Chronicle as a genre of ancient Russian literature: characteristics, features, examples. Genres of Old Russian literature

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A genre is a historically established type of literary work, an abstract pattern on the basis of which the texts of specific literary works are created. System of literary genres Ancient Rus' was significantly different from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence Byzantine literature and borrowed from her a system of genres, reworking them on a national basis: the specificity of genres ancient Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. The genres of ancient Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying.

Primary genres

These genres are called primary because they served building material for unifying genres. Primary genres:

Life
Word
Teaching
Tale

Primary genres also include weather recording, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend.

Life

The genre of hagiography was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most widespread and beloved genre of ancient Russian literature. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were canonized. The life was created by people who directly communicated with a person or could reliably testify to his life. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function, because the life of the saint was perceived as an example of a righteous life that must be imitated. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of the immortality of the human soul. Life was built according to certain canons, from which they did not deviate until the 15-16 centuries.

Canons of Life

The pious origin of the hero of the life, whose parents must have been righteous. The saint's parents often begged God.
A saint was born a saint, not made one.
The saint was distinguished by an ascetic lifestyle, spending time in solitude and prayer.
A mandatory attribute of the life was a description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death.
The saint was not afraid of death.
The life ended with the glorification of the saint.

One of the first works of the hagiographic genre in ancient Russian literature was the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb.

Old Russian eloquence

This genre was borrowed by ancient Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties:

Didactic (instructive)
Political
Solemn

Teaching

Teaching is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person: both for the prince and for the commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh” included in the Tale of Bygone Years. In the Tale of Bygone Years, the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh are dated 1096. At this time, the strife between the princes in the battle for the throne reached its climax. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives advice on how to organize your life. He says that there is no need to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion. It is necessary to serve God by helping those in need. When going to war, you should pray - God will definitely help. Monomakh confirms these words with an example from his life: he took part in many battles - and God protected him. Monomakh says that one should look at how the natural world works and try to arrange public relations according to the model of a harmonious world order. The teaching of Vladimir Monomakh is addressed to descendants.

Word

The word is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This work is the subject of much controversy regarding its authenticity. This is because the original text of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” has not been preserved. It was destroyed by fire in 1812. Only copies have survived. From that time on, it became fashionable to refute its authenticity. The word tells about the military campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsians, which took place in history in 1185. Researchers suggest that the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was one of the participants in the described campaign. Disputes about the authenticity of this work were conducted in particular because it stands out from the system of genres of ancient Russian literature due to the unusualness of the artistic means and techniques used in it. The traditional chronological principle of narration is violated here: the author is transported to the past, then returns to the present (this was not typical for ancient Russian literature), the author makes lyrical digressions, inserted episodes appear (Svyatoslav's dream, Yaroslavna's cry). The word contains a lot of elements of traditional oral folk art and symbols. One can clearly feel the influence of a fairy tale, an epic. The political background of the work is obvious: in the fight against a common enemy, Russian princes must be united, disunity leads to death and defeat.

Another example of political eloquence is the “Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land,” which was created immediately after the Mongol-Tatars came to Rus'. The author glorifies the bright past and mourns the present.

An example of the solemn variety of ancient Russian eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, which was created in the first third of the 11th century. The word was written by Metropolitan Hilarion on the occasion of the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The word conveys the idea of the political and military independence of Rus' from Byzantium. By “Law” Hilarion understands the Old Testament, which was given to the Jews, but it does not suit the Russian and other peoples. Therefore, God gave the New Testament, which is called “Grace.” In Byzantium, Emperor Constantine is revered, who contributed to the spread and establishment of Christianity there. Hilarion says that Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Rus', is no worse than the Byzantine emperor and should also be revered by the Russian people. The work of Prince Vladimir is continued by Yaroslav the Wise. The main idea of “The Word of Law and Grace” is that Rus' is as good as Byzantium.

Old Russian literature began to take shape after the adoption of Christianity and at first was supposed to introduce the history of religion and contribute to its dissemination. Another important function at this stage was to educate readers in the spirit of Christian commandments. For this reason, the first works (Old Russian literature covers the period from the 11th to the 17th centuries) were mainly worn ecclesiastical character. Gradually, stories from the lives of ordinary people began to enjoy increasing popularity, which contributed to the emergence and then increasing spread of “secular” works. Under the influence of these factors, the main genres of ancient Russian literature were formed. All of them, until the 15th century, were united by a common approach to the events depicted: the historical basis did not allow the author's fiction.

Features of genre formation

There is an opinion that the literature of Ancient Rus' came out of Byzantine and Bulgarian literature. This statement is partly legitimate, since the system of genres among all these peoples actually has a certain similarity. However, one must keep in mind that the states at that moment were at different stages of development (Rus was significantly behind Byzantium and Bulgaria), and the authors faced different tasks. Therefore, it would be more correct to say that ancient Russian literature adopted the existing experience of the West. It was formed based on folklore and the needs of society. The genres of Old Russian literature were specified depending on the practical purpose and were divided into primary and unifying. In general, they represented a dynamic system that responded vividly to any changes in society.

Primary genres of ancient Russian literature

These included a life, a teaching, a word, a story, a chronicle story or legend, a weather record, and a church legend. The first four are the most famous.

A hagiography is a work containing a story about the lives of saints. It was perceived as a model of morality that should be imitated, and was built according to certain canons. The classical hagiography contained the story of birth (usually a begged child) and pious life, a description of miracles associated with the hero, and glorification of the saint. One of the most famous works of this genre was “The Life of Saints Gleb and Boris,” written in a harsh time for the country. The images of the princes were supposed to contribute to unification in a common fight against the invaders.

A later version was “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself.” Seen more as a variant of autobiography, it is interesting because it presents a picture public life during the schism of the church.

Genres of Old Russian literature also include teachings that contained rules of human behavior regardless of his position. They had a powerful educational impact on the reader and touched on various areas of life. The most famous teaching was compiled by Vladimir Monomakh and addressed to the youth. Its contents are fully consistent with Christian commandments, and therefore were perceived as a book of life for posterity.

Old Russian eloquence was fully manifested in such a genre as the word. It could have different directions. An example of a solemn work is “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, written at the beginning of the 11th century in connection with the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. This is the glorification of Russian princes and the Russian state, which are in no way inferior to the powerful Byzantium and its rulers.

The pinnacle of this genre was the work about the campaign of the Russian prince against the Polovtsians.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"

Despite the ongoing controversy regarding the authenticity and authorship of this work, it was absolutely innovative for its time. Any genres of ancient Russian literature, as already noted, had certain canons. “The Word...” is significantly different from them. It includes lyrical digressions, a violation of chronology in the narrative (the action is either transferred to the past or directed to the present), and inserted elements. The means of representation are also unconventional, many of which are correlated with elements of folklore. Many researchers put “The Word...” on a par with the early feudal epic works of different peoples. In essence, this is a poem about the courage and perseverance of soldiers, an expression of grief for the dead, a call for the need to unite all Russian princes and lands. In addition, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” allows us to evaluate the place and role of the state in international history.

Uniting

There are also unifying genres of ancient Russian literature. All readers are familiar with examples of the chronicle. This also includes the chety-menaion (“reading by month”, included stories about saints), a chronograph (description of events of the 15th and 16th centuries) and a patericon (about the life of the holy fathers). These genres are called unifying (introduced by D. S. Likhachev), since they can include life, teaching, speech, etc.

Chronicle

The greatest attention, of course, deserves works in which a record was kept of the events that took place by year, which could be worn general character or be more specific: with details, dialogues, etc.

The chronicle as a genre of ancient Russian literature began to take shape presumably already at the end of the 10th century. But the actual work of this genre took shape under Yaroslav the Wise.

At the beginning of the 12th century, based on the available records, the monk Nestor, who lived in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, compiled the “Tale of Bygone Years.” Its events cover a long period: from the origin of the Slavic tribes to the present. A laconic and expressive description allows, after several centuries, to present the history of the formation and development of the Russian state.

Tale

This genre of ancient Russian literature was based on translations of Byzantine and folklore works and is the most studied to date. The stories were divided into:

military - in the center historical figure and an important battle (“The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”);
satirical - about society significant issues, often had the character of parodies (“The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”);
household - (“The Tale of Woe-Misfortune”).

The pinnacle was “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom,” which is called the hymn of fidelity and love.

Walkings (or walks) were also popular in Rus', first telling about the journeys of pilgrims to the holy land (“The Walking of Hegumen Daniel”), and later, in connection with the development of trade, about the trips of merchants. This was a story about what was seen with my own eyes.

The system created by the 17th century, which included various genres of ancient Russian literature, marked the transition to the literature of modern times.

Let's start with the fact that they appeared along with the adoption of Christianity in Rus'. The intensity of its spread is indisputable evidence that the emergence of writing was caused by the needs of the state.

History of appearance

Writing was used in various fields public and state life, in the legal sphere, international and domestic relations.

After the emergence of writing, the activities of copyists and translators were stimulated, and various genres of Old Russian literature began to develop.

It served the needs and needs of the church, and consisted of solemn words, lives, and teachings. Secular literature appeared in Ancient Rus' and chronicles began to be kept.

In the minds of people of this period, literature was considered together with Christianization.

Old Russian writers: chroniclers, hagiographers, authors of solemn phrases, they all mentioned the benefits of enlightenment. At the end of the X - beginning of the XI century. A huge amount of work was carried out in Rus' aimed at translating from the ancient Greek language literary sources. Thanks to such activities, ancient Russian scribes managed to become familiar with many monuments of Byzantine times over two centuries, and on their basis created various genres of ancient Russian literature. D. S. Likhachev, analyzing the history of Rus'’s introduction to the books of Bulgaria and Byzantium, identified two character traits similar process.

He confirmed the existence of literary monuments that became common to Serbia, Bulgaria, Byzantium, and Rus'.

Such intermediary literature included liturgical books, sacred scriptures, chronicles, works of church writers, and natural science materials. In addition, this list included some monuments of historical narrative, for example, “The Romance of Alexander the Great.”

Most of the ancient Bulgarian literature, the Slavic medium, were translations from Greek, as well as works of early Christian literature written in the 3rd-7th centuries.

It is impossible to mechanically divide ancient Slavic literature into translated and original; they are organically connected parts of a single organism.

Reading other people's books in Ancient Rus' is evidence of the secondary nature of national culture in the area artistic word. At first, among the written monuments there was a sufficient number of non-literary texts: works on theology, history, and ethics.

The main type of verbal art became folklore works. To understand the uniqueness and originality of Russian literature, it is enough to familiarize yourself with works that are “outside genre systems”: “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik.

Primary genres

The genres of ancient Russian literature include those works that became building material for other directions. These include:

teachings;
stories;
word;
hagiography

Such genres of works of ancient Russian literature include chronicle story, weather record, church legend, chronicle legend.

Life

Was borrowed from Byzantium. Life as a genre of ancient Russian literature has become one of the most beloved and widespread. Life was considered an obligatory attribute when a person was ranked among the saints, that is, canonized. It was created by people who directly communicate with a person, who are able to reliably tell about the brightest moments of his life. The text was compiled after the death of the one about whom it was spoken. It performed a significant educational function, since the life of the saint was perceived as a standard (model) of righteous existence and was imitated.

The Life helped people overcome the fear of death; the idea of the immortality of the human soul was preached.

Canons of Life

Analyzing the features of the genres of ancient Russian literature, we note that the canons according to which the hagiography was created remained unchanged until the 16th century. First they talked about the origin of the hero, then they gave space detailed story about his righteous life, about the absence of fear of death. The description ended with glorification.

Discussing which genres ancient Russian literature considered the most interesting, we note that it was the life that made it possible to describe the existence of the holy princes Gleb and Boris.

Old Russian eloquence

Answering the question about what genres existed in ancient Russian literature, we note that eloquence came in three versions:

political;
didactic;
solemn.

Teaching

The system of genres of Old Russian literature distinguished it as a type of Old Russian eloquence. In their teaching, the chroniclers tried to highlight the standard of behavior for all ancient Russian people: commoners, princes. The most striking example of this genre is considered to be the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh” from the “Tale of Bygone Years”, dating back to 1096. At that time, disputes for the throne between the princes reached their maximum intensity. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives recommendations regarding the organization of his life. He suggests seeking the salvation of the soul in seclusion, calls for helping people in need, and serving God.

Monomakh confirms the need for prayer before a military campaign with an example from own life. He proposes to build social relations in harmony with nature.

Sermon

Analyzing the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we emphasize that this oratorical church genre, which has a unique theory, was involved in historical and literary study only in the form that at some stages it was indicative of the era.

The sermon called Basil the Great, Augustine the Blessed, John Chrysostom, and Gregory Dvoeslov “fathers of the church.” Luther's sermons are recognized as an integral part of the study of the formation of modern German prose, and the statements of Bourdalou, Bossuet, and other speakers of the 17th century are the most important examples of the prose style of French classicism. The role of sermons in medieval Russian literature is high; they confirm the uniqueness of the genres of ancient Russian literature.

Samples of Russian ancient pre-Mongol sermons that give a complete idea of the creation of composition and elements artistic style, historians consider the “Words” of Metropolitan Hilarion and Cyril of Turvo. They skillfully used Byzantine sources, and based on them they created quite good works of their own. They use a sufficient amount of antitheses, comparisons, personifications of abstract concepts, allegories, rhetorical fragments, dramatic presentation, dialogues, and partial landscapes.

Professionals consider the following examples of sermons designed in an unusual stylistic design to be the “Words” of Serapion of Vladimir and the “Words” of Maxim the Greek. The heyday of the practice and theory of preaching art occurred in the 18th century, they discussed the struggle between Ukraine and Poland.

Word

Analyzing the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we will pay special attention to the word. It is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. As an example of its political variability, let us name “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This work causes serious controversy among many historians.

The historical genre of ancient Russian literature, to which “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” can be attributed, amazes with the unusualness of its techniques and artistic means.

In this work, the chronological traditional version of the narrative is violated. The author first moves into the past, then mentions the present, uses lyrical digressions that make it possible to write in various episodes: Yaroslavna’s cry, Svyatoslav’s dream.

The “Word” contains various elements of oral traditional folk art and symbols. It contains epics, fairy tales, and there is also a political background: Russian princes united in the fight against a common enemy.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is one of the books that reflect the early feudal epic. It is on a par with other works:

"Song of the Nibelungs";
"The Knight in Tiger Skin";
"David of Sasun".

These works are considered single-stage and belong to one stage of folklore and literary formation.

The Word combines two folklore genre: lamentation and glory. Throughout the entire work there is a mourning of dramatic events and glorification of princes.

Similar techniques are characteristic of other works of Ancient Rus'. For example, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” is a combination of the lament of the dying Russian land with the glory of the powerful past.

As a solemn variation of ancient Russian eloquence, the “Sermon on Law and Grace”, authored by Metropolitan Hilarion, appears. This work appeared at the beginning of the 11th century. The reason for writing was the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The work contains the idea of complete independence of Rus' from the Byzantine Empire.

Under the “Law,” Hilarion notes the Old Testament, given to the Jews, which was not suitable for the Russian people. God gives a New Covenant called “Grace.” Hilarion writes that just as Emperor Constantine is revered in Byzantium, the Russian people also respect Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Rus'.

Tale

Having examined the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we will pay attention to stories. These are the texts epic looking, telling about military exploits, princes, their deeds. Examples of such works are:

“The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”;
“The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu Khan”;
"The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River."

The most widespread genre in ancient Russian literature was the military story. Were published various lists works related to it. Many historians paid attention to the analysis of stories: D. S. Likhachev, A. S. Orlova, N. A. Meshchersky. Despite the fact that traditionally the genre of the military story was considered the secular literature of Ancient Rus', it integrally belongs to the circle of church literature.

The versatility of the themes of such works is explained by the combination of the heritage of the pagan past with the new Christian worldview. These elements give rise to a new perception of military feat, combining heroic and everyday traditions. Among the sources that influenced the formation of this genre at the beginning of the 11th century, experts highlight translated works: “Alexandria”, “Devgenie’s Act”.

N.A. Meshchersky, engaged in a deep study of this literary monument, believed that “History” had the greatest influence on the formation of the military tale of Ancient Rus'. He confirms his opinion with a significant number of quotations used in various ancient Russian literary works: “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, the Kyiv and Galician-Volyn Chronicles.

Historians admit that Icelandic sagas and military epics were used in the formation of this genre.

The warrior was endowed with courageous valor and holiness. The idea of him is similar to the description of the epic hero. The essence of military feat has changed; the desire to die for the great faith comes first.

A separate role was assigned to princely service. The desire for self-realization turns into humble self-sacrifice. The implementation of this category is carried out in connection with verbal and ritual forms of culture.

Chronicle

It is a kind of narrative about historical events. The chronicle is considered one of the first genres of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Rus' she played special role, since it did not just report some historical event, but was also a legal and political document, and was a confirmation of how to behave in certain situations. The most ancient chronicle is considered to be “The Tale of Bygone Years,” which came down to us in the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 16th century. She talks about the origin Kyiv princes, about the emergence of the ancient Russian state.

Chronicles are considered “unifying genres”, which subordinate the following components: military, historical stories, the life of a saint, words of praise, teachings.

Chronograph

These are texts that contain a detailed description of the time of the 15th-16th centuries. Historians consider “Chronograph according to the Great Exposition” to be one of the first such works. This work did not reach in full until our time, so information about it is quite contradictory.

In addition to those genres of ancient Russian literature that are listed in the article, there were many other directions, each of which had its own distinctive characteristics. The variety of genres is a direct confirmation of the versatility and uniqueness of literary works created in Ancient Rus'.

Genres of Old Russian literature

a set of genres that arose and developed within Old Russian literature.

“The literary genres of Ancient Rus' have very significant differences from the genres of modern times: their existence, to a much greater extent than in modern times, is due to their use in practical life. They arise not only as varieties of literary creativity, but also as certain phenomena of the ancient Russian way of life , everyday life, everyday life in the broadest sense of the word" (D.S. Likhachev).

Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism. From allegory to iambic. - M.: Flinta, Science. N.Yu. Rusova. 2004.

See what “genres of ancient Russian literature” are in other dictionaries:

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE- BIBLIOGRAPHY [from Greek. βιβλίον book and γράφω I write] THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE, information about publications related to the complex of scientific theological disciplines. The term "bibliography" appeared in Dr. Greece and originally meant “rewriting books.”… … Orthodox Encyclopedia

1) prose genre Old Russian literature of didactic or political content in the form of a letter to a real or fictitious person. Rubric: types and genres of literature Genus: genres of ancient Russian literature Example: Message from Ivan the Terrible to the prince... ...

1) the basic unit of language, used to name objects, persons, processes, properties. Category: language. Fine expressive means Whole: vocabulary Other associative connections: sign, meaning of the word... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

Historical genre of ancient Russian literature. Rubric: types and genres of literature Genus: genres of ancient Russian literature Example: The Tale of Bygone Years...Is Born new genre chronicle. The Tale of Bygone Years, one of the most significant works... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

A genre of ancient Russian literature that tells about the lives of people ranked among the saints by the church. Rubric: types and genres of literature Genus: genres of ancient Russian literature Example: The Life of Theodosius, the Life of Alexander Nevsky date back to the 11th century... the first... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

1) the genre of ancient Russian literature of a didactic and preaching nature. Rubric: types and genres of literature Genus: genres of ancient Russian literature Example: Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh Concerns about the fate of the country, imbued with deep humanity... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

- (French genre genus, type) a historically established and developing type of a work of art, which is determined on the basis of: 1) the work’s belonging to a particular literary genus; 2) predominant aesthetic quality... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

The genre of travel in ancient Russian literature. Rubric: Genres and Genres of Literature Synonym: circulation Genus: Genres of Old Russian Literature Example: Afanasy Nikitin. Walking beyond the three seas The earliest walk of Ancient Rus' is the walk of the abbot... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

Includes works from the 11th to 17th centuries, not only literary works themselves, but also historical works (chronicles), descriptions of travel (walkings), teachings, lives, epistles, etc. All these monuments contain elements of artistic creativity... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

A ritual work of folklore, elegiac improvisation associated with funerals, weddings, recruitment and other rituals, crop failure, illness, etc. Rubric: genres and genres of literature Synonym: lamentation Genus: ritual poetry Other associative ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

Books

Masterpieces of Old Russian Literature. “Manuscripts don’t burn” - this statement of one of Bulgakov’s heroes can rightfully be attributed to ancient Russian literary monuments, miraculously acquired, burning in the fire of 1812, and yet...

A genre is a historically established type of literary work, an abstract pattern on the basis of which the texts of specific literary works are created. The system of genres of literature of Ancient Rus' differed significantly from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed from it a system of genres, reworking them on a national basis: the specificity of the genres of Old Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. The genres of ancient Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying.

Primary genres

These genres are called primary because they served as building material for unifying genres. Primary genres:

Life
Word
Teaching
Tale

Primary genres also include weather recording, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend.

Canons of Life

The pious origin of the hero of the life, whose parents must have been righteous. The saint's parents often begged God.
A saint was born a saint, not made one.
The saint was distinguished by an ascetic lifestyle, spending time in solitude and prayer.
A mandatory attribute of the life was a description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death.
The saint was not afraid of death.
The life ended with the glorification of the saint.

One of the first works of the hagiographic genre in ancient Russian literature was the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb.

Old Russian eloquence

This genre was borrowed by ancient Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties:

Didactic (instructive)
Political
Solemn

Teaching

Teaching is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person: both for the prince and for the commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh” included in the Tale of Bygone Years. In the Tale of Bygone Years, the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh are dated 1096. At this time, the strife between the princes in the battle for the throne reached its climax. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives advice on how to organize your life. He says that there is no need to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion. It is necessary to serve God by helping those in need. When going to war, you should pray - God will definitely help. Monomakh confirms these words with an example from his life: he took part in many battles - and God protected him. Monomakh says that one should look at how the natural world works and try to organize social relations according to the model of a harmonious world order. The teaching of Vladimir Monomakh is addressed to descendants.

The word is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This work is the subject of much controversy regarding its authenticity. This is because the original text of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” has not been preserved. It was destroyed by fire in 1812. Only copies have survived. From that time on, it became fashionable to refute its authenticity. The word tells about the military campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsians, which took place in history in 1185. Researchers suggest that the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was one of the participants in the described campaign. Disputes about the authenticity of this work were conducted in particular because it stands out from the system of genres of ancient Russian literature due to the unusualness of the artistic means and techniques used in it. The traditional chronological principle of narration is violated here: the author is transported to the past, then returns to the present (this was not typical for ancient Russian literature), the author makes lyrical digressions, inserted episodes appear (Svyatoslav’s dream, Yaroslavna’s cry). The word contains a lot of elements of traditional oral folk art and symbols. One can clearly feel the influence of a fairy tale, an epic. The political background of the work is obvious: in the fight against a common enemy, Russian princes must be united, disunity leads to death and defeat.

A story is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, military exploits, and princely crimes. Examples military stories are “The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu Khan”, “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”.

Uniting genres

Primary genres acted as part of unifying genres, such as the chronicle, chronograph, cheti-menaion, and patericon.

A chronicle is a narration of historical events. This is the most ancient genre of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Rus', the chronicle played a very important role, because not only reported historical events of the past, but was also political and legal document, testified to how to act in certain situations. The most ancient chronicle is the “Tale of Bygone Years,” which has come down to us in the lists of the Laurentian Chronicle of the 14th century and the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 15th century. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russians, the genealogy of the Kyiv princes and the emergence of the ancient Russian state.

Chronographs are texts containing a description of the time of the 15th-16th centuries.

Cheti-menaia (literally “reading by month”) is a collection of works about holy people.

Patericon - a description of the life of the holy fathers.

Special mention should be made about the apocrypha genre. Apocrypha - literally translated from ancient Greek as “intimate, secret.” These are works of a religious and legendary nature. Apocrypha became especially popular in the 13th and 14th centuries, but the church did not recognize this genre and does not recognize it to this day.

Literature of Peter's time

The beginning of the 18th century was turbulent for Russia. The creation of our own fleet, wars for access to sea routes, the development of industry, the flourishing of trade, the construction of new cities - all this could not but affect the growth of national consciousness. People of Peter's times felt their involvement in historical events, the greatness of which they felt in their destinies. Boyar Russia is a thing of the past.

Time required work. Everyone was obliged to work for the benefit of society and the state, imitating the tireless “worker on the throne.” Every phenomenon was assessed primarily from the point of view of its usefulness. Literature could be useful if it glorified the successes of Russia and explained the sovereign's will. Therefore, the main qualities of literature of this era are topicality, life-affirming pathos and an orientation toward universal accessibility. Thus, in 1706, the so-called “school dramas” appeared, plays written by teachers of religious educational institutions.

School drama could be filled with political content. In the play, written in 1710 on the occasion of the victory at Poltava, the biblical king David is directly likened to Peter the Great: just as David defeated the giant Goliath, so Peter defeated the Swedish king Charles XII.

A large clergy class was hostile to the reforms. Peter tried unsuccessfully more than once to win over Church leaders to his side. He looked for faithful people who would have the gift of speech and persuasion and obediently carried out his line among the clergy.

Feofan Prokopovich, a church leader and writer, became such a person. Feofan's sermons are always political speeches, talented presentation official point vision. They were printed in state printing houses and sent to churches. Feofan's large journalistic works - "Spiritual Regulations" (1721) and "The Truth of the Will of the Monarchs" (1722) - were written on behalf of Peter. They are devoted to justifying the unlimited power of the monarch over the lives of his subjects.

Prokopovich's poetic creativity is diverse. He composes spiritual verses, elegies, and epigrams. His “Victory Song for the notorious Poltava Victory” (1709) marked the beginning of numerous eighteenth-century odes to the victories of Russian weapons.

Feofan was not only a practitioner, but also a literary theorist. He compiled courses on "Poetics" and "Rhetoric" (1706-1707) in Latin. In these works, he defended literature as an art that obeys strict rules and brings “pleasure and benefit.” In his poems, he demanded clarity and condemned the “darkness” of learned poetry of the 17th century. In “Rhetoric,” he, following European authors, proposed distinguishing three styles: “high,” “middle,” and “low,” assigning each of them to specific genres. Prokopovich's treatises were not published in a timely manner, but became known to theorists of Russian classicism - Lomonosov studied them in manuscript.

The era of classicism

The literature of Peter the Great's time was in many ways reminiscent of the literature of the past century. New ideas were spoken in old language - in church sermons, school dramas, handwritten stories. Only in the 30-40s a completely new page opened in Russian literature - classicism. However, like the literature of Peter the Great’s time, the work of classic writers (Kantemir, Sumarokov and others) is closely connected with the current political life countries.

Classicism appeared in Russian literature later than in Western European literature. He was closely associated with the ideas of the European Enlightenment, such as: the establishment of firm and fair laws binding on everyone, the enlightenment and education of the nation, the desire to penetrate the secrets of the universe, the affirmation of the equality of people of all classes, the recognition of the value of human personality regardless of position in society.

Russian classicism is also characterized by a system of genres, an appeal to the human mind, and convention artistic images. Recognition was important decisive role enlightened monarch. The ideal of such a monarch for Russian classicism was Peter the Great.

After the death of Peter the Great in 1725, a real possibility arose of curtailing the reforms and returning to the old way of life and government. Everything that constituted the future of Russia was at risk: science, education, the duty of a citizen. That is why satire is especially characteristic of Russian classicism.

The most prominent of the first figures of the new literary era, writing in this genre, was Prince Antioch Dmitrievich Cantemir (1708-1744). His father, an influential Moldavian aristocrat, was famous writer and a historian. Prince Antiochus himself, although in writerly modesty he called his mind “the unripe fruit of short-lived science,” was in fact a highly educated man by the highest European standards. He knew Latin, French and Italian poetry perfectly. In Russia, his friends were Archbishop Feofan Prokopovich and historian V.N. Tatishchev. For the last twelve years of his life, Cantemir was an envoy to London and Paris.

From his early youth, Antiochus wanted to see the noble society around him educated, free from prejudices. He considered following ancient norms and customs a prejudice.

Cantemir is better known as the author of nine satires. They expose various vices, but the poet's main enemies are the saint and the slacker - the dandy. They are displayed in the lines of the first satire “On those who blaspheme the teaching.” In the second satire, “On the Envy and Pride of Evil Nobles,” the good-for-nothing slacker Eugene is presented. He squanders the fortune of his ancestors, wearing a camisole worth an entire village, and at the same time he is jealous of his success ordinary people who achieved high ranks through their services to the king.

The idea of the natural equality of people is one of the boldest ideas in literature of that time. Cantemir believed that it was necessary to educate the nobility in order to prevent the nobleman from descending to the state of an unenlightened peasant:

“It doesn’t do much good to call you the king’s son,

If you do not differ from a vile disposition from a hound. "

Kantemir specifically dedicated one of his satires to education:

"The main thing of education is that

So that the heart, having driven out passions, matures

To establish good morals so that through this it will be useful

Your son was a boon to the fatherland, kind to people and always welcome. "

Cantemir also wrote in other genres. Among his works there are “high” (odes, poems), “middle” (satires, poetic letters and songs) and “low” (fables). He tried to find means in the language to write differently in different genres. But these funds were still not enough for him. The new Russian literary language was not established. How a “high” syllable differs from a “low” one was not entirely clear. Cantemir’s own style is colorful. He writes in long phrases, built according to the Latin model, with sharp syntactic shifts; there is no concern that the boundaries of the sentences coincide with the boundaries of the verse. It is very difficult to read his works.

The next prominent representative of Russian classicism, whose name is known to everyone without exception, is M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765). Lomonosov, unlike Kantemir, rarely ridicules enemies of enlightenment. In his solemn odes, the “affirming” principle prevailed. The poet glorifies Russia's successes on the battlefield, in peaceful trade, in science and art.

“Our literature begins with Lomonosov... he was its father, its Peter the Great.” This is how V.G. determined the place and significance of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov’s work for Russian literature. Belinsky.

M.V. was born. Lomonosov near the city of Kholmogory, on the banks of the Northern Dvina, in the family of a wealthy but illiterate peasant engaged in navigation. The boy felt such a craving for learning that at the age of 12 he walked from his native village to Moscow. The poet N. Nekrasov told us “how the Arkhangelsk man, by his own and God’s will, became intelligent and great.”

In Moscow, Mikhail entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy and, despite the fact that he lived in dire need, he graduated brilliantly. Among the best graduates of the Academy, Lomonosov was sent to study in St. Petersburg, and then, in 1736, to Germany. There Lomonosov took a course in all sciences, both mathematical and verbal. In 1741, Mikhail Vasilyevich returned to Russia, where he served in the Academy of Sciences until the end of his life. He was patronized by Count I.I. Shuvalov, beloved of Empress Elizabeth. Therefore, Lomonosov himself was in favor, which allowed his talents to truly unfold. He did a lot scientific works. In 1755, according to his proposal and plan, Moscow University was opened. Lomonosov's official duties also included composing poems for court holidays, and most of his odes were written on such occasions.

"The Arkhangelsk peasant", the first of the figures of Russian culture to gain world fame, one of the outstanding educators and the most enlightened person of his time, one of the greatest scientists of the eighteenth century, wonderful poet Lomonosov became a reformer of Russian versification.

In 1757, the scientist wrote a preface to the collected works “On the Use of Church Books in Russian language“, in which he sets out the famous theory of “three calms”. In it, Lomonosov put forward as a basis literary language national language. In the Russian language, according to Lomonosov, words according to their stylistic coloring can be divided into several genders. To the first he included the vocabulary of Church Slavonic and Russian, to the second - familiar from books and understandable Church Slavonic words, but rare in the spoken language, to the third - words of living speech that are not in church books. A separate group consisted of common people, who could only be used to a limited extent in writings. Almost completely excludes Lomonosov from the literary writing outdated Church Slavonic words, vulgarisms and barbarisms inappropriately borrowed from foreign languages.

Depending on the quantitative mixture of words of three kinds, one or another style is created. This is how the “three calms” of Russian poetry developed: “high” - Church Slavonic words and Russian,

“mediocre” (average) - Russian words with a small admixture of Church Slavonic words, “low” - Russian words of the colloquial language with the addition of common words and a small number of Church Slavonic words.

Each style has its own genres: “high” - heroic poems, odes, tragedies, “middle” - dramas, satires, friendly letters, elegies, “low” - comedies, epigrams, songs, fables. Such a clear distinction, theoretically very simple, in practice led to the isolation of high genres.

Lomonosov himself wrote primarily in “high” genres.

Thus, “Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747” is written in “high calm” and glorifies the daughter of Peter the Great. Having paid tribute to the virtues of the empress, her “meek voice”, “kind and beautiful face”, the desire to “expand science”, the poet starts talking about her father, whom he calls “a man such as has not been heard of for centuries.” Peter is the ideal of an enlightened monarch who devotes all his strength to his people and state. Lomonosov's ode gives an image of Russia with its vast expanses and enormous riches. This is how the theme of the homeland and serving it arises - the leading one in Lomonosov’s work. The theme of science and knowledge of nature is closely related to this topic. It ends with a hymn to science, a call to young men to dare for the glory of the Russian land. Thus, the poet’s educational ideals found expression in the “Ode of 1747.”

"Sciences nourish youths,

Joy is served to the old,

IN happy life decorate,

In case of an accident they take care of it;

There's joy in troubles at home

And long journeys are not a hindrance.

Science is used everywhere

Among the nations and in the desert,

In the noise of the city and alone,

Sweet in peace and in work."

Faith in the human mind, the desire to know the “secrets of many worlds”, to get to the essence of phenomena through the “small sign of things” - these are the themes of the poems “Evening Reflection”, “Two astronomers happened together at a feast...”.

In order to benefit the country, you need not only hard work, but also education, says Lomonosov. He writes about the “beauty and importance of teaching” that makes a person a creator. “Use your own reason,” he urges in the poem “Listen, I ask”….

Under Catherine II, Russian absolutism achieved unprecedented power. The nobility received unheard of privileges, Russia became one of the first world powers. The tightening of serfdom became the main cause of the peasant war of 1773-1775, under the leadership of E.I. Pugacheva

Unlike European classicism, Russian classicism is more closely connected with folk traditions and oral folk art. He often uses material from Russian history rather than from antiquity.

Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin was the last in the row largest representatives Russian classicism. He was born on July 3, 1743 in the family of a small Kazan nobleman. The entire fortune of the Derzhavin family consisted of a dozen serf souls. Poverty prevented the future poet from receiving an education. Only when he was sixteen years old was he able to enter the Kazan gymnasium, and even then he studied there for only a short time. In 1762, Gabriel Derzhavin was called to military service. Poverty had its effect here too: unlike most noblemen, he was forced to begin serving as a private and only ten years later received the rank of officer. In those years he was already a poet. Isn't it a strange combination: a private in the tsarist army and a poet? But being in a soldier's, rather than an officer's, environment allowed Derzhavin to become imbued with what is called the spirit of the Russian people. He was unusually respected by the soldiers; intimate conversations with people from Russian peasantry taught him to perceive people's need and grief as a state problem. Fame came to Derzhavin only at the age of forty, in 1783, when Catherine II read his “Ode to the wise Kirghiz-Kaisat princess Felitsa.” Not long before, in a moral tale, Catherine portrayed herself under the name of Princess Felitsa. The poet addresses Princess Felitsa, and not the Empress:

You just won’t offend the only one,

Don't insult anyone

Tomfoolery through you see your fingers,

The only thing you cannot tolerate is evil;

You correct misdeeds with leniency,

Like a wolf, you don’t crush people,

You know right away their price.

The highest praise is expressed in the most ordinary colloquial language. The author portrays himself as a “lazy murza.” In these mocking stanzas, readers discerned very caustic allusions to the most powerful nobles:

Then, having dreamed that I was a sultan,

I terrify the universe with my gaze,

Then suddenly, seduced by the outfit,

I'm off to the tailor for a caftan.

This is how Catherine’s almighty favorite, Prince Potemkin, is described. According to the rules of literary etiquette, all this was unthinkable. Derzhavin himself was afraid of his insolence, but the empress liked the ode. The author immediately became a famous poet and fell into favor at court.

Catherine repeatedly told Derzhavin that she expected new odes from him in the spirit of “Felitsa”. However, Derzhavin was deeply disappointed when he saw the life of Catherine the Second's court up close. In an allegorical form, the poet shows his feelings that he experiences from court life in the small poem “To the Bird.”

And well, squeeze it with your hand.

The poor thing squeaks instead of whistling,

And they keep telling her: “Sing, birdie, sing!”

He was favored by Catherine II - Felitsa - and soon received an appointment as governor of the Olonets province. But Derzhavin’s bureaucratic career, despite the fact that he was not abandoned by the royal favor and received more than one position, did not work out. The reason for this was Derzhavin’s honesty and directness, his real, and not traditionally feigned, zeal for the benefit of the Fatherland. For example, Alexander I appointed Derzhavin Minister of Justice, but then removed him from business, explaining his decision by the inadmissibility of such “zealous service.” Literary fame and public service made Derzhavin a rich man. He spent his last years in peace and prosperity, living alternately in St. Petersburg and on his own estate near Novgorod. Derzhavin’s most striking work was “Felitsa,” which made him famous. It combines two genres: ode and satire. This phenomenon was truly revolutionary for the literature of the era of classicism, because, according to the classicist theory of literary genres, ode and satire belonged to different “calms”, and mixing them was unacceptable. However, Derzhavin managed to combine not only the themes of these two genres, but also the vocabulary: “Felitsa” organically combines the words of “high calm” and vernacular. Thus, Gabriel Derzhavin, who fully developed the possibilities of classicism in his works, simultaneously became the first Russian poet to overcome the classicist canons.

During the second half of the eighteenth century, along with classicism, other literary movements were formed. During the period when classicism was the leading literary movement, the personality manifested itself mainly in public service. By the end of the century, a view on the value of the individual had been formed. "Man is rich in his feelings."

The Age of Sentimentalism

Since the sixties of the 18th century, a new literary trend has been emerging in Russian literature, called sentimentalism.

Like the classicists, sentimentalist writers relied on the ideas of the Enlightenment that the value of a person does not depend on his belonging to upper classes, but from his personal merits. But if for the classicists the state and public interests came first, then for the sentimentalists it was a specific person with his feelings and experiences. The classicists subordinated everything to reason, the sentimentalists to feelings and mood. Sentimentalists believed that man is kind by nature, devoid of hatred, deceit, and cruelty, and that on the basis of innate virtue, public and social instincts are formed that unite people into society. Hence the belief of sentimentalists that it is the natural sensitivity and good inclinations of people that are the key to an ideal society. In the works of that time, the main place began to be given to the education of the soul and moral improvement. Sentimentalists considered sensitivity to be the primary source of virtue, so their poems were filled with compassion, melancholy and sadness. The genres that were preferred also changed. Elegies, messages, songs and romances took first place.

The main characters are a common person, striving to merge with nature, find peaceful silence in it and find happiness. Sentimentalism, like classicism, also suffered from certain limitations and weaknesses. In the works of this movement, sensitivity develops into melancholy, accompanied by sighs and tears.

The ideal of sensitivity greatly influenced a whole generation of educated people in both Europe and Russia, defining the lifestyle for many. Reading sentimental novels was part of the norm for an educated person. Pushkin’s Tatyana Larina, who “fell in love” with the deceptions of both Richardson and Rousseau,” thus received in the Russian wilderness the same upbringing as all the young ladies in all European capitals. To literary heroes sympathized with how real people, imitated them. In general, sentimental education brought a lot of good things.

IN last years During the reign of Catherine II (from approximately 1790 until her death in 1796), what usually happens at the end of long reigns happened in Russia: stagnation began in state affairs, the highest places were occupied by old dignitaries, educated youth did not see the opportunity to apply their strength in the service of the fatherland. Then sentimental moods came into fashion - not only in literature, but also in life.

The ruler of the thoughts of young people in the 90s was Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, a writer with whose name the concept of “Russian sentimentalism” is usually associated. Born 12/1/1766 in the village. Mikhailovka, Simbirsk province. He was educated in private boarding schools in Simbirsk and Moscow. Attended lectures at Moscow University. Knew several new and ancient languages.

In 1789 - 1790 the writer took a trip to Europe. He visited Germany, Switzerland, France, England, and in Paris he witnessed the events of the French Revolution, saw and heard almost all of its figures. The trip provided Karamzin with material for his famous “Letters of a Russian Traveler,” which are not travel notes, but a work of fiction that continues the tradition of the European genre of “travel” and “novels of education.”

Returning to Russia in the summer of 1790, Karamzin developed vigorous activity, gathering young writers around him. In 1791, he began publishing the Moscow Journal, where he published his “Letters of a Russian Traveler” and stories that laid the foundation for Russian sentimentalism: “ Poor Lisa", "Natalia, the boyar's daughter."

Karamzin saw the main task of the magazine as the re-education of “evil hearts” through the forces of art. This required, on the one hand, to make art understandable to people, to free the language from pomposity. works of art, and on the other hand, to cultivate a taste for the elegant, depict life not in all its manifestations (sometimes rough and ugly), but in those that approach the ideal state.

In 1803 N.M. Karamzin began work on his planned “History of the Russian State” and petitioned for his official appointment as a historiographer. Having received this position, he studies numerous sources - chronicles, charters, other documents and books, and writes a number of historical works. Eight volumes of “History of the Russian State” were published in January 1818 with a circulation of 3,000 copies. and immediately sold out, so that a second edition was required. In St. Petersburg, where Karamzin moved to publish “History...”, he continued to work on the last four volumes. The 11th volume was published in 1824, and the 12th - posthumously.

Latest volumes reflected a change in the author's views on historical process: from an apology for a “strong personality” he moves on to assessments of historical events from a moral point of view. The significance of Karamzin’s “History...” is difficult to overestimate: it aroused interest in the past of Russia in wide circles of the noble society, which was brought up mainly on ancient history and literature, and knew more about the ancient Greeks and Romans than about their ancestors.

N.M. Karamzin died on May 22 (June 3), 1826.

The work of Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin played a huge and controversial role in Russian culture. Karamzin the writer acted as a reformer of the Russian literary language, becoming the predecessor of Pushkin; the founder of Russian sentimentalism, he created an absolutely ideal image of the people that had nothing in common with reality. Since the time of Karamzin, the language of literature has become increasingly closer to colloquial speech- first the nobles, and then the people; however, at the same time, the gap in the worldview of these two layers of Russian society became more and more apparent and intensified. As a journalist, Karamzin showed examples of various types of periodicals and techniques for biased presentation of material. As a historian and public figure, he was a convinced “Westernizer” and influenced a whole generation of creators of Russian culture who succeeded him, but he became a real educator of the nobility, forcing them (especially women) to read Russian and opening up to them the world of Russian history.

Conclusion

Thus, in the literature of the 18th century there were two movements: classicism and sentimentalism. The ideal of classic writers is a citizen and patriot who strives to work for the good of the fatherland. He must become an active creative person, fight against social vices, against all manifestations of “evil morality and tyranny.” Such a person must give up the desire for personal happiness and subordinate his feelings to duty. Sentimentalists subordinated everything to feelings, to all sorts of shades of mood. The language of their works becomes emphatically emotional. The heroes of the works are representatives of the middle and lower classes. The process of democratization of literature began in the eighteenth century.

And again, Russian reality invaded the world of literature and showed that only in the unity of the general and personal, and with the subordination of the personal to the general, can a citizen and a person be realized. But in the poetry of the late 18th century, the concept of “Russian man” was identified only with the concept of “Russian nobleman”. Derzhavin and other poets and writers of the 18th century took only the first step in understanding national character, showing the nobleman both in the service of the Fatherland and at home. Integrity and completeness inner life people have not yet been revealed.

Addition:

Literature of the 18th century.

One of the main tasks in the study of literature of the 18th century is to reveal the characteristic features of the dynamics of the historical and literary process in Russia at that time. Therefore, the main attention in the lesson is paid to the analysis of ideological and aesthetic content, the formation, interpenetration, struggle and change literary trends, as well as the activities of those writers who played a decisive role in the development of artistic creativity, literary language and aesthetic thought.

It is known that the defining stage in the life of the Russian people and in their literature in the 18th century was the period of Peter’s reforms, when in the face European countries"appeared" new Russia"

The growing interest of Russian writers of the 18th century in the human personality deepened the humanistic principle in art. And the enlightenment of Russian literature of the 18th century again entailed the affirmation of the value of man.

Since the 60s of the 18th century, along with the emergence of the sentimental-pre-romantic movement, the growth of realistic tendencies has sharply increased, inextricably linked with the further development of the satirical line. Russian literature began to look for approaches to social analysis, explaining character as a result of the influence of the environment and external circumstances on it. Analyzing works of fiction of the 18th century with students, we draw close attention specifically on the “result of influence” on the individual environment and external circumstances. Namely: these trends did not form into a specific ideological and aesthetic system, but the formation of realism (as well as romanticism) began in the 18th century. From this time on, the intensity of one of the main processes in the development of Russian literature began to increase - its steady democratization. Thus, schoolchildren get the idea that by the end of the century a synthesis of personal and social principles is planned within the framework of one work (ode "To Grace" by Karamzin, series works of Radishchev). And finally, in one of the most important works of Russian literature of the 18th century, “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” Radishchev will come to a firm conclusion about the necessity and inevitability of a popular uprising.

When studying literature of the 18th century, students should be familiarized with the periodization in the history of Russian literature of this era. This will allow students to understand the most important processes in the development of literature of that era and its global significance. Here we can outline 4 periods:

1st period - literature Peter's time. It is still of a transitional nature. Its peculiarity is the replacement of religious literature with secular literature.

2nd period (1730-1750) characterized by the formation of classicism, the creation of a new genre system, in-depth development of the literary language.

3rd period (1760 - first half of the 70s) - further evolution classicism, the flourishing of satire, the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of sentimentalism.

4th period (last quarter of a century) - the beginning of the crisis of classicism, the emergence of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies. The study of Russian literature of the 18th century is not limited to the fact that it posed and, if possible, resolved the pressing issues of its time. It largely prepared the brilliant achievements of the 19th century.

Sentimentalism features genres.

Related information.