts, often created by transforming one image (for example, the single substance of Faustian and Mephistophelian principles in Liszt). What is at work here is the factor of a sharp leap, a sudden change (even distortion) of the entire essence of the image, and not the pattern of its development and change, due to the growth of its qualities in the process of interaction of contradictory principles, as in the classics, and above all in Beethoven.
The conflict dramaturgy of the romantics is characterized by its own, typical, direction of development of images - an unprecedented dynamic growth of a bright lyrical image (a side party) and a subsequent dramatic breakdown, a sudden interruption of the line of its development by the invasion of a formidable, tragic beginning. The typicality of such a “situation” becomes obvious if we recall Schubert’s symphony in B minor, Chopin’s sonata in B minor, especially his ballads, the most dramatic works of Tchaikovsky, who with new strength as a realist artist embodied the idea of the conflict between dreams and reality, the tragedy of unfulfilled aspirations in conditions of a cruel reality hostile to man. Of course, one type of romantic drama is highlighted here, but the type is very significant and typical.
Another type of dramaturgy—evolutionary—is associated among the romantics with a subtle nuance of the image, the disclosure of its multifaceted psychological shades and details. Main principle development here is melodic, harmonic, timbre variation, which does not change the essence of the image, the nature of its genre, but shows deep, outwardly subtle processes of mental life, their constant movement, changes, transitions. The song symphony born by Schubert with its lyrical nature is based on this principle.
The originality of Schubert’s method was well defined by Asafiev: “In contrast to the sharply dramatic formation, there are those works (symphonies, sonatas, overtures, symphonic poems) in which a widely developed lyrical song line (not a general theme, but a line) generalizes and smoothes out the constructive sections of the sonata-symphonic allegro. Wave-like rises and falls, dynamic gradations, “swelling” and rarefaction of tissue - in a word, the manifestation of organic life in this kind of “song” sonatas take precedence over oratorical pathos, over sudden contrasts, over dramatic dialogue and the rapid disclosure of ideas. Schubert's Great B-c1ig sonata is a typical example of this trend.”
Not all essential features of the Romantic method and aesthetics can be found in every art form.
If we talk about music, then romantic aesthetics received its most direct expression in opera, as a genre especially closely related to literature. Here, such specific ideas of romanticism as the ideas of fate, redemption, overcoming the curse weighing on the hero, through the power of selfless love (Freischutz, The Flying Dutchman, Tannhäuser) are developed. The plot itself is reflected in the opera romantic literature, the contrast between the real and fantasy worlds. It is here that the fantasy inherent in romantic art and the elements of subjective idealism characteristic of literary romanticism are especially manifested. At the same time, in opera, for the first time, poetry of a folk-national character, cultivated by the romantics, flourishes so brightly.
In instrumental music, a romantic approach to reality is manifested, bypassing the plot (if it is a non-programmatic composition), in the general ideological concept of the work, in the nature of its dramaturgy, embodied emotions, and in the peculiarities of the psychological structure of images. The emotional and psychological tone of romantic music is distinguished by a complex and changeable range of shades, heightened expression, and the unique brightness of each experienced moment. This is embodied in the expansion and individualization of the intonational sphere of romantic melody, in the intensification of the colorful and expressive functions of harmony. The discoveries of romantics in the field of orchestra and instrumental timbres are inexhaustible.
Expressive means, musical “speech” itself and its individual components acquire independent, vividly individual, and sometimes exaggerated development among the romantics1. The importance of phonism itself, colorfulness, and characteristic sound is increasing enormously, especially in the field of harmonic and textural-timbre means. The concepts of not only leitmotif appear, but also leitharmony (for example, the stristan chord in Wagner), leittimbre (one of the striking examples is the symphony “Harold in Italy” by Berlioz).
Proportional ratio elements of musical language, observed in the classical style, give way to a tendency towards autonomy (this tendency will be exaggerated in the music of the 20th century). On the other hand, among romantics, synthesis intensifies - the connection between the components of the whole, mutual enrichment, mutual influence expressive means. New types of melody arise, born from harmony, and, conversely, harmony is melodized, saturated with non-chord tones, aggravating melodic tendencies. A classic example of a mutually enriching synthesis of melody and harmony is the style of Chopin, about which, to paraphrase the words of R. Rolland about Beethoven, we can say that this is the absolute of melody, filled to the brim with harmony.
The interaction of opposing tendencies (autonomization and synthesis) covers all spheres - both musical language and the form of the romantics, who created new Liubi of free and synthetic forms on the basis of sonatas.
Comparing musical romanticism with literary romanticism in their meaning for our time, it is important to emphasize the special vitality and unfading of the first. After all, romanticism is especially strong in expressing the richness of emotional life, and this is precisely what music is most susceptible to. Therefore, the differentiation of romanticism not only by trends and national schools, but also by types of art is an important methodological point in revealing the problem of romanticism and in its assessment.
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Zweig was right: Europe has not seen such a wonderful generation as the romantics since the Renaissance. Marvelous images of the dream world, naked feelings and the desire for sublime spirituality - these are the colors that paint the musical culture of romanticism.
The emergence of romanticism and its aesthetics
While the industrial revolution was taking place in Europe, the hopes placed on the Great French Revolution were crushed in the hearts of Europeans. The cult of reason, proclaimed by the Age of Enlightenment, was overthrown. The cult of feelings and the natural principle in man has ascended to the pedestal.
This is how romanticism appeared. In musical culture it existed for a little more than a century (1800-1910), while in related fields (painting and literature) its term expired half a century earlier. Perhaps music is “to blame” for this - it was music that was at the top among the arts among the romantics as the most spiritual and freest of the arts.
However, the romantics, unlike representatives of the eras of antiquity and classicism, did not build a hierarchy of arts with its clear division into types and. The romantic system was universal; the arts could freely transform into each other. The idea of a synthesis of arts was one of the key ones in the musical culture of romanticism.
This relationship also concerned the categories of aesthetics: the beautiful was combined with the ugly, the high with the base, the tragic with the comic. Such transitions were connected by romantic irony, which also reflected a universal picture of the world.
Everything that had to do with beauty took on a new meaning among the romantics. Nature became an object of worship, the artist was idolized as the highest of mortals, and feelings were exalted over reason.
Spiritless reality was contrasted with a dream, beautiful but unattainable. The romantic, with the help of his imagination, built his new world, unlike other realities.
What themes did Romantic artists choose?
The interests of the romantics were clearly manifested in the choice of themes they chose in art.
- Theme of loneliness. An underrated genius or a lonely person in society - these were the main themes among composers of this era (“The Love of a Poet” by Schumann, “Without the Sun” by Mussorgsky).
- Theme of "lyrical confession". In many opuses of romantic composers there is a touch of autobiography (“Carnival” by Schumann, “Symphony Fantastique” by Berlioz).
- Theme of love. Basically, this is the theme of unrequited or tragic love, but not necessarily (“Love and Life of a Woman” by Schumann, “Romeo and Juliet” by Tchaikovsky).
- Theme of the path. She is also called theme of wanderings. The romantic soul, torn by contradictions, was looking for its path (“Harold in Italy” by Berlioz, “The Years of Wandering” by Liszt).
- Theme of death. Basically it was spiritual death (Tchaikovsky's Sixth Symphony, Schubert's Winterreise).
- Nature theme. Nature in the eyes of romance and a protective mother, and an empathetic friend, and punishing fate (“The Hebrides” by Mendelssohn, “In Central Asia” by Borodin). The cult of the native land (polonaises and ballads of Chopin) is also connected with this theme.
- Fantasy theme. The imaginary world for romantics was much richer than the real one (“The Magic Shooter” by Weber, “Sadko” by Rimsky-Korsakov).
Musical genres of the Romantic era
The musical culture of romanticism gave impetus to the development of the genres of chamber vocal lyrics: ballad("The Forest King" by Schubert), poem("Maid of the Lake" by Schubert) and songs, often combined into cycles("Myrtles" by Schumann).
Romantic opera was distinguished not only by the fantastic nature of the plot, but also by the strong connection between words, music and stage action. The opera is being symphonized. Suffice it to recall Wagner’s “Ring of the Nibelungs” with its developed network of leitmotifs.
Among the instrumental genres of romance are piano miniature. To convey one image or a moment's mood, a short play is enough for them. Despite its scale, the play bubbles with expression. She might be "song without Words" (like Mendelssohn) mazurka, waltz, nocturne or pieces with programmatic titles (“The Rush” by Schumann).
Like songs, plays are sometimes combined into cycles (“Butterflies” by Schumann). At the same time, the parts of the cycle, brightly contrasting, always formed a single composition due to musical connections.
The Romantics loved program music, which combined it with literature, painting or other arts. Therefore, the plot in their works was often controlled. One-movement sonatas (Liszt's B minor sonata), one-movement concertos (Liszt's First Piano Concerto) and symphonic poems (Liszt's Preludes), and a five-movement symphony (Berlioz's Symphony Fantastique) appeared.
The musical language of romantic composers
The synthesis of arts, praised by the romantics, influenced the means musical expressiveness. The melody has become more individual, sensitive to the poetics of the word, and the accompaniment has ceased to be neutral and typical in texture.
The harmony was enriched with unprecedented colors to tell about the experiences of the romantic hero. Thus, the romantic intonations of languor perfectly conveyed altered harmonies that increased tension. Romantics loved the effect of chiaroscuro, when the major was replaced by the minor of the same name, and the chords of the side steps, and the beautiful comparisons of tonalities. New effects were also discovered in, especially when it was necessary to convey in music folk spirit or fantastic images.
In general, the melody of the romantics strived for continuity of development, rejected any automatic repetition, avoided regularity of accents and breathed expressiveness in each of its motives. And texture has become such an important link that its role is comparable to the role of melody.
Listen to what a wonderful mazurka Chopin has!
Instead of a conclusion
The musical culture of romanticism at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries experienced the first signs of crisis. The “free” musical form began to disintegrate, harmony prevailed over melody, the sublime feelings of the romantic soul gave way to painful fear and base passions.
These destructive trends brought Romanticism to an end and opened the way for Modernism. But, having ended as a movement, romanticism continued to live both in the music of the 20th century and in the music of the current century in its various components. Blok was right when he said that romanticism arises “in all eras of human life.”
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1 PROGRAM - MINIMUM candidate exam in the specialty "Musical Art" in art history Introduction The program involves testing the knowledge of graduate students and candidates for the academic degree of candidate of sciences regarding the achievements and problems of modern musicology, in-depth knowledge of the theory and history of music, orientation in the problems of modern musicology, mastering the skills of independent analysis and systematization of material, mastering research methods and skills of scientific thinking and scientific generalization. The candidate minimum is designed for conservatory graduates with a basic education. An important place in the training of scientific and creative personnel is given to familiarization with the problems of modern musicology (including interdisciplinary), in-depth study of the history and theory of music, including such disciplines as analysis musical forms, harmony, polyphony, history of Russian and foreign music. A worthy place in the program is given to the problems of creating, preserving and distributing music, issues of profiling the scientific research of graduate students (applicants), their scientific views and interests related to the topic of the dissertation. Postgraduate students (applicants) taking an exam in this specialty are also required to master special concepts of musicology, which make it possible to use concepts and provisions that are new to them in scientific and creative activities. An important factor in the requirements is mastery of modern research technologies, the ability to use theoretical material in practical (performing, teaching, scientific) activities. The requirement factor is mastery of modern research technologies, the ability to use theoretical material in practical (performing, teaching, scientific) activities. The program was developed by the Astrakhan Conservatory on the basis of the minimum program of the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory, approved by the expert council of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education of Russia in philology and art history. QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAM: 1. Theory of musical intonation. 2. Classic style in the music of the 18th century. 3. Theory of musical dramaturgy. 4. Musical baroque. 5. Methodology and theory of folklore.
2 6. Romanticism. His general and musical aesthetics. 7. Genre in music. 8. Artistic and stylistic processes in Western European music of the second half of the 19th century. 9. Style in music. Polystylistics. 10. Mozartianism in the music of the 19th and 20th centuries. 11. Theme and thematism in music. 12. Imitation forms of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. 13. Fugue: concept, genesis, typology of form. 14. Mussorgsky’s traditions in Russian music of the twentieth century. 15. Ostinata and ostinato forms in music. 16. Mythopoetics of Rimsky-Korsakov’s operatic creativity. 17. Musical rhetoric and its manifestation in the music of the 19th and 20th centuries. 18. Stylistic processes in the musical art of the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. 19. Modality. Modus. Modal technique. Modal music of the Middle Ages and the 20th century. 20. “Faustian” theme in music of the 19th and 20th centuries. 21. Series. Serial technology. Seriality. 22. Music of the twentieth century in the light of the ideas of synthesis of arts. 23. Opera genre and its typology. 24. The genre of the symphony and its typology. 25. Expressionism in music. 26. Theory of functions in musical form and harmony. 27. Stylistic processes in Russian music of the second half of the twentieth century. 28. Characteristic features of the sound organization of music of the twentieth century. 29. Artistic trends in Russian music of the 20th century. 30. Harmony in music of the 19th century. 31. Shostakovich in the context of the musical culture of the twentieth century. 32. Modern musical theoretical systems. 33. Creativity of I.S. Bach and his historical meaning. 34. The problem of classifying chord material in modern music theories. 35. Symphony in modern Russian music. 36. Problems of tonality in modern musicology. 37. Stravinsky in the context of the era. 38. Folklorism in the music of the twentieth century. 39. Word and music. 40. Main trends in Russian music of the 19th century.
3 REFERENCES: Recommended basic literature 1. Alshvang A.A. Selected works in 2 vols. M., 1964, Alshvang A.A. Chaikovsky. M., Ancient aesthetics. Introductory essay and collection of texts by A.F. Losev. M., Anton Webern. Lectures on music. Letters. M., Aranovsky M.G. Musical text: structure, properties. M., Aranovsky M.G. Thinking, language, semantics. //Problems of musical thinking. M., Aranovsky M.G. Symphonic quests. L., Asafiev B.V. Selected works, volume M., Asafiev B.V. A book about Stravinsky. L., Asafiev B.V. Musical form as a process, book. 12 (). L., Asafiev B.V. Russian music of the 19th and early 20th centuries. L., Asafiev B.V. Symphonic etudes. L., Aslanishvili Sh. Principles of shape formation in the fugues of J. S. Bach. Tbilisi, Balakirev M.A. Memories. Letters. L., Balakirev M.A. Research. Articles. L., Balakirev M.V. and V.V. Stasov. Correspondence. M., 1970, Barenboim L.A. A.G. Rubinstein. L., 1957, Barsova I.L. Essays on the history of score notation (XVI - first half of the XVIII century). M., Bela Bartok. Sat.Articles. M., Belyaev V.M. Mussorgsky. Scriabin. Stravinsky. M., Bershadskaya T.S. Lectures on harmony. L., Bobrovsky V.P. On the variability of the functions of musical form. M., Bobrovsky V.P. Functional foundations of musical form. M., Bogatyrev S.S. Double canon. M. L., Bogatyrev S.S. Reversible counterpoint. M.L., Borodin A.P. Letters. M., Vasina-Grossman V.A. Russian classical romance. M., Volman B.L. Russian printed music of the 18th century. L., Memoirs of Rachmaninov. In 2 vols. M., Vygotsky L.S. Psychology of art. M., Glazunov A.K. Musical heritage. In 2 vols. L., 1959, 1960.
4 32. Glinka M.I. Literary heritage. M., 1973, 1975, Glinka M.I. Collection of materials and articles / Ed. Livanova T.M.-L., Gnesin M. Thoughts and memories of N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. M., Gozenpud A.A. Musical theater in Russia. From the origins to Glinka. L., Gozenpud A.A. N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Themes and ideas of his operatic work. 37. Gozenpud A.A. Russian Opera House of the 19th and early 20th centuries. L., Grigoriev S.S. Theoretical course of harmony. M., Gruber R.I. History of musical culture. Volume 1 2. M. L., Gulyanitskaya N.S. Introduction to modern harmony. M., Danilevich L. The last operas of Rimsky-Korsakov. M., Dargomyzhsky A.S. Autobiography. Letters. Memories. Pg., Dargomyzhsky A.S. Selected letters. M., Dianin S.A. Borodin. M., Diletsky N.P. The idea of a Musikian grammar. M., Dmitriev A. Polyphony as a factor in shaping. L., Documents of the life and work of Johann Sebastian Bach. / Comp. H.-J. Schulze; lane with him. and comment. V.A.Erokhina. M., Dolzhansky A.N. On the modal basis of Shostakovich's works. (1947) // Features of the style of D. D. Shostakovich. M., Druskin M.S. About Western European music of the twentieth century. M., Evdokimova Yu.K. History of polyphony. Issues I, II-a. M., 1983, Evdokimova Yu.K., Simakova N.A. Music of the Renaissance (cantus firmus and work with it). M., Evseev S. Russian folk polyphony. M., Zhitomirsky D.V. Ballets by Tchaikovsky. M., Zaderatsky V. Polyphonic thinking of I. Stravinsky. M., Zaderatsky V. Polyphony in the instrumental works of D. Shostakovich. M., Zakharova O. Musical rhetoric. M., Ivanov Boretsky M.V. Musical-historical anthology. Issue 1-2. M., History of polyphony: in 7 issues. You.2. Dubrovskaya T.N. M., History of Russian music in materials / Ed. K.A. Kuznetsova. M., History of Russian music. In 10 vols. M.,
5 61. Kazantseva L.P. Author in musical content. M., Kazantseva L.P. Fundamentals of the theory of musical content. Astrakhan, Kandinsky A.I. From the history of Russian symphonism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries // From the history of Russian and Soviet music, vol. 1. M., Kandinsky A.I. Monuments of Russian musical culture (choral works a capella by Rachmaninov) // Soviet music, 1968, Karatygin V.G. Selected articles. M.L., Catuar G.L. Theoretical course of harmony, part 1 2. M., Keldysh Yu.V. Essays and studies on the history of Russian music. M., Kirillina L.V. Classical style in music of the 18th and early 19th centuries: 69. Self-awareness of the era and musical practice. M., Kirnarskaya D.K. Musical perception. M., Claude Debussy. Articles, reviews, conversations. / Per. from French M. L., Kogan G. Questions of pianism. M., Kon Yu. On the issue of the concept of “musical language”. //From Lully to the present day. M., Konen V.D. Theater and symphony. M., Korchinsky E.N. On the question of the theory of canonical imitation. L., Korykhalova N.P. Interpretation of music. L., Kuznetsov I.K. Theoretical basis polyphony of the twentieth century. M., Course E. Fundamentals of linear counterpoint. M., Kurt E. Romantic harmony and its crisis in Wagner’s “Tristan”, M., Kushnarev Kh.S. Questions of history and theory of Armenian monodic music. L., Kushnarev Kh.S. About polyphony. M., Cui C. Selected articles. L., Lavrentyeva I.V. Vocal forms in the course of analysis of musical works. M., Laroche G.A. Selected articles. In 5 issue. L., Levaya T. Russian music of the late XIX - early XX centuries in the artistic 86. context of the era. M., Livanova T.N. Bach's musical dramaturgy and its historical connections. M. L., Livanova T.N., Protopopov V.V. M.I.Glinka, t M.,
6 89. Lobanova M. Western European musical Baroque: problems of aesthetics and poetics. M., Losev A.F. On the concept of the artistic canon // The problem of the canon in ancient and medieval art of Asia and Africa. M., Losev A.F., Shestakov V.P. History of aesthetic categories. M., Lotman Yu.M. Canonical art as an information paradox. // The problem of the canon in ancient and medieval art of Asia and Africa. M., Lyadov An.K. Life. Portrait. Creation. Pg Mazel L.A. Questions of music analysis. M., Mazel L.A. About the melody. M., Mazel L.A. Problems of classical harmony. M., Mazel L.A., Tsukkerman V.A. Analysis of musical works. M., Medushevsky V.V. Intonation form of music. M., Medushevsky V.V. Musical style as a semiotic object. //SM Medushevsky V.V. On the laws and means of the artistic influence of music. M., Medtner N. Muse and fashion. Paris, 1935, reprint Medtner N. Letters. M., Medtner N. Articles. Materials. Memoirs / Comp. Z. Apetyan. M., Milka A. Theoretical foundations of functionality. L., Mikhailov M.K. Style in music. L., Music and musical life of old Russia / Ed. Asafieva. L Musical culture ancient world/ Ed. R.I. Gruber. L., Musical aesthetics Germany XIX V. / Comp. Al.V. Mikhailov. In 2 vols. M., Musical aesthetics of the Western European Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Compiled by V.P. Shestakov. M., Musical aesthetics of France in the 19th century. M., Tchaikovsky's musical heritage. M., Musical content: science and pedagogy. Ufa, Mussorgsky M.P. Literary heritage. M., Muller T. Polyphony. M., Myaskovsky N. Musical and critical articles: in 2 vols. M., Myasoedov A.N. On the harmony of classical music (the roots of national specificity). M., 1998.
7 117. Nazaykinsky E.V. The logic of musical composition. M., Nazaykinsky E.V. On the psychology of musical perception. M., Nikolaeva N.S. "Das Rheingold" is a prologue to Wagner's concept of the universe. // 120. Problems of romantic music of the 19th century. M., Nikolaeva N.S. Symphonies by Tchaikovsky. M., Nosina V.B. Symbolism of J. S. Bach's music and its interpretation in the “Well 123. tempered clavier”. M., About Rachmaninov’s symphony and his poem “Bells” // Soviet music, 1973, 4, 6, Odoevsky V.F. Musical and literary heritage. M., Pavchinsky S.E. Scriabin's works of the late period. M., Paisov Yu.I. Polytonality in the works of Soviet and foreign composers of the twentieth century. M., In memory of S.I. Taneev. M., Prout E. Fuga. M., Protopopov V.V. "Ivan Susanin" by Glinka. M., Protopopov V.V. Essays on the history of instrumental forms of the 16th and early 19th centuries. M., Protopopov V.V. Principles of musical form by J. S. Bach. M., Protopopov V.V., Tumanina N.V. Opera creativity Tchaikovsky. M., Rabinovich A.S. Russian opera before Glinka. M., Rachmaninov S.V. Literary heritage / Comp. Z.Apetyan M., Riemann H. Simplified harmony or the doctrine of tonal functions of chords. M., Rimsky-Korsakov A.N. N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Life and art. M., Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. Memoirs of V.V. Yastrebtseva. L., 1959, Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. Literary heritage. T M., Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. Practical textbook of harmony. Complete works, vol.iv. M., Richard Wagner. Selected works. M., Rovenko A. Practical foundations of strettno imitative polyphony. M., Romain Rolland. Music historical heritage. Vyp M., Rubinshtein A.G. Literary heritage. T. 1, 2. M., 1983, 1984.
8 145. Russian book about Bach / Ed. T.N. Livanova, V.V. Protopopov. M., Russian music and the 20th century. M., Russian artistic culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. Book 1, 3. M., 1969, Ruchevskaya E.A. Music theme functions. L., Savenko S.I. I.F. Stravinsky. M., Saponov M.L. Minstrels: essays on the musical culture of the Western Middle Ages. M.: Prest, Simakova N.A. Vocal genres of the Renaissance. M., Skrebkov S.S. Textbook of polyphony. Ed. 4. M., Skrebkov S.S. Artistic principles of musical styles. M., Skrebkov S.S. Artistic principles of musical styles. M., Skrebkova-Filatova M.S. Texture in music: Artistic possibilities, structure, functions. M., Skryabin A.N. To the 25th anniversary of his death. M., Skryabin A.N. Letters. M., Skryabin A.N. Sat. Art. M., Smirnov M.A. The emotional world of music. M., Sokolov O. On the problem of music typology. genres. //Problems of music of the twentieth century. Gorky, Solovtsov A.A. The life and work of Rimsky-Korsakov. M., Sokhor A. Questions of sociology and aesthetics of music. Part 2. L., Sokhor A. Theory of music. genres: tasks and prospects. //Theoretical problems of musical forms and genres. M., Sposobin I.V. Lectures on the course of harmony. M., Stasov V.V. Articles. About music. In 5th issue. M., Stravinsky I.F. Dialogues. M., Stravinsky I.F. Correspondence with Russian correspondents. T/Ed-com. V.P.Varunts. M., Stravinsky I.F. Digest of articles. M., Stravinsky I.F. Chronicle of my life. M., Taneev S.I. Analysis of modulations in Beethoven’s sonatas // Russian book about Beethoven. M., Taneev S.I. From the scientific and pedagogical heritage. M., Taneev S.I. Materials and documents. M., Taneev S.I. A moving counterpoint to strict writing. M., Taneev S.I. The doctrine of the canon. M., Tarakanov M.E. Alban Berg Musical Theatre. M., 1976.
9 176. Tarakanov M.E. New tonality in the music of the twentieth century // Problems of musical science. M., Tarakanov M.E. New images, new means // Soviet music, 1966, 1, Tarakanov M.E. The work of Rodion Shchedrin. M., Telin Yu.N. Harmony. Theoretical course. M., Timofeev N.A. Transformability of simple canons of strict writing. M., Tumanina N.V. Chaikovsky. In 2 vols. M., 1962, Tyulin Yu.N. The art of counterpoint. M., Tyulin Yu.N. On the origin and initial development of harmony in folk music// Questions of musical science. M., Tyulin Yu.N. Modern harmony and its historical origin /1963/. // Theoretical problems of music of the twentieth century. M., Tyulin Yu.N. The Doctrine of Harmony (1937). M., Franz Liszt. Berlioz and his symphony “Harold” // Liszt F. Selections. articles. M., Ferman V.E. Opera theatre. M., Fried E.L. Past, present and future in Mussorgsky's Khovanshchina. L., Kholopov Yu.N. The changing and the unchanging in the evolution of music. thinking. // Problems of tradition and innovation in modern music. M., Kholopov Yu.N. Shostakovich's frets // Dedicated to Shostakovich. M., Kholopov Yu.N. About three foreign systems of harmony // Music and modernity. M., Kholopov Yu.N. Structural levels harmony // Musica theorica, 6, MGK. M., 2000 (manuscript) Kholopova V.N. Music as an art form. St. Petersburg, Kholopova V.N. Musical theme. M., Kholopova V.N. Russian musical rhythm. M., Kholopova V.N. Texture. M., Tsukkerman V.A. “Kamarinskaya” by Glinka and its traditions in Russian music. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Analysis of musical works: Variational form. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Analysis of musical works: General principles of development and formation in music, simple forms. M., 1980.
10 200. Tsukkerman V.A. Expressive means of Tchaikovsky's lyrics. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Musical theoretical essays and studies. M., 1970, Tsukkerman V.A. Musical theoretical essays and studies. M., 1970., issue. II. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Musical genres and basics of musical forms. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Liszt's Sonata in B minor. M., Tchaikovsky M.I. Life of P.I. Tchaikovsky. M., Tchaikovsky P.I. and Taneev S.I. Letters. M., Tchaikovsky P.I. Literary heritage. T M., Tchaikovsky P.I. Guide to the practical study of harmony /1872/, Complete collection of works, vol.iii-a. M., Cherednichenko T.V. To the problem artistic value in music. // Problems of music science. Issue 5. M., Chernova T.Yu. Dramaturgy in instrumental music. M., Chugaev A. Features of the structure of Bach’s keyboard fugues. M., Shakhnazarova N.G. Music of the East and music of the West. M., Etinger M.A. Early classical harmony. M., Yuzhak K.I. Theoretical essay on the polyphony of free writing. L., Yavorsky B.L. Basic elements of music // Art, 1923, Yavorsky B.L. The structure of musical speech. Ch M., Yakupov A.N. Theoretical problems of musical communication. M., Das Musikwerk. Eine Beispielsammlung zur Musikgeschichte. Hrsg. von K. G. Fellerer. Koln: Arno Volk Denkmaler der Tonkunst in Osterreich (DTO) [Multi-volume series “Monuments of musical art in Austria”] Denkmaler Deutscher Tonkunst (DDT) [Multi-volume series “Monuments of German art”].
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation PROGRAM - MINIMUM candidate exam in specialty 17.00.02 “Musical Art” in art history The minimum program contains 19 pages.
Introduction The program of the candidate exam in the specialty 17.00.02 musical art involves clarifying the knowledge of graduate students and candidates for the academic degree of candidate of sciences about achievements and problems
Approved by the decision of the Academic Council of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Krasnodar State Institute of Culture" dated March 29, 2016, protocol 3 PROGRAM OF THE ENTRANCE TEST for applicants to study
Contents of the entrance exam for the specialty 50.06.01 Art History 1. Interview on the topic of the essay 2. Answering questions on the history and theory of music Requirements for a scientific essay Entrance
QUESTIONS FOR THE CANDIDATE EXAM IN THE SPECIALTY Direction of study 50.06.01 “Art History” Focus (profile) “Musical art” Section 1. History of music History of Russian music
Program compiler: A.G. Alyabyeva, Doctor of Art History, Professor of the Department of Musicology, Composition and Methods of Music Education. Purpose of the entrance exam: assessment of the applicant’s maturity
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RF Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Murmansk State Humanitarian University" (MSGU) WORKING
EXPLANATORY NOTE Creative competition to identify certain theoretical and practical creative abilities of applicants, it is carried out on the basis of the academy according to a program developed by the academy
Tambov regional state budgetary educational institution higher education“Tambov State Musical and Pedagogical Institute named after. S.V.Rachmaninov" ENTRANCE PROGRAM
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Performing
1 თბილისის ვანო სარაჯიშვილის სახელობის სახელმწიფო კონსერვატორია სადოქტორო პროგრამა: საშემსრულებლო ხელოვნება სპეციალობა აკადემიური სიმღერა მისაღები გამოცდების მოთხოვნები მოთხოვნები მოთხოვნები სპეციალობა სოლო სიმღერა - 35-40
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “Russian State University named after. A.N. Kosygina (Technology. Design. Art)"
Contents of the entrance test in the field of 50.06.01 Art History 1. Interview on the topic of the essay. 2. Answering questions on the history and theory of music. Entrance test form
MINISTRY OF CULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION FEDERAL STATE BUDGETARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION "ORYOL STATE INSTITUTE OF CULTURE" (FSBEI HE "OGIK") FACULTY
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Murmansk State Humanitarian University" (MSGU) WORKING
The program was discussed and approved at a meeting of the Department of History and Theory of Music of the Tambov State Musical and Pedagogical Institute named after. S.V. Rachmaninov. Protocol 2 of September 5, 2016. Developers:
2. Professional test (solfeggio, harmony) Write a two-three-voice dictation (harmonic type with melodically developed voices, using alteration, deviations and modulations, including
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Performing Faculty Department of History and Theory
SCHOOL DISCIPLINE PROGRAM Musical literature (foreign and domestic) 2013 The academic discipline program was developed on the basis of the Federal State Educational Standard (hereinafter
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)
The program was approved at a meeting of the Department of History and Theory of Music of the Federal Targeted Program, protocol 5 of 04/09/2017. This program is intended for applicants entering graduate school at Orthodox St. Tikhon
MINISTRY OF CULTURE OF THE REPUBLIC OF CRIMEA STATE BUDGETARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF CRIMEA "CRIMEA UNIVERSITY OF CULTURE, ARTS AND TOURISM" (GBOU HE RK "KUKIIT")
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Explanatory note The work program of the academic subject “Music” for grades 5-7 was developed in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for Basic General Education
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)
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Planning music lessons. 5th grade. Theme of the year: “Music and Literature” “Russian Classical Music School”. 5. Introduction to large symphonic forms. 6. Broadening and deepening the presentation
Compiled by: Sokolova O. N., Candidate of Science, Associate Professor Reviewer: Grigorieva V. Yu., Candidate of Science, Associate Professor The program was approved at a meeting of the Department of History and Theory of Music of the Federal Targeted Program, protocol 1 of 01.09.2018 2 This program
Compiler of the program: Compilers of the program: T.I. Strazhnikova, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department of Musicology, Composition and Methods of Music Education. The program is intended
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Nizhny Novgorod State Conservatory named after. M. I. Glinka L. A. Ptushko HISTORY OF NATIONAL MUSIC OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE XX CENTURY A textbook for music students
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Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Nizhny Novgorod State Conservatory (Academy) named after. M. I. Glinka Department of Choral Conducting G. V. Suprunenko Principles of theatricalization in modern choir
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Performing
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Luchina Elena Igorevna, Candidate of Art History, Associate Professor of the Department of History of Music Born in Karl-Marx-Stadt (Germany). Graduated from the theoretical and piano departments of Voronezh music school
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)
Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Performing Faculty
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY OF MOSCOW State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Education of the City of Moscow "Moscow City Pedagogical University" Institute of Culture and Arts
Code of the direction of training For the 2016-2017 academic year PROGRAM of entrance examinations to graduate school Name Name of the direction of the direction of training (profile) of the training program 1 2 3
Explanatory note Entrance exams for the specialty “Musical and theatrical art”, specialization “Art” opera singing» identify the level of pre-university preparation of applicants for further
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Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Performing
New images of romanticism - the dominance of the lyrical-psychological principle, the fairy-tale-fantastic element, the introduction of national folk features, heroic-pathetic motives and, finally, the sharply contrasting opposition of different figurative plans - led to a significant modification and expansion of the expressive means of music.
Here we make an important caveat.
It should be borne in mind that the desire for innovative forms and a departure from the musical language of classicism characterizes composers of the 19th century far from the same extent. Some of them (for example, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Rossini, Brahms, and, in a certain sense, Chopin) have clearly noticeable tendencies towards preserving the classicist principles of formation and individual elements of the classicist musical language in combination with new romantic features. For others, more distant from classicist art, traditional techniques recede into the background and are more radically modified.
The process of formation of the musical language of the Romantics was long, not at all straightforward and not related to immediate continuity. (For example, Brahms or Grieg, who worked at the end of the century, are more “classical” than Berlioz or Liszt were in the 30s.) However, for all the complexity of the picture, typical trends in the music of the 19th century of the post-Beethoven era emerge quite clearly. It's about these trends, perceived as something new, compared to the dominant ones expressive means of classicism, we say, characterizing the general features of romantic musical language.
Perhaps the most striking feature of the system of expressive means among the romantics is the significant enrichment colorfulness(harmonic and timbre), compared with classicist samples. The inner world of a person, with its subtle nuances and changeable moods, is conveyed by romantic composers mainly through increasingly complex, differentiated, detailed harmonies. Altered harmonies, colorful tonal comparisons, and chords of secondary degrees led to a significant complication of the harmonic language. The continuous process of strengthening the colorful properties of chords gradually affected the weakening of functional tendencies.
The psychological tendencies of romanticism were also reflected in the increased importance of the “background”. The timbre-color side acquired unprecedented significance in classicist art: the sound reached the limit of timbre differentiation and brilliance. symphony orchestra, piano and a number of other solo instruments. If in classicist works the concept of “musical theme” was almost identified with the melody, to which both the harmony and the texture of the accompanying voices were subordinated, then for the romantics the “multifaceted” structure of the theme was much more typical, in which the role of the harmonic, timbre, texture “background” is often equivalent to the role melodies. Fantastic images, expressed mainly through the colorful-harmonic and timbre-figurative sphere, also gravitated towards the same type of thematicism.
Romantic music is not alien to thematic formations, in which the texture-timbre and colorful-harmonic element dominates completely.
We give examples of characteristic themes of romantic composers. With the exception of excerpts from Chopin's works, all of them were borrowed from works directly related to fantastic motifs, and were created on the basis of specific images of the theater or a poetic plot:
Let's compare them with the characteristic themes of the classicist style:
And in the melodic style of the romantics a number of new phenomena are observed. First of all his intonation sphere is updated.
If the predominant tendency in classicist music was the melodic nature of the pan-European operatic style, then in the era of romanticism, under the influence national folklore and urban everyday genres, its intonational content changes dramatically. The difference in melodic style of Italian, Austrian, French, German and Polish composers is now much more clearly expressed than it was in the art of classicism.
In addition, lyrical romance intonations begin to dominate not only in chamber art, but even penetrate into musical theater.
The closeness of the romance melody to intonations poetic speech gives it special detail and flexibility. The subjective lyrical mood of romantic music inevitably comes into conflict with the completeness and certainty of classicist lines. The romantic melody is more vague in structure. It is dominated by intonations expressing the effects of uncertainty, elusive, unsteady mood, incompleteness, and a dominant tendency towards the free “unfolding” of fabric *.
* We are talking specifically about a consistently romantic lyrical melody, since in dance genres or works that have adopted the dance “ostinato” rhythmic principle, periodicity remains a natural phenomenon.
For example:
The extreme expression of the romantic tendency to bring melody closer to the intonations of poetic (or oratorical) speech was achieved by Wagner’s “endless melody”.
The new figurative sphere of musical romanticism also appeared in new principles of shaping. Thus, in the era of classicism, the ideal exponent of modern musical thinking was the cyclic symphony. It was intended to reflect the dominance of theatrical, objective images characteristic of the aesthetics of classicism. Let us remember that the literature of that era is most clearly represented by dramatic genres (classicist tragedy and comedy), and the leading genre in music throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, until the emergence of the symphony, was opera.
Both in the intonational content of the classicist symphony and in the features of its structure, connections with the objective, theatrical and dramatic principle are noticeable. This is indicated by the objective nature of the sonata-symphonic themes themselves. Their periodic structure indicates connections with collectively organized action - folk or ballet dance, with a secular court ceremony, with genre images.
Intonation content, especially in the themes of sonata allegro, is often directly related to the melodic turns of operatic arias. Even the thematic structure is often based on a “dialogue” between heroically stern and feminine mournful images, reflecting the typical (for classicist tragedy and Gluck opera) conflict between “fate and man.” For example:
The structure of the symphonic cycle is characterized by a tendency towards completeness, “dismemberment” and repetition.
In the arrangement of material within individual parts (in particular, within the sonata allegro), the emphasis is placed not only on the unity of thematic development, but to the same extent on the “dismemberment” of the composition. The appearance of each new thematic formation or new section of the form is usually emphasized by a caesura, often framed by contrasting material. Starting from individual thematic formations and ending with the structure of the entire four-part cycle, this general pattern is clearly visible.
The work of the Romantics retained the importance of the symphony and symphonic music in general. However, their new aesthetic thinking led to both a modification of the traditional symphonic form and the emergence of new instrumental principles of development.
If the musical art of the 18th century gravitated towards theatrical and dramatic principles, then the composer’s work of the “Romantic Age” was closer in its composition to lyrical poetry, romantic ballads and psychological novels.
This closeness is manifested not only in instrumental music, but even in such theatrical dramatic genres as opera and oratorio.
Wagner opera reform essentially arose as an extreme expression of the tendency to move closer to lyric poetry. The loosening of the dramatic line and the strengthening of moments of mood, the approach of the vocal element to the intonations of poetic speech, the extreme detailing of individual moments to the detriment of the purposefulness of the action - all this characterizes not only Wagner’s tetralogy, but also his “Flying Dutchman”, and “Lohengrin”, and “Tristan” and Isolde”, and “Genoveva” by Schumann, and the so-called oratorios, but essentially choral poems, by Schumann, and other works. Even in France, where the tradition of classicism in the theater was much stronger than in Germany, a new romantic current is clearly perceptible within the framework of Meyerbeer’s beautifully composed “theater-musical plays” or in Rossini’s William Tell.
The lyrical perception of the world is the most important aspect of the content of romantic music. This subjective shade is expressed in the continuity of development that forms the antipode of theatrical and sonata “dismemberment”. The smoothness of motivic transitions and variational transformation of themes characterize the development techniques of the romantics. In opera music, where the law of theatrical oppositions inevitably continues to dominate, this desire for continuity is reflected in the leitmotifs that unite different actions drama, and in the weakening, if not complete disappearance of the composition associated with dismembered finished numbers.
A new type of structure is being established, based on continuous transitions from one musical scene to another.
In instrumental music, images of intimate lyrical outpouring give rise to new forms: a free, one-movement piano piece that ideally matches the mood of lyric poetry, and then, under its influence, a symphonic poem.
At the same time, romantic art revealed a sharpness of contrasts that objective, balanced classicist music did not know: the contrast between images of the real world and fairy-tale fantasy, between cheerful genre-everyday paintings and philosophical reflection, between passionate temperament, oratorical pathos and subtle psychologism. All this required new forms of expression that did not fit into the scheme of classicist sonata genres.
Accordingly, in the instrumental music of the 19th century there is:
a) a significant change in the classicist genres preserved in the works of the romantics;
b) the emergence of new ones is purely romantic genres, which did not exist in the art of the Enlightenment.
The cyclic symphony has changed significantly. The lyrical mood began to dominate in it (“Unfinished Symphony” by Schubert, “Scottish” by Mendelssohn, Schumann’s Fourth). In this regard, the traditional form has changed. The ratio of images of action and lyrics, unusual for a classicist sonata, with the predominance of the latter, led to the increased importance of the spheres of the secondary parts. The attraction to expressive details and colorful moments gave rise to a different type of sonata development. Variational transformation of themes became especially characteristic of the romantic sonata or symphony. The lyrical nature of music, devoid of theatrical conflict, manifested itself in a tendency towards monothematicism (Berlioz's Symphony Fantastique, Schumann's Fourth) and towards continuity of development (dismembering pauses between parts disappear). The trend towards one-partness becomes the most characteristic feature of the romantic large form.
At the same time, the desire to reflect the multiplicity of phenomena in unity resulted in an unprecedentedly sharp contrast between in different parts symphonies.
The problem of creating a cyclic symphony capable of embodying the romantic figurative sphere remained essentially unresolved for half a century: the dramatic theatrical basis of the symphony, which developed in the era of the undivided dominance of classicism, did not easily lend itself to the new figurative system. It is no coincidence that romantic musical aesthetics is expressed in the one-movement program overture more clearly and consistently than in the cyclic sonata-symphony. However, most convincingly, completely, in the most consistent and generalized form, the new trends in musical romanticism were embodied in the symphonic poem - a genre created by Liszt in the 40s.
Symphonic music has summarized a number of leading features of modern music, which have consistently appeared in instrumental works for more than a quarter of a century.
Perhaps the most striking distinctive feature of a symphonic poem is software, contrasted with the “abstraction” of classicist symphonic genres. At the same time, it is characterized by a special type of programming associated with images modern poetry and literature. The overwhelming majority of names of symphonic poems indicate a connection with images of specific literary (sometimes pictorial) works (for example, “Preludes” according to Lamartine, “What is heard on the mountain” according to Hugo, “Mazeppa” according to Byron). Not so much a direct reflection of the objective world, but rather its rethinking through literature and art lies at the heart of the content of a symphonic poem.
Thus, simultaneously with the romantic attraction to literary programming, the symphonic poem reflected the most characteristic beginning of romantic music - the dominance of images of the inner world - reflection, experience, contemplation, as opposed to the objective images of action that dominated the classicist symphony.
In the thematic theme of the symphonic poem, the romantic features of melody and the enormous role of the colorful-harmonic and colorful-timbre elements are clearly expressed.
The manner of presentation and development techniques generalize the traditions that have developed both in the romantic miniature and in the romantic sonata-symphonic genres. Single-partness, monothematicism, colorful variation, gradual transitions between different thematic formations characterize the “poem” formative principles.
At the same time, the symphonic poem, without repeating the structure of the classicist cyclic symphony, is based on its principles. Within the framework of the one-part form, the unshakable foundations of sonatas are recreated in a generalized manner.
The cyclic sonata-symphony, which took on a classical form in the last quarter of the 18th century, was prepared in instrumental genres over the course of a whole century. Some of its thematic and formative features were clearly manifested in various instrumental schools of the pre-classicist period. The symphony was formed as a generalizing instrumental genre only when it absorbed, ordered and typified these diverse trends, which became the basis of sonata thinking.
The symphonic poem, which developed its own principles of thematism and form-building, nevertheless recreated in a generalized manner some of the most important principles of classicist sonata, namely:
a) the contours of two tonal and thematic centers;
b) elaboration;
c) reprisal;
d) contrast of images;
e) signs of cyclicity.
Thus, in a complex interweaving with the new romantic principles of form-building, based on the thematic style of the new warehouse, the symphonic poem within the framework of the one-part form retained the main musical principles, developed in musical creativity the previous era. These features of the form of the poem were prepared in the piano music of the romantics (the fantasy “The Wanderer” by Schubert, the ballads of Chopin), and in the concert overture (“The Hebrides” and “Beautiful Melusine” by Mendelssohn), and in the piano miniature.
The connections between romantic music and the artistic principles of classical art were not always directly perceptible. The features of the new, unusual, and romantic relegated them to the background in the perception of their contemporaries. Romantic composers had to fight not only against the inert, philistine tastes of the bourgeois audience. And from enlightened circles, including from the circles of the musical intelligentsia, voices of protest against the “destructive” tendencies of the romantics were heard. The guardians of the aesthetic traditions of classicism (including, for example, Stendhal, the outstanding musicologist of the 19th century, Fetis and others) mourned the disappearance in the music of the 19th century of the ideal balance, harmony, grace and refinement of forms characteristic of musical classicism.
Indeed, romanticism as a whole rejected those features of classicist art that retained connections with the “conventional cold beauty” (Gluck) of court aesthetics. The Romantics developed a new idea of beauty, which gravitated not so much towards balanced grace, but towards extreme psychological and emotional expressiveness, freedom of form, colorfulness and versatility of musical language. And yet, all outstanding composers of the 19th century have a noticeable tendency to preserve and implement logic and completeness on a new basis. artistic form characteristic of classicism. From Schubert and Weber, who worked at the dawn of romanticism, to Tchaikovsky, Brahms and Dvorak, who completed the “musical 19th century,” one can trace the desire to combine the new achievements of romanticism with those timeless laws of musical beauty, which first took on a classical form in the works of composers of the Enlightenment.
A significant feature of the musical art of Western Europe in the first half of the 19th century is the formation of national romantic schools, which brought forward the world's largest composers from their midst. A detailed examination of the characteristics of the music of this period in Austria, Germany, Italy, France and Poland forms the content of subsequent chapters.