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Decorative and applied art of the 18th century. Russian decorative and applied art of the 18th-21st centuries. Monuments of Russian culture

04.03.2020

The history of Russia at the end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th century is inseparable from the name of one of the largest political figures in Russia - Peter I. Significant innovations invaded at this time not only the field of culture and art, but also industry - metallurgy, shipbuilding, etc. At the beginning of the 18th century, the first mechanisms and machines for metal processing appeared. Much has been done in this area by Russian mechanics Nartov, Surnin, Sobakin and others.

At the same time, the foundations of the state system of general and special education are laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was established, with a department of artistic crafts opened.

A. Nartov. Lathe. Peter's era. XVIII century

In the 18th century, new principles of architecture and urban planning were formed. This period was marked by the strengthening of the characteristic features of Western European Baroque (Holland, England) in the formation of products.

As a result of the initiatives of Peter I, products of traditional Russian forms quickly disappear from the royal and aristocratic life of the palace, while still remaining in the homes of the masses of the rural and urban population, as well as in church use. It was in the first quarter of the 18th century that a significant difference in stylistic development emerged, which remained characteristic of professional creativity and folk artistic crafts for a long time. In the latter, the centuries-old traditions of Russian, Ukrainian, Estonian, etc. applied art are directly and organically developed.

The norms of noble life require a demonstration of wealth, sophistication and splendor in the life of a sovereign person. The forms of the old way of life, including that of Peter the Great (still businesslike and strict), were finally being supplanted by the middle of the 18th century. The dominant position in Russian art is occupied by the so-called Rococo style, which logically completed the trends of the late Baroque. The ceremonial interiors of this time, for example, some rooms of the Peterhof and Tsarskoye Selo palaces, are almost entirely decorated with elaborate carvings.

The general features of rocaille ornamentation (curvature of lines, abundant and asymmetrical arrangement of stylized or close to nature flowers, leaves, shells, eyes, etc.) are fully reproduced in Russian architecture and furniture of that time, ceramics, clothing, carriages, ceremonial weapons, etc. . d. But the development of Russian applied art nevertheless followed a completely independent path. Despite the unconditional similarity of the forms of our own products with Western European ones, it is not difficult to notice the differences between them. So, but compared to French ones, Russian furniture products have much freer shapes and are softer in outline and drawing. The masters still retained the skills of folk carving, larger and more generalized than in the West. No less characteristic is the polychrome nature of Russian products and the combination of gilding and painting, which is rarely found in France, but is accepted everywhere in Russia.

Since the 60s of the 18th century, a transition to classicism began in Russian architecture with its laconic and strict forms, directed towards antiquity and marked by great restraint and grace. The same process occurs in applied art.

In the layout, equipment and decor of city mansions and palaces (architects Kokorinov, Bazhenov, Quarenghi, Starov, etc.) a clear symmetry and proportional clarity appear. The walls of the rooms (between the windows or opposite them) are hidden with mirrors and panels made of silk damask, decorative cotton fabrics, and cloth.

Sofa - Rococo style. Russia (fragment). Mid-18th century

Classic style chair. Russia. Second half of the 18th century.

The floors are made of wood of various species, and sometimes covered with canvas or cloth; the ceilings are painted (for example, using the grisaille technique, imitating relief modeling). Instead of stacked parquet, spruce planks “under wax” are used. Walls and ceilings are often covered with fabric or covered with wallpaper. If impressively sized marble fireplaces are installed in the main rooms, then in the intimate rooms more traditional stoves are built on tables or legs, lined with tiles. The difference in lamps is just as noticeable: in the halls there are jewelry-made and expensive chandeliers, candelabra, sconces, in the chambers there are much more modest candlesticks and lamps. There is even more contrast in the shapes of formal and household furniture. All this speaks not so much about the desire of the owners of palaces and mansions to save money, but about their consideration of the subject environment as an important factor in the psychologically appropriate atmosphere.

Most furniture and a number of other products at the end of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries were not constantly needed; if there was no need, they were either removed or moved to inactively used parts of the premises. Seating furniture must be covered. In the same regard, transformable furniture with a working surface has received great development - tea and card tables, a folding dining table, a table for needlework, a system of uneven-high tables that fit under each other, etc. All this significantly increased the comfort of life, the subtle differentiation of its functional support and variety of appearance of premises in different everyday situations. At the same time, a number of everyday processes that took place outside the building during the warm season - on the terrace and in the park - were especially highlighted. As a result, new types of products became widespread - garden furniture, umbrella awnings, park lamps, etc. In the 18th century, serf workshops were organized at individual estates, producing fairly large batches of furniture, porcelain, rugs and other products.

At the end of the 18th century, in the equipment of large palaces, the separation of the actual design of products (furniture, lamps, clocks, tapestries and other utensils and furnishings) as a special area of creative activity from their craft production was already noticeably affecting. The role of designers is mainly played by architects and professional artists. The production of products for the mass market uses machines and mechanical methods of processing materials, turning the engineer into a leading figure in production. This leads to distortion and loss of the high aesthetic qualities inherent in consumer products, to the separation of industry from art. This trend was natural in the conditions of capitalist development of society and one of the main ones for the entire 19th century.

During the intensive development of capitalist relations in Russia in the 19th century, industrial production capacity increased. By the middle of the 19th century, there was already an urgent need for artistically professional personnel of product developers and craftsmen. For their training, specialized educational institutions were opened in Moscow (Count Stroganov) and St. Petersburg (Baron Stieglitz). Their very name is “schools technical drawing" - speaks of the emergence of a new type of artist. Since 1860, special craft education for master performers has been developed. Many books are published on the technology of processing various materials: wood, bronze, iron, gold, etc. Trade catalogs are published, replacing the previously published Economic Store magazine. Since the middle of the 19th century, sciences related to issues of occupational hygiene and the use of household items have been formed. However, throughout the entire 19th century, all mass factory products artistically remained completely subordinated to the undividedly dominant idea of beauty as the decorative and ornamental design of products. The consequence of this was the introduction of stylistic elements of classicism into the form of most of the products: complex profile finishes, fluted columns, rosettes, garlands, ornaments based on ancient motifs, etc. In a number of cases, these elements were introduced into the forms of even industrial equipment - machine tools.

In the stylistic development of applied art and household products in the 19th century, three main periods are chronologically conventionally distinguished: the continuation of the trends of classicism in line with the so-called Empire style (the first quarter of the century); late classicism(circa 1830-1860) and eclecticism (after the 1860s).

The first quarter of the 19th century was marked by a general rise in ideological spirit and construction scope in Russian architecture, which caused a significant revival in the applied arts.

Empire style armchair. First quarter of the 19th century.

Victory in the War of 1812 to a certain extent accelerates and completes the process of formation of Russian national culture, which is acquiring pan-European significance. The activities of the most famous architects - Voronikhin, Quarenghi, Kazakov, closely connected with the classicism of the previous era, occurred only in the first decade of the century. They are being replaced by a galaxy of such wonderful masters as Rossi, Stasov, Grigoriev, Bove, who brought new ideas and a different stylistic spirit to Russian art.

Severity and monumentality are characteristic features of the architecture and forms of various household items in the Empire style. In the latter, decorative motifs noticeably change, or rather, their typology expands through the use of decorative symbols of Ancient Egypt and Rome - griffins, sphinxes, fasces, military attributes (“trophies”), wreaths intertwined with a garland, etc. Compared with examples of early classicism in general the amount of decor, its “visual weight” in the compositional design of products increases. Monumentalization, at times, as if the coarsening of forms, occurs due to the greater generalization and geometrization of classical ornamental motifs - edging, wreaths, lyres, armor, etc., which are increasingly moving away from their real prototypes. Painting of objects (scenes, landscapes, bouquets) almost completely disappears. The ornament tends to be spotty, contouring, and applicative. Most products, especially furniture, become large, massive, but varied in overall configuration and silhouette. The heaviness of the Empire style in furniture almost disappeared already in the 1830s.

From the middle of the 19th century, new searches began in the field of architecture, applied and industrial creativity.

A pan-European artistic movement was born, called “Biedermeier,” after the bourgeoisie of one of the characters of the German writer L. Eichrodt (the work was published in the 1870s) with its ideal of comfort and intimacy.

Factory made iron. Russia. Second half of the 11th century.

In the second half of the 19th century, manual labor was further displaced from the production of utilitarian household products. Over the centuries, the methods and techniques of their artistic solution, the principles of form-building, that have developed over the centuries, come into conflict with new economic trends in the mass production and profitability of producing things for the market. The response to the changing situation is twofold. Some masters - the majority of them - make compromises. Considering inviolable the traditional view of all everyday things as objects of decorative and applied art, they begin to adapt the ornamental motifs of classicism to the capabilities of the machine and serial technologies. “Effective” types of decoration and finishing of products appear. Back in the 1830s in England, Henry Kuhl put forward a seemingly reformist slogan to decorate factory products with elements “from the world of fine art forms.” Many industrialists willingly pick up the slogan, trying to take maximum advantage of the consumer masses’ attachment to externally decorated, ornamentally enriched forms of home furnishings.

Other theorists and practitioners of applied art (D. Ruskin, W. Morris), on the contrary, propose organizing a boycott of industry. Their credo is the purity of the traditions of medieval craft.

In the countries of Western Europe and in Russia, for the first time, artisanal artels and masters, in whose work deep folk traditions were still preserved, attracted the attention of theorists and professional artists. In Russia, Nizhny Novgorod fairs of the 1870-1890s demonstrate the viability of these traditions in new conditions. Many professional artists - V. Vasnetsov, M. Vrubel, E. Polenova, K. Korovin, N. Roerich and others - enthusiastically turn to the folk origins of decorative art. In various regions and provinces of Russia, in cities such as Pskov, Voronezh, Tambov, Moscow, Kamenets-Podolsk, etc., craft enterprises are emerging, the basis of which is manual labor. The work of the workshops in Abramtsovo near Moscow, in Talashkino near Smolensk, the enterprise of P. Vaulin near St. Petersburg, and the Murava ceramic artel in Moscow were especially important for the revival of creative, dying crafts.

Samovar. XIX century

Russia. Second half

Industrial pump. XIX century

However, the products of all these workshops constituted such an insignificant part of total consumption that they could not have any noticeable influence on mass production, although they proved the legitimacy of the existence, along with mass machine production, of items of decorative art that preserve folk traditions. This was later confirmed by the invasion of machine technology into such areas of decorative and applied arts as jewelry, carpet weaving, and tailoring, which led to a sharp drop in their artistic quality.

In the forms of the bulk of manufactured products, the second half of the 19th century century, nothing new has practically yet been developed. However, the novelty of the general situation already at this time contributes to the formation of internal prerequisites for innovative quests - the awareness of stylistic searches as an important creative need, as a manifestation of the artistic individuality of the master. If until now style trends (Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Classicism, etc.) were born and spread, as a rule, as a result of general, almost “global”, spontaneously crystallized trends in the aesthetic development of the world, then from the middle of the 19th century, stylistic originality is regarded as a direct creative achievement of an individual artist or architect. In this regard, interest in the heritage of art of all times and peoples is sharply intensifying. This rich heritage becomes a source of imitations, direct borrowings, or is subjected to bizarre creative processing.

Art Nouveau style table with chair. End of the 19th century

As a result, the bulk of the products presents an unusually motley picture, in which either obvious or subtle reminiscences of antiquity, the Romanesque era, Gothic, Italian or French Renaissance, Byzantine art and Ancient Rus', Baroque, etc., often eclectically mixing in the design of one product, interior, building. Therefore, this period in the history of architecture and applied art was called eclectic. Products (lamps, metal buckets, troughs, dishes, stools, etc.) that are relatively cheap, but made without any artistic purpose, often in ugly forms and of poor quality, are still beginning to be introduced into people’s everyday life.

The search for a new style is carried out taking into account the real need in the conditions of machine production, a fundamentally new approach to the shaping of products, on the one hand, and the preservation of the decorative traditions of the past, on the other. The bourgeoisie, which by the end of the 19th century had occupied a strong position in the Russian economy, strove for its own artistic ideology in architecture and design - the cult of the rational, relative freedom from the archaisms of noble culture, encouraging in art everything that could compete with the styles of the past. This is how the Art Nouveau style appeared at the end of the 19th century - “new art” in Belgium, Great Britain and the USA, “Jugendstil” in Germany, “Secessions style” in Austria, “free style” in Italy. Its name - “modern” (from the French moderne) meant “new, modern” - from lat. modo - “just now, recently.” In its pure form, fading out and mixing with other stylistic movements, it lasted relatively short, until about 1920, i.e., about 20-25 years, like almost all stylistic movements of the 17th-20th centuries.

Art Nouveau is diverse in different countries and in the work of individual masters, which complicates the understanding of the problems they solved. However, the almost complete eradication of all previously used decorative and ornamental motifs and techniques and their radical renewal became characteristic. Traditional cornices, rosettes, capitals, flutes, “rolling wave” belts, etc. are replaced by stylized local plants (lilies, iris, carnations, etc.), female heads with long curly hair, etc. Often there is no decoration at all , and the artistic effect is achieved due to the expressiveness of the silhouette, divisions of form, lines, usually finely drawn, as if freely flowing, pulsating. In the forms of Art Nouveau products one can almost always feel some whimsical will of the artist, the tension of a tightly stretched string, and exaggerated proportions. In extreme manifestations, all this is sharply aggravated, elevated to a principle. Sometimes there is a disregard for the constructive logic of form, an almost sham enthusiasm for the spectacular side of the task, especially in the design of interiors, which are often spectacularly theatricalized.

In front of everyone weaknesses- pretentiousness, sometimes loudness of forms, a new approach to the solution of the building, interior, furnishings with the logic of a functional, constructive and technological solution arose.

Art Nouveau style candlestick. Beginning of the 20th century

Set of dishes. End of the 19th century

Dressing table from the Art Nouveau period. Beginning of the 20th century

Art Nouveau in the vast majority of its examples did not abandon the decoration of products, but only replaced old decorative motifs and techniques with new ones. Already at the beginning of the 20th century, at the time of the triumphs of the new style, the fashion for old styles returned again, timidly at first, then widely, which had a well-known connection with the beginning of preparations for the celebration of the centenary of the Patriotic War of 1812. The exhibition “Modern Art”, organized in St. Petersburg in 1903, clearly showed the birth of “classicizing modernity”.

The results of modernity are complex. This is the purification of applied art from eclecticism, and from the “anti-machinism” of champions of handcrafts, and from failed attempts to restore the styles of the past. These are the first symptoms of architecture and applied art entering the path of functionalism and constructivism, the path of modern design. At the same time, soon revealing a tendency to nationalize style, Art Nouveau caused a new wave of purely decorative quests. Many painters turn to applied art and interior design (S. Malyutin, V. Vasnetsov, A. Benois, S. Golovin, etc.), gravitating towards the colorfulness of the Russian fairy tale, to the “gingerbread”, etc. In the perspective of the subsequent historical process , solutions to pressing problems of mass industrial production, such experiments could not have serious ideological and artistic significance, although they gave impetus to the development of another branch of applied art - artistic crafts and especially theatrical and decorative art.

Modernity, as it were, cleared and prepared the way for the establishment of new aesthetic and creative principles in the art of creating everyday things, and accelerated the emergence of a new artistic profession - artistic design (design).

The formation of functionalism and constructivism into special directions in the architecture and artistic design of Western countries occurred at the end of the 1910s in connection with the stabilization of life and economic success after the First World War. But the fundamental foundations of new modern architecture were determined in the pre-war period in the work of such architects as T. Garnier and O. Perret (France), H. Berlaga (Holland), A. Loos (Austria), P. Behrens (Germany), F. Wright (USA), I. Shekhtel, I. Rerberg (Russia), etc. Each of them in their own way overcame the influence of modernity and struggled.

In 1918, special departments for architecture and the art industry were formed under the Fine Arts Department of the People's Commissariat for Education. Serious attention is paid to the issues of training specialists. In 1920, V.I. Lenin signed a decree on the creation of the Higher State Artistic and Technical Workshops (VKHUTEMAS). Graduates created new samples of fabrics, furniture, dishes, etc.

Training in workshops (in 1927 transformed into the VKHUTEIN All-Union Art and Technical Institute) was conducted in the faculties: architecture, ceramics, textiles, etc. At the faculty of wood and metal processing under the direction of A. Rodchenko, D. . Lisitsky, V. Tatlin and other masters searched for new forms and designs of various objects. All VKHUTEMAS activities were aimed at developing students’ skills integrated approach to the design of the subject environment of everyday life and production.

In the 1920s, a movement of “industrial art” emerged, developing the principles of functionalism and constructivism, which sought to establish in the minds of artists the aesthetic ideal of rationally organized material production. Any previous forms of art were declared bourgeois “productionists” and unacceptable for the proletariat. Hence their rejection of not only “practically useless” fine art, but also all purely decorative creativity, for example jewelry. In the 20s, the technical and economic conditions in our country were not yet ripe for the implementation of their ideas.

VKHUTEMAS and the “production workers” of the 1920s were ideologically and aesthetically closely connected with the Bauhaus and in a number of important moments represented with it essentially a single movement in the artistic design of that time. Within the framework of this new movement, the aesthetics of modern design was formed, overcoming the contradictions in the applied art of the previous period. The practical artistic activity of the founders of design was also the development of an arsenal of artistic and expressive means of the art of creating things. In their works (furniture, lamps, dishes, fabrics, etc.), the closest attention was paid to such properties of materials and form as texture, color, plastic expressiveness, rhythmic structure, silhouette, etc., which acquired decisive importance in the composition products, without conflicting with the requirements of constructive logic and manufacturability of the form. Another direction that successfully developed in our country in the 20s was engineering design. In 1925, in Moscow, according to the design of the outstanding engineer V. Shukhov, the famous radio tower was erected, the openwork silhouette of which became a symbol of Soviet radio for a long time. A year earlier, J. Gakkel created, based on the latest technological advances, the first Soviet diesel locomotive, the shape of which even today looks quite modern. In the 1920s, the need for scientific research into the patterns of human activity in an artificially created environment was realized. The Central Institute of Labor is being organized, within its walls research is being conducted on issues of scientific organization of labor and production culture. The attention of scientists and designers is drawn to issues of biomechanics, organoleptics, etc. Among the notable works of those years is the design of a tram driver's workplace (N. Bernstein).

Ya. Gakkel. Locomotive. Early 1930s

As part of the celebration of the 35th anniversary at the All-Russian Museum of Arts and Crafts folk art the updated permanent exhibition “Decorative and applied arts Russia in the 18th – first third of the 19th centuries.”

“Peter the Great challenged Russia, and she answered him with Pushkin,” - catchphrase A. N. Herzen most accurately defines the meaning and boundaries of the era to which the exhibition of these halls is dedicated. The objects presented here are living milestones that marked the formation and flourishing of national culture in the bosom of the European cultural tradition of the New Age. They capture changes in the way of life and artistic guidelines, the transformation of old and the emergence of new subject forms, techniques and even types of decorative and applied art.

The design of the new exhibition is based on the principle of demonstrating exhibits as unique artistic objects, which are combined into thematic, stylistic and typological blocks. This solution allows you to evaluate the significance of each item in terms of time, style, development a separate type decorative and applied arts, and focuses on its artistic value.

The inspection scenario is built on the basis of the spatial solution of the exhibition, not only meaningfully (in terms of typology, theme, style and chronology), but also visually - from the time of Peter the Great to Biedermeier.

Terrina (tureen) with lid 1795

The central themes of the new exhibition are: “The Age of Change: the turn of the 17th – 18th centuries,” which includes the so-called “primitives of the 18th century,” which translated the realities of modern times in the forms of traditional art; “Classics of the Russian 18th Century”, representing the era from Peter to Paul in high examples of court art, as well as “Russian Empire” and “In the Rooms”, demonstrating two facets of Russian culture of the first third of the 19th century - the brilliant imperial style and the formation of a culture of private life, correlated with the phenomenon of the German Biedermeier. At the same time, the exhibition allows you to view the works in the usual row - by type of art, highlighting furniture, artistic metal, glass, porcelain, ceramics, stone-cutting art, bone and beads.

Unique church items such as the Reliquary Cross and Panagia, which date back to the 17th century, deserve special attention. They were made using a technique that was expensive at that time – filigree enamel. Among the earliest exhibits are chests with metal frames and decorative trim, inkwells, and Ural brass utensils from the 17th – early 18th centuries. A striking example of ceremonial representative metal tableware for table setting are the brass mugs from the Demidov plant in the Urals.

Table serving items and tray items were then made in different techniques. For example, two dark blue glass goblets with the monograms “EML” and “WGS”, produced by the Imperial Glass Factory, are a rare example of painted items from the late 18th – early 19th centuries. The Latin monograms on the cups belong to the Swedish envoy to Russia in 1793, Werner Gottlob von Schwenir - “WGS” - and his mother Ebbe Maria Lagerbring - “EML”. The cups were kept for more than two centuries in Skarhult Castle, Skåne (Sweden), being a family treasure.

The exhibition will feature unique examples of Russian palace furniture from the 18th-19th centuries, among which the chess and card tables made using the marquetry technique are of particular interest. Among the exhibits of furniture typical of the first half of the 19th century, noteworthy are two cabinets of rare quality in the Jacobean style. Two chairs designed by Osip Ivanovich Bove also belong to the same time. Of interest are also the mantel clock “Minin and Pozharsky” made by the Parisian bronzer Pierre-Philippe Thomire and, reproducing in an interior format, the famous monument to Ivan Martos standing on Red Square.

Bove I.O. Armchair First quarter of the 19th century

A special place in the exhibition is occupied by the tapestry “The Rescue of Fishermen”, which was made in Flanders in an unknown workshop in the second half of the 17th – early 18th centuries. She entered the VMDPNI in 1999 with the collection of the Museum of Folk Art named after. S. T. Morozova. The theme of the tapestry is borrowed from the Bible: in the center of the composition one of the miracles is depicted - “Walking on the Waters”. The trellis was restored in several stages - it was partially restored by specialists from the Museum of Folk Art. S. T. Morozov, and already in 2014, a complete restoration was completed by specialist restorers of the All-Russian Museum of Decorative, Applied and Folk Arts. Thus, the trellis has found a new life and will be presented at the exhibition for the first time.

The corresponding thematic sections present lighting fixtures made of glass and crystal, interior items made of porcelain and bronze from the late 18th-19th centuries. Each exhibit is a reference example of a particular style, capturing the spirit of its time and representing the possibilities of artistic and technical skill.

Such a spatial solution for the exhibition will allow the museum to organize excursions and special programs in the most effective and interesting way. The most interesting and significant exhibits will be provided with extended annotations, as well as support with QR codes, thanks to which visitors will be able to obtain more detailed information. The exposition is equipped with a modern lighting equipment system. Thanks to its high interactivity, the new exhibition promises to be more lively and interesting, as well as to promote creative dialogue with visitors, especially with children and youth.

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"Decorative and applied art of the 18th century."

Introduction

In the second half of the 18th century, Russian applied art achieved a significant rise. This was facilitated by the development of economics, trade, science and technology and, to a large extent, close ties with architecture and fine arts. The number of large and small factories, factories, workshops producing fabrics, glass, porcelain, and furniture grew. Landowners set up various workshops based on serf labor on their estates.

One of the brightest phenomena of Russian culture is Russian folk art, the history of which goes back as many centuries as people live on earth.

Russian decorative and applied arts and folk crafts are original phenomena that have no analogues in world culture. From time immemorial, the Russian land has been famous for its craftsmen, people capable of creating and creating real beauty with their own hands. Through the art of folk crafts, the connection between the past and the present is traced.

Folk crafts are exactly what makes our culture rich and unique. Painted objects, toys and fabric products are taken with you Foreign tourists in memory of our country. Almost every corner of Russia has its own type of handicraft.

Main types of handicrafts

DYMKOVO TOY

Dymkovo toy (Vyatka, Kirov toy), Russian folk art craft; has long existed in the settlement of Dymkovo (now on the territory of the city of Kirov). A Dymkovo toy is sculpted from clay, fired and painted over the ground with tempera, and gold leaf is included. Depicts animals, horsemen, ladies in crinolines, fairy-tale and everyday scenes. Artistic originality Dymkovo toys are characterized by massive, laconic plasticity, emphasized by harmonious decorative painting in the form of a large geometric ornament ( different colors circles, cells, etc.).

The Dymkovo toy is the most famous clay craft in Russia. It is distinguished by its extremely simple and clear plastic form, generalized silhouette, and bright ornamental painting on a white background.

Traditionally, the Dymkovo toy industry does not have mass production.

Khokhloma - old Russian folk craft, which arose in the 17th century in the Volga region (the village of Semino, Nizhny Novgorod province). This is perhaps the most known species Russian folk painting. It is a decorative painting on wooden utensils and furniture, done in red and black (less often green) tones and gold on a golden background. What is surprising is that when painting is done, it is not gold, but silver tin powder that is applied to the wood. Then the product is coated with a special compound and processed three or four times in an oven. Then this delightful honey-golden color appears, thanks to which light wooden utensils seem massive.

BOGORODSKAYA TOY

Variegated wooden chickens on a stand, figurines of blacksmiths, a man and a bear - pull the bar and they will knock with hammers on a small anvil... Funny toys, known in Rus' since time immemorial, have become the main folk craft for residents of the village of Bogorodskoye near Moscow.

The “Bogorodskaya toy” owes its birth to the village of Bogorodskoye, now located in the Sergiev Posad district of the Moscow region. In the 15th century, the village was owned by the famous Moscow boyar M.B. Pleshcheev, after whose death, the village along with the peasants was inherited by his eldest son Andrei, and then by his grandson Fedor.

Since 1595, the village of Bogorodskoye became the property of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and the peasants became monastery serfs. It was the peasants who laid the foundation for XVI-XVII centuries the foundations of wood carving, which glorified Bogorodskoye, the current “capital of the toy kingdom,” throughout the world.

MATRYOSHKA

Matryoshka is the most famous and beloved Russian souvenir, a global phenomenon. The first Russian nesting doll appeared at the end of the 19th century, however, it gained unprecedented recognition as one of the comprehensive images of Russia, a symbol of Russian folk art. The predecessor and prototype of the Russian nesting doll was the figurine of a good-natured bald old man, the Buddhist sage Fukuruma, which contained several more figures nested one inside the other. This figurine was brought from the island of Honshu. The Japanese, by the way, claim that an unknown Russian monk was the first to carve such a toy on the island of Honshu.

The Russian wooden detachable doll was called a matryoshka. In the pre-revolutionary province, the name Matryona, Matresha was considered one of the most common Russian names, based on the Latin word “mater”, meaning mother. This name was associated with the mother large family, having good health and a portly figure. Subsequently, it became a household word and began to mean a turning, detachable, colorfully painted wooden product. But to this day, the nesting doll remains a symbol of motherhood, fertility, since a doll with a large doll family perfectly expresses the figurative basis of this ancient symbol human culture.

The first Russian nesting doll, carved by Vasily Zvezdochkin and painted by Sergei Malyutin, had eight seats: a girl with a black rooster was followed by a boy, then a girl again, and so on. All the figures were different from each other, and the last, eighth, depicted a swaddled baby.

ORENBURG DOWN SCARF

The foundations of applied art, thanks to which Orenburg became known throughout the world, were laid by Cossack women at the end of the 17th century, when Russian pioneers, having established themselves in the Urals, entered into trade relations with the local population.

The harsh climate of these places required warm but light clothing. Cossack women easily adopted goat down handicrafts from the Kazakhs and Kalmyks. Only the knitting style of the steppe people was continuous, and the Yaik women began to use Russian lace ornaments.

PAVLOPOSAD SCARF

Bright and light, feminine Pavloposad shawls are always fashionable and relevant. And today, original designs are complemented by various elements such as fringe, created in different colors and remain an excellent accessory to almost any look.

Pavlovo Posad printed, woolen and semi-woolen shawls, decorated with traditional colorful printed patterns, originated in town near Moscow Pavlovsky Posad in the 1860-80s. The area of Pavlovsky Posad (the territory of the former Bogorodsky district) is one of the oldest Russian textile centers. In the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Bogorodsk shawls and sarafan fabrics were distinguished by the special beauty of the ornament woven with gold thread. Later, silk weaving became widespread here, and from the 1860s. The production of woolen and half-woolen scarves, decorated with colorful printed patterns, began. Gradually, production expanded and acquired a pronounced national character.

ROSTOV FINISH

Rostov enamel - a unique traditional folk -art craft, which arose in the second half of the 18th century. as an icon painting craft. In this series, it is related to Palekh, Mstera, Kholui, only the material is quite rare - enamel painting. “Enamel” comes from the Greek noun tsEggpt (phengos), meaning “shimmer.” Special paints (invented in 1632 by the French jeweler Jean Toutin) based on glass with the addition of metal oxides are applied to a metal base (steel, copper, silver, gold sheet) and fixed by firing in an oven. Rostov enamel is one of the ten best folk crafts in Russia.

Gzhel is the name of a picturesque region near Moscow, which is 60 kilometers from Moscow. The word "Gzhel" is incredibly popular today. Harmony, fairy tales and true stories are associated with beauty. Porcelain with elegant blue painting and multi-colored majolica are now known not only in Russia, but also abroad. Gzhel products attract everyone who loves beauty, rich in imagination and harmony, high professionalism their creators. Gzhel is the cradle and main center of Russian ceramics. Here its best features were formed and the highest achievements of folk art were revealed.

How old is this Russian folk craft? Archaeological research on the territory of Gzhel confirms the existence of pottery here since the beginning of the 14th century. And it is not surprising, the Gzhel land has long been rich in forests, rivers, high-quality clays, ... “which I have never seen with more beautiful whiteness.” Since then, over its more than six-century history, Gzhel has experienced different periods.

The end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries became a period of deep crisis. It seemed that Gzhel art had perished forever.

The post-war period is associated with the beginning of the revival of the craft and the search for its own figurative language. This required years of painstaking and tireless work, training of new masters. As a result, this led to success. Dymkovsky matryoshka toy Gzhel applied

In 1972, the Gzhel association was created on the basis of six small production facilities located in several villages. Creative groups developed new samples. Completely new product forms were created. Painting has become richer and fulfills artistic requirements existing day.

TAGIL TRAY

Ural lacquer painting metalworking arose in the 18th century. at Nizhny Tagil factories. The Tagil tray is older than the Zhostovo one. It is Nizhny Tagil that is considered the birthplace of Russian metal painting. The Ural factory Demidovs, being the main customers of painted products, supported the lacquer industry in every possible way. Tagil metal painting cannot be confused with any other: it is characterized by a richness of colors, purity and grace in the processing of colors, completeness of the composition, and a refined pattern of ornaments.

Zhostovo painting is a folk craft of artistic painting of metal trays that exists in the village of Zhostovo, Mytishchi district, Moscow region. The craft of painted metal trays arose in the mid-18th century. in the Urals, where the Demidov metallurgical plants were located. Only in the first half of the 19th century. Trays began to be made in the villages of the Moscow province - Zhostovo, Troitsky, Novoseltsev. The Moscow region fishery soon became the leading one.

Zhostovo trays are paintings, mainly of floral patterns, the creators of which were simple Russian peasants. They brought bright cheerfulness of colors, simplicity and clarity of images, accuracy of characteristics, and clarity of drawing to lacquer painting.

Painting is performed using free brush stroke techniques, without preliminary drawing. Most often a black background is used. The volumes of flowers and leaves seem to grow from the depths of the background. This is done by gradually moving from dark tones to lighter ones. Flowers seem to come to life in the painting.

Modern technology for making trays differs little from that previously used by craftsmen from the village of Zhostovo. A thin sheet of iron is pressed into the desired shape, the edges of the tray are rolled to give rigidity, and the surface is leveled. The front surface of the tray is primed and puttied, and then sanded and coated with black (less often a different color) varnish. The trays are dried in ovens at temperatures up to 90 degrees C. The coating is done three times, after which the colored surface of the tray becomes shiny.

FEDOSKINO

Fedoskino miniature, a type of traditional Russian lacquer miniature painting oil paints on papier-mâché, which developed at the end of the 18th century. in the village of Fedoskino near Moscow.

The production of papier-mâché products arose in 1798, when the merchant P.I. Korobov organized visor production in the village of Danilkov, which he bought (currently part of Fedoskino). A few years later, Korobov visited Johann Stobwasser’s factory in Brauschweig, adopted the technology of papier-mâché products there and began producing in his factory the then popular snuff boxes, decorated with engravings glued to the lid, sometimes painted and varnished. In the second quarter of the 19th century. Snuff boxes, bead boxes, boxes and other products began to be decorated with picturesque miniatures made with oil paints in a classical pictorial manner.

The craftsmen worked at the factory for hire, many of them came from the icon-painting workshops of Sergiev Posad and Moscow, some had art education, received at the Stroganov School. The names of some of them are known - S. I. Borodkin, A. A. Shavrin, A. V. Tikhomirov, D. A. Krylov and others.

The favorite motifs for painting by the Fedoskino miniaturists became subjects that were popular at that time: “troikas”, “tea parties”, scenes from Russian and Little Russian peasant life. The most valued were caskets decorated with complex multi-figure compositions - copies of paintings by Russian and Western European artists.

The Fedoskino miniature is painted with oil paints in three or four layers - shading (general sketch of the composition), copy-painting or re-painting (more detailed work), glazing (modeling the image with transparent paints) and highlighting (finishing the work with light paints that convey highlights on objects) are performed in succession.

The Palekh miniature has no analogues in the whole world. It is done on papier-mâché and only then transferred to the surface of boxes of various shapes and sizes.

Peculiar and subtle art lacquer miniatures Palekh incorporated the principles of ancient Russian painting and folk art as its basis. Currently Palekh miniature is an integral part of domestic decorative and applied art as a whole. Along with the development of ancient traditions, it carries within itself a poetic vision of the world characteristic of Russians. folk tales and songs.

The birth of this art in Palekh is not accidental. It was a natural result of the development of centuries-old traditions in new historical conditions, inheriting the skill of many generations of icon painters. The old Palekh experience is rich and diverse. The traditions of ancient Russian art have long been studied and preserved in Palekh.

The independent Palekh style of icon painting was formed only in the middle of the 18th century. He absorbed and developed the basic principles and elements of the Novgorod and Stroganov schools and painting of the Volga region of the second half of the 17th century. IN XVII-XIX centuries Palekh masters repeatedly fulfilled orders for icons in the Novgorod style or in the character of the Moscow mud.

Conclusion

The ability to identify the aesthetic qualities of a material has always distinguished Russian craftsmen, which manifested itself in all spheres of life from everyday life to architecture, where skill was expressed in the art of stone cutting.

The flourishing of jewelry art in Russia began in the middle of the 18th century and continued throughout the century.

During this period, silversmiths achieved great success. In accordance with new tastes, the shapes of silver services are simple and clear. They are decorated with flutes and antique ornaments. On silver glasses and snuff boxes, the craftsmen of Veliky Ustyug reproduce images of ancient scenes and victories of Russian troops from engravings.

An outstanding phenomenon in the applied art of the 18th century is the steel artistic products of Tula craftsmen: furniture, boxes, candlesticks, buttons, buckles, snuff boxes.

The flourishing of Russian applied art of the 18th century was associated with the work of architects Kazakov, Starov, Quarenghi, Cameron, Voronikhin and a number of trained folk artists. But its true glory was created mostly by serf craftsmen who remained unknown - furniture makers, carvers, weavers, stone cutters, jewelers, glass makers, ceramists...

Literature

History of Russian art. Responsible editors I.A. Bartenev, R.I. Vlasova - M., 1987

History of Russian art. Ed. I.E. Grabar. T. 1-12 (sections of decorative and applied arts). M.: 1953-1961

Russian decorative and applied arts. Ed. A.I. Leonova. T. 1-3. M.: 1962-1965

Rybakov B.A. Russian applied art of the X-XIII centuries. L.: 1971

Vasilenko V.M. Russian applied art. Origins and formation. I century BC. - XIII century AD M.: 1977

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Painting of the first half of the 18th century

Since the era of Peter the Great, painting has undergone enormous changes. The art of easel painting with its semantic and compositional features. Reverse perspective is being replaced by direct and associated conveyance of the depth of space. The most important feature is the depiction of the figure in accordance with the principles of anatomical correctness. New means of transmitting volume are emerging. The most important quality is chiaroscuro, which has replaced the conventionally symbolic contour line. The technique itself oil painting with its characteristic specific techniques and system of color relationships, it firmly, although not immediately, enters into artistic use. The sense of texture is heightened. The artist gains the ability to convey the specific properties of soft velvet, harsh ermine fur, heavy gold brocade and fine lace. In the plot picture one can trace new principles of interconnection of figures. The depiction of the naked body constitutes a new and difficult task. The structure of painting itself becomes more ramified. Since the beginning of the 18th century, secular art has cultivated different types easel works, monumental painting in the form of panels and lampshades, miniature writing. The portrait includes all known varieties - front, chamber, regular and costume, double and paired. Artists master allegorical and mythological subjects. The presence of these features, although revealed at first in a compromise form, allows us to talk about the emergence of a new type of painting.

The first steps towards the development of a portrait are connected with the activities of the painting workshop of the Armory Chamber. The works made by Russian and foreign masters tend to be parsuna in nature. Of all the typological options, parsuna gives preference to a ceremonial portrait and is found in this capacity in several varieties. Among them, the “portrait-thesis” is the most archaic. It combines portrait images and numerous explanatory inscriptions within the conventional icon space. We can also talk about an “apotheosis portrait”. These are portrait-paintings symbolizing the military exploits of Peter I. Ordinary portraits of Peter, Menshikov, Sheremetev full-length and on horseback are also common.

Space is treated everywhere in a very stereotypical manner, and the general arrangement of objects rather serves as a symbolic designation of real spatial relationships. The problem of internal and external space is solved just as conventionally in terms of meaning and scale. Parsuna somewhat departs from the richness of color characteristic of 17th-century icon painting. However, the meticulous rendering of the ornamentation of the robes and various details gives the canvases a heightened decorative quality.

The master does not yet fully master the new principles of conveying volume, combining emphatically convex painted faces and flat patterned clothes. The large size of the canvases, their imposing spirit, the richness of the furnishings and the display of jewels are intended to illustrate social significance depicted. The image is autonomous, it is focused on itself and is indifferent to others. Painting, which has not yet matured to convey the individual, in its own way tries to notice the features inherent in a given character. However, the general and the individual have not yet been merged into organic unity, and specific properties barely appear under the combined typifying mask.

The Parsuna line, which existed for a relatively short time, mainly in the 80s and especially in the 90s of the 17th century, subsequently encountered a very strong flow of works by foreigners and retired artists, which practically replaced it. At the same time, one should not think that it turned out to be an accidental episode in the general process of development of Russian portraiture. Having been pushed back from its main positions, the Parsuna continued to exist. In addition, its features appeared in the work of a number of advanced artists as evidence of the incomplete transition from medieval writing to a new manner. In this capacity it can be found in the works of I. Nikitin, I. Vishnyakov and A. Antropov.

Traces of parsunism are also found in the second half of the 18th century, especially in the works of serfs or provincial artists who independently came to the new art, as a rule, starting from icon painting. Let us note that parsunism as an artistic phenomenon exists not only in the Russian school, but also in Ukraine and Poland. It is also found in Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and even in the countries of the Middle East, that is, where painting, in a similar historical situation, experiences a fundamentally similar introduction to the art of modern times and secular art.

Changes in everyday life and their impact on arts and crafts. Features of ornament and decor artistic styles Baroque, Rococo, Classicism.

Silver and gold making: St. Petersburg school, Moscow craftsmen and manufactories, niello silver of Veliky Ustyug. New types of dishes made of precious and non-ferrous metals: teapots, coffee pots, bouillottes, samovars. Household items and church utensils. State regalia. Orders and medals. Enamels. Enamel artists A.G. Ovsov, G.S. Musikiysky.

The emergence of Russian porcelain. D.I.Vinogradov. Imperial and private porcelain factories. Majolica, faience. Art glass. Decorative fabrics and tapestries. New in clothes. Cabinet and type-setting furniture. Marquetry. Wooden carvings in civil and church interiors. Crews. Decorative rock. Cameos.

Artistic folk crafts. Carved and inlaid bottom of Gorodets. Bone carving Kholmogory. Gold embroidery of the Tver province. Lace of Galich and Vologda. Ceramics of Gzhel.

Music and theater in the 18th century

Polyphonic choral singing. Edges. Instrumental music and orchestras. Opera art. Ballet. Music in court, city and peasant life. The emergence of a national composer school. E.I.Fomin. I.E.Khandoshkin. D.S. Bortnyansky. M.S.Berezovsky. A.O. Kozlovsky.

Attempts to create an accessible public theater under Peter the Great. Amateur performances at court. School theaters in spiritual and secular educational institutions. Professional troupes of foreign actors.

Drama of Russian classicism: tragedies and comedies. The influence of sentimentalism on the theatrical repertoire. The emergence of drama and comic opera on the Russian stage. A.P. Sumarokov is a playwright and theater figure. The founder of the Russian professional theater, actor and director F.G. Volkov. His friend and follower I.A. Dmitrevsky. Mass theatrical performances.

Fortress theater. Troupe of Count P.B. Sheremetev. P.I. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova, T.V. Shlykova-Granatova and other artists. Palace Theater in Ostankino. People's Theatre.

ABBREVIATIONS FOR THE NAMES OF THE MAIN MUSEUM COLLECTIONS MENTIONED IN THE LIST OF CULTURAL MONUMENTS

BAN - Library Russian Academy Sciences (St. Petersburg)

VMDPNI - All-Russian Museum decorative, applied and folk art (Moscow)

State Historical Museum - State Historical Museum(Moscow city)

HMGS - State Museum of Urban Sculpture (St. Petersburg)

GMMK - State Museums of the Moscow Kremlin (Moscow)

GNIMA - State Scientific Research Museum of Architecture (Moscow)

GOP - State Armory Chamber (Moscow)

State Russian Museum - State Russian Museum (St. Petersburg)

Tretyakov Gallery - State Tretyakov Gallery(Moscow city)

State Hermitage - State Hermitage Museum (St. Petersburg)

ZIKHMZ - former Zagorsk (now Sergiev-Posad) historical- Art Museum-reserve (Sergiev Posad, Moscow region)

MIFA - Museum of Historical Treasures of Ukraine (Kiev)

MPIB - Museum of Applied Art and Life of the 17th Century "The Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles and the Patriarchal Chambers in the Moscow Kremlin" (Moscow)

GPS - Novgorod United State Museum-Reserve (Novgorod)

NGP - Novgorod Faceted Chamber (Novgorod)

SHM - Samara Art Museum (Samara)

MONUMENTS OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

SECTION I. HISTORY OF RUSSIAN CULTURE IN ANCIENT AND MIDDLE AGES

(UNTIL THE END OF THE 17TH CENTURY)

FOLK WOODEN ARCHITECTURE

CULT BUILDINGS

1. Kletsky churches: Church of Lazarus from the Murom Monastery (14-16 centuries) - Kizhi Nature Reserve; Church of the Deposition of the Robe from the village of Borodavy (15th century) - Kirillo-Belozersky Museum-Reserve; Church of the Transfiguration from the village of Spas-Vezhi (17th century) - Kostroma Museum-Reserve; St. Nicholas Church from the village of Tukholya (17th century) - Novgorod Museum-Reserve "Vitoslavlitsy"; Chapel of Michael the Archangel from the village of Lelikozero (18th century) - Kizhi Museum-Reserve; Church of St. Nicholas from the village of Glotova (18th century) - Suzdal Museum-Reserve.

2. Tent churches: St. Nicholas Church in the village of Lyavlya (16th century); Church of St. George from the village of Vershina (17th century) - Arkhangelsk Museum-Reserve "Malye Korely"; Resurrection Church from the village of Patakino (18th century) - Suzdal Museum-Reserve; Church of the Assumption (18th century) in the city of Kondopoga.

Decorative and applied art of the 18th century. Russian decorative and applied art of the 18th-21st centuries. Monuments of Russian culture

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