Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev is the first revolutionary writer in Russia who proclaimed the right of the people to violently overthrow the despotic power of the landowners and the tsar. Radishchev - the predecessor of the Decembrist and revolutionary democratic thoughts XIX V.
Radishchev was not only a prose writer, but also a poet. He owns twelve lyric poems and four unfinished poems: “The Creation of the World”, “Bova”, “Songs sung at competitions in honor of the ancient Slavic deities”, “Historical Song”. In poetry, as in prose, he sought to pave new paths. Radishchev's innovative aspirations are associated with his revision of the poetry of classicism, including poetic meters assigned to certain genres. Radishchev also proposed abandoning rhyme and turning to blank verse. The introduction of rhymeless verse was felt by him as the liberation of Russian poetry from foreign forms alien to it, as a return to folk, national origins. The best of his lyrical poems are the ode “Liberty” and “The Eighteenth Century,” in which the poet strives to comprehend the movement of history and grasp its patterns. Ode "Liberty". It was published with abbreviations in “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”, in the chapter “Tver”. The ode was created at a time when the American one had just ended and was beginning French revolution. Its civic pathos reflects the inexorable desire of peoples to throw off feudal-absolutist oppression. Radishchev begins his ode with the glorification of freedom, which he considers a priceless gift of nature. In a country where the overwhelming majority of the population was in serfdom, this very thought was a challenge to the existing order. Religion surrounded the power of the ruler with a divine aura and thereby freed him from responsibility to the people. Not content with speculative evidence of the inevitability of revolution, Radishchev seeks to rely on the experience of history. It recalls the English Revolution, the execution of the English king. Humanity, according to Radishchev, goes through a cyclical path in its development. Freedom turns into tyranny, tyranny into freedom. In its style, the ode “Liberty” is a direct heir to Lomonosov’s laudable odes. It is written in iambic tetrameter, ten-line stanzas with the same rhyme scheme. But its content is strikingly different from Lomonosov’s odes. Radishchev does not believe in enlightened monarchs and therefore freedom and the indignation of the people against the tsar become the objects of his praise. Radishchev strives to comprehend this turbulent, complex, contradictory era as a whole.
34. Ideological and thematic originality of the “journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow.” The originality of the genre and genre composition.
On the first page, the author indicates the reason that prompted him to write the book: I looked around and my soul suffered from human suffering. Pity gives rise to the desire to help the oppressed. The traveler also belongs to the circle of “sensitive” heroes. He is emotional, impressionable, responsive to other people's joy and to other people's grief. One of the expressions of sensitivity in “The Journey” is the tears that the characters sentimental works they are never ashamed, seeing in them a manifestation of the subtle spiritual organization of man. The traveler says goodbye to his friends in tears. The traveler's heightened sensitivity is expressed not only in tears, but also in gestures and actions. So, at Gorodnya station he “holds to his heart” a young recruit, although he sees him for the first time. In Edrovo, he hugs and kisses the peasant girl Anyuta, which led her to considerable embarrassment. In contrast to the peasants, the landowners are depicted in “The Journey” as people who have lost not only sensitivity, but also elementary human qualities. Idleness and the habit of commanding deeply corrupted them and developed arrogance and callousness. The noblewoman from the chapter “Gorodnya” “united the stingiest soul and the cruel and stern heart with physical beauty.” The “travel” genre chosen by Radishchev is extremely characteristic of sentimentalism. It originates from Sterne's "Sentimental Journey". The form created by Stern could be filled with a wide variety of content. But the mechanism used by Radishchev was not at all like Postern’s and for other purposes. "P." presented in the form of notes from a traveler, where works of other genres are skillfully introduced: the satirical “dream”, the ode “Liberty”, journalistic articles (for example, “on the origin of censorship”, the chapter “Torzhok”). This form is thin. The work was innovative for Russians. 18th century literature And it gave R. the opportunity to talk deeply and multifacetedly about the social and spiritual life of the nation. The style of Radishchev's book is complex, but this complexity has its own logic and unity. R. bringing into the system diverse impressions of the external world fact, feeling, thought. The first of them - real-life - is associated with the description of numerous phenomena observed by the traveler. The vocabulary of this stylistic layer is distinguished by its specificity and objectivity. The second stylistic layer is emotional. It is associated with the psychological reaction of the traveler or other storytellers to certain facts and events. A wide variety of feelings are presented here: tenderness, joy, admiration, compassion, sorrow. The third layer - ideological - contains the author’s thoughts, in some cases expressed in lengthy “projects”. These arguments are based on educational ideas: the right to self-defense, education of man and citizen, the laws of nature and the laws of society. This layer is characterized by the use of Church Slavonic vocabulary and high civil speech. Radishchev focused attention not on moral, but on social and political problems serf state. As a conscientious investigator, Radishchev collects evidence against the autocratic state. The more incriminating facts, the more convincing the verdict. Here the typical is represented by a multitude of characters, most of whom give an idea of the essence, the social nature of the two main classes of Russian society of that time - landowners and peasants. The basis of the “Journey” is a call for revolution, but R. understands that real liberation is possible only after decades, so for now it is necessary to at least somehow ease the fate of the kr-n in other ways.
35. The system of images and the image of the traveler in “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” Problem artistic method in the work.
Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev is the first revolutionary writer in Russia who proclaimed the right of the people to violently overthrow the despotic power of the landowners and the tsar. Radishchev is the predecessor of Decembrist and revolutionary democratic thought of the 19th century. The best work Radishchev is his “Journey”, This book turned out to be the pinnacle of social thought in Russia XVIII V.
“Journey” is one of the brightest works of Russian sentimentalism. This is in highest degree emotional book. “Sensitivity,” according to Radishchev’s deep conviction, is the most valuable quality of a person.
On the first page, the author indicates the reason that prompted him to write the book: I looked around and my soul suffered from human suffering. Pity gives rise to the desire to help the oppressed. The traveler also belongs to the circle of “sensitive” heroes. He is emotional, impressionable, responsive to other people's joy and to other people's grief. One of the expressions of sensitivity in “The Journey” is tears, which the heroes of sentimental works are never ashamed of, seeing in them a manifestation of the subtle spiritual organization of man. The traveler says goodbye to his friends in tears. The traveler's heightened sensitivity is expressed not only in tears, but also in gestures and actions. So, at Gorodnya station he “holds to his heart” a young recruit, although he sees him for the first time. In Edrovo, he hugs and kisses the peasant girl Anyuta, which led her to considerable embarrassment. In contrast to the peasants, the landowners are depicted in “The Journey” as people who have lost not only sensitivity, but also elementary human qualities. Idleness and the habit of commanding deeply corrupted them and developed arrogance and callousness. The noblewoman from the chapter “Gorodnya” “united the stingiest soul and the cruel and stern heart with physical beauty.” The “travel” genre chosen by Radishchev is extremely characteristic of sentimentalism. It originates from Sterne's "Sentimental Journey". The form created by Stern could be filled with a wide variety of content. But the mechanism used by Radishchev was not at all like Postern’s and for other purposes. The style of Radishchev's book is complex, but this complexity has its own logic and unity. R. bringing into the system diverse impressions of the external world - fact, feeling, thought. The first of them - real-life - is associated with the description of numerous phenomena observed by the traveler. The vocabulary of this stylistic layer is distinguished by its specificity and objectivity. The second stylistic layer is emotional. It is associated with the psychological reaction of the traveler or other storytellers to certain facts and events. A wide variety of feelings are presented here: tenderness, joy, admiration, compassion, sorrow. The third layer - ideological - contains the author’s thoughts, in some cases expressed in lengthy “projects”. These arguments are based on educational ideas: the right to self-defense, education of man and citizen, the laws of nature and the laws of society. This layer is characterized by the use of Church Slavonic vocabulary and high civil speech. Radishchev focused attention not on moral, but on social and political problems of the serf state. As a conscientious investigator, Radishchev collects evidence against the autocratic state. The more incriminating facts, the more convincing the verdict. Here the typical is represented by a multitude of characters, most of whom give an idea of the essence, the social nature of the two main classes of Russian society of that time - landowners and peasants.
Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev was born in August 1749 into the family of a middle-class landowner. The first years of Alexander Nikolaevich were spent in the village of Verkhniy Ablyazov, Saratov province. A confluence of favorable circumstances meant that he received a good education. Alexander learned the Russian language in the usual way of that time, that is, through the book of hours in the psalter. However, this home teaching did not last long, since in 1757 Radishchev was sent to the house of a Moscow relative of his mother, Argamakov, an intelligent, rich and enlightened man, who was the curator of Moscow University. Here, together with the children of his relative and other young people, he was brought up under the supervision of a French tutor, and also took advantage of the lessons of university professors and teachers. During the coronation of Empress Catherine II, Argamakov enrolled Radishchev as a page; after the court returned to St. Petersburg, he sent him to the capital to continue his studies in the Corps of Pages. As a page, Radishchev had the opportunity to observe the life of Catherine’s court, where he often visited as part of his position.
In 1765, Catherine, seeing that in Russia in the most important and governmental places there was a shortage of people who knew laws and jurisprudence, ordered the selection of 12 young people, including six pages, to be sent to the University of Leipzig. Radishchev was among these chosen ones. All preparations were made with a generous hand; the young people were provided with more than sufficient maintenance (800 rubles per person per year). In addition to jurisprudence, Radishchev listened to philosophy, studied the Latin classics in detail, and studied medicine and chemistry. He knew all subjects very thoroughly. His son later wrote that Radishchev was an almost universal person. With a deep knowledge of laws, he also had concepts in literature. All the classical authors - Latin, French, German, English and Italian - were completely familiar to him, just like everything that was then written in Russian. In medicine he could pass the doctor's examination and was in practice a very good physician. Chemistry was at one time his favorite activity. Among the languages, he was fluent in French and German, and later learned English. He knew music, played the violin, was a talented dancer, a skilled fencer, a good rider and a successful hunter.
Upon their return to St. Petersburg in 1771, Radishchev and his friend Alexei Kutuzov entered the Senate as protocol clerks with the rank of titular councilors. However, the service here did not last long. In 1773, Radishchev became a captain on the staff of the commander-in-chief in St. Petersburg, Count Bruce, and served under him as chief audit (reporter on court cases). It was the most enjoyable time of his life. The boss loved and distinguished him, introduced him into the best St. Petersburg society. During these years, Radishchev became close friends with the famous publisher and educator Novikov and translated several books for him from German and French.
In 1775, Radishchev married the niece of his university friend Anna Vasilievna Rubanovskaya and retired as a second major. He lived for two years on his estate, as well as in Moscow, and did not serve anywhere. At the end of 1777, he again began to look for a place and soon became an assessor at the Commerce College, the president of which was then Count Vorontsov. In order to better understand his duties, Radishchev, as he himself recalled later, spent a whole year reading magazines and definitions of the Commerce Board, so that he soon acquired decent knowledge on all issues. In his new position, he showed unshakable strength of character in defending just causes and extraordinary honesty. Being in a position where others made millions through bribes, he gained nothing and lived his whole life on one salary. Count Vorontsov valued Radishchev's opinion very highly and consulted with him on all matters and issues. Soon he obtained for him the rank of court councilor. In 1780, Radishchev was appointed assistant manager of the St. Petersburg customs. In 1783, his first wife died in childbirth. This was a great personal grief for him. He was left with four small children. In their memories and all household chores, Radishchev began to receive a lot of constant help from the sister of his late wife Anna Vasilievna, Elizaveta Vasilievna Rubanovskaya. Gradually she became the person closest to him.
Radishchev devoted all his free time from service to literary works. Already in his early works one can see the deep influence of the French enlighteners, and the influence is not external, speculative, but deep, assimilated by the heart and all his ardent nature. Radishchev had a sense of innate justice. He was outraged and indignant by any manifestation of despotism and slavery, any abuse of power or infringement of individual rights.
It is easy to understand how strange and unusual the strange admirer of freedom must have seemed in Russia, where autocracy and serfdom were officially recognized state institutions and deeply rooted phenomena. It was even fashionable to talk about freedom in Russia before the start of the French Revolution, and sincere admirers of Rousseau and Voltaire could be found among high Russian society. Repression and persecution befell Radishchev after, instead of abstract ones, he indignantly attacked the landowners-soul-owners and associated the word “despotism” with the Russian monarchy. Then in his fiery sermon they immediately saw sedition in different areas of application, but in essence they were always the same. In 1773, translating for Novikov the book of the French educator Mabley “Reflections on Greek History,” Radishchev conveys the word despotism as “autocracy” and immediately in a special note (in full agreement with the theory of “natural law” and “social contract”) explains, What “autocracy is the state most contrary to human nature... If we live under the rule of laws, then this is not because we absolutely must do it: but because we find benefits in it. If we give the law the honor of our rights and our natural power, then so that it is used in our favor: about this we make a silent agreement with society. If it is violated, then we are released from our obligation. The injustice of the sovereign gives the people, their judges, the same and more rights over them that the law gives over criminals.”. We immediately see the idea of the dominant power of the people in his treatise “Again on Legal Subjection,” which Radishchev worked on in the 1780s. He wrote: “The power free of the people is the original power, and therefore the highest power, the unified composition of society, capable of founding and destroying...”. Radishchev unconditionally recognized the people’s right to overthrow the unjust, lawless government. “The bad use of popular power,” he wrote, “is the greatest crime... not the sovereign, but the law can take away property, honor, liberty or life from a citizen. By taking away one of these rights from a citizen, the sovereign violates the original condition and, having a script in his hands, loses his rights to the throne.” The ode “Liberty,” completed in 1783, essentially expressed the same views, but expressed with ardent pathos and passionate poetic language, they acquired a completely different sound, and Radishchev did not even try to publish it then.
In 1789, he purchased a printing press, a typeface, and set up a printing house in his house. It was here that Radishchev’s main book, “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” which he had been working on since 1785, was published.
The "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" was completed in December 1788. Radishchev received censorship permission to publish the manuscript in July 1789. Early next year he began printing the book. In May it was published without the author's name and went on sale. Soon the novel began to be in demand - the copies that Radishchev gave to the bookseller Zotov quickly sold out. But then “Journey...” caught the eye of Catherine II and plunged her into the greatest indignation. She ordered to immediately find the author. The investigation began. Radishchev found out about this and hastened to burn the remaining edition of the book. However, this could no longer ward off inevitable disaster. On June 30 he was arrested and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress. The matter could not be difficult, since all the seditious thoughts of the author were clearly expressed in his book. Already on July 24, the Criminal Chamber decided to subject Radishchev to the death penalty, and the book to be confiscated and destroyed. In September, the Empress replaced this punishment with ten years of exile in the Ilimsk prison. For Radishchev, the time had come for difficult trials.
He spent the first three months on the way to his place of exile shackled. Then a decree came from the empress to unchain him. In Tobolsk, Radishchev was caught up by Elizaveta Vasilievna Rubanovskaya, who decided to follow him to Siberia. Radishchev's two little sons were with her. The arrival of his sister-in-law made him very happy. The future no longer seemed hopeless to him. Indeed, in Ilimsk Radishchev was given complete freedom, and he was given the opportunity to arrange his life comfortably. There were eight servants with him. A house with five rooms and many services was prepared for the exile: a kitchen, human quarters, sheds, cellars, and so on. But having enough money, Radishchev immediately began to build new house into 8 rooms, which was soon completed with the help of carpenters sent by the governor. Here Radishchev had a large office and library. He immediately bought several cows, two horses, a variety of poultry and garden vegetables. In exile, he continued to lead a very active lifestyle - he got up early, read and wrote a lot. During these years, he wrote the treatise “On Man, His Death and Immortality”, the political and economic essay “Letter on the Chinese Trade”, as well as “Abridged Narrative of the Acquisition of Siberia”. Radishchev subscribed to several metropolitan and foreign magazines and was aware of all the news. IN free time He did a lot of chemical research. He himself taught children history, geography, German and French, hunted a lot in the summer and loved to sail on a boat on Ilim. In Siberia, Radishchev married Elizaveta Vasilyevna, who bore him three children in the following years.
After the death of Catherine II, Paul I allowed Radishchev to return to Moscow and live on his estates. In February 1797, Radishchev left Ilimsk. On the way, a terrible misfortune awaited him - Elizaveta Vasilievna caught a cold, fell ill and died shortly after arriving in Tobolsk. Having been widowed for the second time, Radishchev, alone with his children, arrived in the summer of 1799 in his village of Nemtsovo. Here he lived continuously until the death of Paul I. While doing housework, he did not forget his literary works - he wrote the poem “Bova” in 12 songs, taken from an ancient fairy tale, as well as several articles.
Upon the accession of Emperor Alexander I to the throne, Radishchev was returned to his former ranks of collegiate adviser and complete freedom. He immediately left for St. Petersburg, where the emperor, who was planning profound reforms of Russian society, appointed him a member of the commission for drawing up laws. Radishchev passionately devoted himself to drafting a new “Civil Code”. The thoughts that he tried to reflect in his project were the following:
Everyone is equal before the law;
The table of ranks is destroyed;
Prohibition of torture during investigation;
Tolerance;
Freedom of speech;
Abolition of the serf peahen;
Replacing the poll tax with a land tax;
Freedom of trade.
In the future, he talked about introducing a constitution in Russia. However, his views in no way coincided with the views of the Chairman of the Commission, Count Zavadsky. The count once remarked to him that Radishchev’s too enthusiastic way of thinking had already brought misfortune upon him once and that he might be subjected to a similar misfortune another time. These words, according to the testimony of Radishchev’s sons, made an extraordinary impression on their father. He suddenly became thoughtful, began to worry incessantly, and was constantly in a bad mood. Close friends began to notice strange things about him that indicated the onset of mental illness. On September 11, 1802, Radishchev unexpectedly took poison. All attempts to save him were unsuccessful, and he died on the same day.
Trojan. Roman Emperor. During his reign he patronized sciences, literature and art. Folk legend created a legend around the personality of Troyan about a “truthful” and “kind-hearted” king.
Caesar, Gaius Julius. Roman politician, commander and writer. After military successes, he became dictator of Rome and was killed by republican conspirators led by Brutus and Cassius.
Cicero, Marcus Tulius. Roman politician, orator and writer. In the history of ancient literature, he occupies one of the first places as a representative of classical oratory.
Euler, Leonard. The largest German mathematician and physicist. In 1727-40. was a professor at the Russian Academy
Empedocles, ancient Greek philosopher, materialist.
LIST OF WORKS BY A. N. RADISHCHEV
Radishchev's complete literary heritage amounts to three voluminous volumes. What has been published so far is far from complete. Below we list the works included in the two-volume collected works, and those not included, but belonging to Radishchev.
We specify works whose ownership by Radishchev has not yet been definitively established on a case-by-case basis.
For convenience, we divide Radishchev’s literary heritage into four independent sections: artistic and journalistic works, economic, philosophical and correspondence, diaries, bills, etc. This division is very arbitrary.
I. Artistic and journalistic (prose and poetry):
1. Letter to a Friend living in Tobolsk due to the duty of his rank.
2. Diary of one week.
3. Life of Fyodor Vasilyevich Ushakov.
4. Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow.
5. Ode "Liberty".
6. "Bova". A heroic story.
7. The song is historical.
8. Ancient songs "Vseglas".
Small poems:
9. Epitaph.
11. Impromptu.
12. Message.
13. Cranes.
14. Eighteenth century.
15. Sophical stanzas.
16. Idyll.
18. “To my friend” ode.
19. Prayer.
All of the above works were published in volume 1 of the collection. works of A. N. Radishchev, ed. prof. A.K. Borozdina, I.I. Lapshina and P.E. Shchegolev ed. Akinfiev, 1907 and in volume 1 of the collection. essays edited by Kallasha, ed. Sablina, 1907
20. “What is the son of the fatherland”, published in the magazine published by Novikov “Conversing Citizen”, part III, 1789 - December.
21. "Creation of the world." Songbook, see V.P. Semennikov "New text of the journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" Radishchev, ed. "The Past", M. 1922
22. “Angel of Darkness” (excerpt from the poem “Ermak”, complete collected works, vol. I, ed. Akinfiev.
Works attributed to Radishchev:
23. “Excerpt of the Journey to I*** T***, see Semennikov “When Radishchev conceived a “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” ed. A. E. Bukhheim. M. 1915
24. “Letters from Sylph the Farsighted,” published in the magazine “Mail of Spirits,” Krylova. See literature on this issue: I am K. Grot - " Literary life" ), A. Veselovsky "Bulletin of Europe" 1881 No. III; I. A. Lyashchenko and A. Krylov "Historical Bulletin" 1894 No. XI; Maikov, L. - "Historical and literary essays", St. Petersburg 1895, V. A. Myakotin. - “From the history of the Russian island”, St. Petersburg, ed., article with notes to the complete publication of “Enlightenment”, St. Petersburg, vol. II; "Radishchev before exile", "News. Europe" 1907 VI; P. E. Shchegolev - From the historical journal. Radishchev's "Past Years", 1908 No. XII, M. 1916 and Chuchmarev - "Science Notes", Literary Department, vol. II , 1927
II. Economic works:
1. Letter about Chinese trade. Written in 1782 in Irkutsk.
2. An abbreviated narrative about the acquisition of Siberia. Written in Siberia between 1792–1797.
3. Description of my property. Written after returning from exile, in the village of Nemtsovo, between 1797–1801.
In addition to these special works, Radishchev’s economic heaps can partly include all of his correspondence and travel diaries to and from Siberia, which we place in Section IV.
Philosophical works:
1. Filaret the Merciful. Written in the Peter and Paul Fortress during the judicial investigation in 1790.
2. About man, about his mortality and immortality, book. 1–4.
Written in Siberia in the Ilimsk prison. Started in 1792
The end time is unknown.
The above works were published in volume II of the mentioned publications by Akinfiev and Sablin.
IV. Various works(correspondence, diaries, notes, legislative projects, etc.):
1. Letters to Count A. R. Vorontsov during his service in the St. Petersburg customs (1782–1787). There are 12 letters in total.
2. Letters to Count A.R. Vorontsov from Siberia, the village of Nemtsovo and the Saratov village (1790–1800). There are 63 letters in total, with 50 letters per French. Published in volume II of the collection. works ed. A. Sablina.
4. Letter to parents. Printed "Rainbow", an almanac of the Pushkin House.
5. Letter to A.M. Kutuzov dated December 6, 1791. Printed: Barskov - “Correspondence of Moscow Masons of the 18th century.” 1915
6. Letter to Sheshkovsky from the fortress, 1790, - collection. op. vol. II, ed. Sablina.
7. Letters to Alexander I, collected. op. vol. II, ed. Sablina.
8. Spiritual wills, petitions, answers to questions of the judicial investigation, printed. in volume 2 ed. Akinfieva.
9. Notes on the translation of “Reflections”… printed. in 1 volume ed. Sablina.
10. Radishchev - Notes on Travel to and from Siberia in Volume II ed. Akinfieva.
11. "Monument to the dactylochoreic knight", vol. II, ed. Sablina.
12. Dissenting opinions: a) on prices for people killed, b) on the challenge of judges, vol. II, ed. Sablina.
13. “Note on legislation”, published by “The Voice of the Past”, 1916 No. XII:
14. "Draft of civil code". The original is in Arch. book Vorontsov, excerpts were published in Semennikov’s book about Radishchev. GIZ, 1923.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Collection of Op. A. N. Radishchev, ed. Borozdin, Lapshin and Shchegolev, ed. Akinfiev 1907 vol. I and II.
2. Collection op. A. N. Radishchev, ed. Kallasha, ed. Sablina 1907: t: II (correspondence of Radishchev with Count A.R. Vorontsov from 1787–1802).
3. Semennikov - Radishchev (Essays and Research) GIZ 1923
4. State. archive vol. XVII. 1766–1775 No. 26.
5. Sukhomlinov - Monograph about Radishchev (Collected Russian language and literature of the Academician of Sciences, vol. XXXII No. 6.
6. Collection remaining works of the late A. N. Radishchev, part V. ed. Platon Beketov 1808–1809) Literary works Fed. You. Ushakov).
7. Collection op. vol. II, ed. Akinfiev (Appendix: Radishchev’s trial, official materials and testimonies of contemporaries - Catherine II’s comments on Radishchev’s “Travel”, etc.).
8. Ya. L. Barskov - Correspondence of Moscow Masons of the 18th century in 1780–1790. ed. Academician Sciences P. 1915
9. Dictionary of memorable people of the Russian land - Bantysh-Kamensky.
A.N. Radishchev was the first writer in the 18th century who understood the "being social contradictions", examined "the spirit of history itself, primarily of popular movements" and moved on to "creating the concept of a revolutionary developing reality."
V.G. Bazanov
Radishchev lived in Leipzig for five years as a university student, and even then his first clash occurred with the personification of autocracy (in the person of the student mentor). From here, the future defender of the rights of peasants took away two basic truths for himself: “Hunger, thirst, sorrow, prison, bonds and death itself touch him [a person] little. Don’t push him to the extreme,” “Nothing, they say, brings people together, like a misfortune."
Radishchev's early works are among the first sentimental works in Russian literature. But the further he goes, the more social overtones his work acquires. The author often expressed his negative attitude towards autocracy and explained why the people could judge their sovereign as a criminal ("Letter to a friend living in Tobolsk, according to the duty of his rank"). Next, it was necessary to show how this should happen, and the author created the ode “Liberty,” glorifying the people's revolution. The reason for it was the success in the struggle of the American people for independence and the Pugachev uprising in Russia. However, Radishchev objectively assessed Russian reality, realizing that it was not yet time for revolution in the country:
But there is still time to come,
Fates were not fulfilled;
Far, far away there is still death,
When all the troubles are over!
He also paid great attention the problem of educating a new person, a citizen and patriot, a fighter against oppressors. These ideas are expressed by him in “The Life of F.V. Ushakov.” For such a person to appear, the influence of circumstances and highly moral mentors are necessary.
It was from such ideas that “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” arose - a work about contemporary author Russia, the situation of its people and their future. In it, Radishchev convincingly proves that the liberation of the people can only happen through revolutionary means, and this inevitably must happen.
What is so memorable about “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”?
It was the first to analyze and evaluate the most important state institutions from the political, economic, legal and moral sides. Most of the chapters of “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” are devoted to exposing the anti-people essence of autocracy and serfdom, which the author achieves by contrasting peasants and landowners, as well as revealing the real face of the sovereign, that is, again, the antithesis - an idyllic picture with the true state of affairs. He believed that changes should start from the “grassroots”; it is the people who take the initiative for change. But with all this, Radishchev denies the benefits of spontaneous rebellion, believing that it brings “more joy and vengeance than the benefit of shaking bonds.”
For the first time, Radishchev so openly advocated for a popular revolution, so vividly painted a picture of autocratic-serfdom oppression in Russia; At the same time, the author did not limit himself to empty statements; he also talked about means of eliminating this oppression. He made the Russian people, the serf peasants in the first place, the main hero of “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow.” And he is not downtrodden and wild, but talented and has high morals. Radishchev touched upon the issue of female beauty (giving preference to “rural Nymphs” over secular beauties), and the musicality of the people (with what attention they listen to a blind old man singing folk song!). He is deeper than all the writers of the 18th century. comprehended the qualities of national character.
What makes this work stand out from others?
Radishchev prepared a statement of realism in Russian literature, thanks to satirical image reality.
In general, in the literature of the last third of the 18th century. Romantic and realistic tendencies developed simultaneously, which can be clearly seen in the example of Radishchev’s work.
In addition, Radishchev, more than other writers, prepared the statement of realism in Russian literature, but his work can be called educational realism; researchers who claim that in Russian XVIII literature V. was present educational realism, considered it the highest manifestation of Radishchev’s creativity. But it also had a number of features - psychologism, lyricism, connection with folklore. That is literary creativity Radishchev went beyond the clear boundaries of any direction, it was original.
Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802) grew up in a wealthy landowner family, in a village in the Saratov province. His father was an educated man and not lacking in humane sentiments; he did not oppress his peasants unduly. When R. was 8 years old, he was taken to Moscow. Here he lived with a relative, M.F. Argamakov Yu, and studied with his children. His teachers were professors Mosk. university.
From the very early years Russian progressive social thought was the soil on which Radishchev’s self-awareness and worldview grew.
In 1762, Radishchev was granted a page. The Corps of Pages was, to a lesser extent, general education educational institution than a school for future courtiers.
In the fall of 1766, R. was sent to Leipzig as part of a group of young nobles to study law at the university. In addition to legal sciences, R. studies philosophy and natural sciences. He spent 5 years in Leipzig, where his friendship began with Ushakov (died in Leipzig) and A.M. Kutuzov. Catherine sent students abroad under the supervision of Major Bokum, who put money in his pocket, starved the students, and mocked them. Leipzig Univ. gave R. a scientific school.
R. had to serve in Russia and was assigned to the Senate as a protocol officer. He left the service and entered another place; as a lawyer, he became a chief auditor, i.e. military prosecutor on the staff of General Bruce.
In 1775 he retired and married. Two years later he began serving again; he entered the Commerce College, which was in charge of trade and industry.
From 1780, R. became an assistant to the manager of the St. Petersburg customs, soon he began to actually perform the position of its manager, and finally in 1790 he was officially appointed to this position. He was a fairly prominent official, a well-connected man, a man well-known in the capital.
A few months after R.’s return to his homeland from Leipzig, Novikov’s magazine “Painter” published an anonymous excerpt from “Travel to ** I** T***.” This was the first work in Russian literature of the 18th century, which gave a true picture of the horror of serfdom. (Gukovsky writes that “Soviet science admits that the “Excerpt” was written by Radishchev).
Others that have come down to us date back to the first half of the 1770s. literary works R.: translation of a special military essay “Officer Exercises” and writing an artistic essay “Diary of One Week”. In the 1780s, Radishchev worked on “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” and wrote other works in prose and poetry.
In 1789, the semi-mystical, semi-liberal “Society of Friends of Verbal Sciences” was formed in St. Petersburg, uniting young writers, officers (mainly sailors), and officials.
R. entered this society and carried out his propaganda in it. It became one of the centers of the society. In the magazine “Conversing Citizen” (the society’s printed organ), he published his article “A Conversation about Being a Son of the Fatherland.” The magazine entered into relations with the city duma, established three years earlier. In May 1790, the naval war with Sweden took a turn dangerous for St. Petersburg. And at this moment Radishchev turned out to be the initiator of organizing a militia of volunteers of various kinds of people, armed to take over the city. The city council implemented this initiative. At the same time, peasants running away from the landowners were also taken into the militia.
In 1789, R. again appeared in print after a break of more than ten years. This year his anonymous brochure “The Life of Fyodor Vasilyevich Ushakov” appeared. The brochure consisted of two parts: in the first, R. gave an artistically written essay describing a friend of his youth and talked about the life of Russian students in Leipzig; the second consisted of translations of Ushakov’s philosophical and legal sketches made by R. The first part is a very subtly and deeply conceived story about youth. “The Life of Ushakov” is a life in a new way. His hero is by no means a saint. He is not a famous nobleman or military leader. He is an inconspicuous young man, an official, and then a student. But he is a man of the future century, a young man devoted to science and the ideas of freedom, and he is more valuable to R. than all generals and dignitaries. In addition, he is R.’s friend (the theme of exalted friendship).
That propaganda effect, cat. R.'s book produced, in the presence of a tense social atmosphere in 1789, on the one hand, stimulated him to further activities, on the other hand, made the reaction wary.
Meanwhile, in 1789, R. completed his long-term work “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow.” He submitted the manuscript to the censor, and the St. Petersburg Chief of Police Ryleev let it through without reading it. However, attempts to publish it led nowhere. Then R. set up a small printing house at his home. First, for experience, he published his brochure “Letter to a Friend Living in Tobolsk” in it; it was an article written back in 1782, dedicated to a description of the opening of the monument to Peter the Great in St. Petersburg, and concluded an analysis of Peter’s reform activities. The article ended with a definite indication of the hopelessness of hopes for improving the situation from above, from the throne, and with a greeting to the French Revolution.
In May 1790 25 copies of the book “Journey...” appeared. The author's name was not on the book. At the end of the book there was a note that the police censorship had allowed it. R. kept the remaining copies of the book (600 in total) for now.
A search began immediately. The author was soon found. Having learned that he was in danger, R managed to burn all the remaining copies of the book, and on June 30 he was arrested. The investigation lasted less than a month. R. was sitting in the Peter and Paul Fortress. While in prison, R. began to write a story about Saint Philaret the Merciful. In appearance it was precisely the “life of the saint”; but its meaning was different. Under the guise of Philaret, he portrayed himself, and his life was supposed to appear as a half-encrypted autobiography. He portrayed himself as a righteous man.
All R. On July 1790, R.'s case came to trial at the St. Petersburg Criminal Chamber. On July 24, the chamber sentenced him to death. On September 4, Catherine signed a decree replacing his execution with exile to Siberia, in the Ilimsk prison, for ten years.
The journey itself lasted more than a year. Radishchev lived well in Ilimsk thanks to Vorontsov’s material support and connections. Radishchev spent six years in Siberia. Here he wrote a discussion on an economic topic, “Letter on Chinese Bargaining,” addressed to A.R. Vorontsov. Here he published an extensive philosophical treatise “On Man, His Mortality and Immortality.” The treatise is divided into 4 books:
1 – sets general provisions and the starting points of reasoning, determines the place occupied by man in nature, examines his mental abilities in terms of posing the problem of the theory of knowledge.
2 – provides evidence in favor of the mortality of the soul, in favor of materialism
3, 4 – evidence in favor of the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, idealism.
Pavel 1 allowed Radishchev to return to European Russia, however, so that he would live in a village under police surveillance and without the right of movement. He wrote the poem “Bova” here, of which only the introduction and the first song have reached us; here he began to write “Description of My Domain,” an agronomic and economic treatise in which, as can be seen from the beginning that has come down to us, he wanted to scientifically prove the need for freedom for the peasants.
In 1801 the new Tsar Alexander 1 freed Radishchev completely, returned to him the nobility, rank and order, taken away by the verdict of 1790.
A.R. Vorontsov began to play a role in the government at this time. Vorontsov recruited R. to work in the Law Drafting Commission. In the Commission, R. courageously pursued his independent line.
Apparently, his two wonderful poems (both unfinished) “Ancient Songs” and “Historical Song” date back to this time. In the first, built partly on the basis of the study of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the central episode of the poem is the depiction of the invasion of the Slavic land by barbarian Celts; the enemies attacked Novgorod by surprise, in the absence of troops there, and kill people, seize them into slavery, rob. But courageous Slavic warriors rush to save their homeland. They managed to capture enemies in Novgorod.
In the “Historical Song,” an extensive poetic story about world history, presented from the position of love of freedom and tyranny, R. wrote about the death of Tiberius, clearly remembering the death of Paul 1 and referring to his successor.
In the Commission, R.'s firmness and his free views led to friction with the authorities, for whom Radishchev was a rebel, a cat. and for the second time he may end up in Siberia. Life represented nothing for R. in the name of which one could fight. September 11, 1802 he committed suicide. Shortly before his death, he said: “Posterity will avenge me.”
“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow.” (hereinafter – P)
The narrative opens with a letter to friend Alexei Mikhailovich Kutuzov, in which Radishchev explains his feelings that forced him to write this book. This is a kind of blessing for work.
Departure
Having said goodbye to his friends, the author-narrator leaves, suffering from separation. He dreams that he is alone, but, fortunately, there was a pothole, he woke up, and then they arrived at the station.
Sofia
Having taken the travel document, our traveler goes to the commissar for horses, but they don’t give them horses, they say that there are no horses, although there are up to twenty nags in the stable. Twenty kopecks had an effect “on the coachmen.” They harnessed the troika behind the commissar's back, and the traveler set off further. The cab driver sings a mournful song, and the traveler reflects on the character of the Russian man. If a Russian wants to disperse his melancholy, he goes to a tavern; whatever doesn’t suit him, he gets into a fight. The traveler asks God why he turned away from people?
Tosna
A discussion about a disgusting road that is impossible to overcome even in summer rains. In the station hut, the traveler meets a failed writer - a nobleman who wants to sell him his literary work “about the loss of privileges by the nobles.” The traveler gives him copper pennies, and offers to give the “labor” by weight to the peddlers so that they can use the paper for “wrapping”, since it is not suitable for anything else.
Lyubani
A traveler sees a peasant plowing on a holiday and wonders if he is a schismatic? The peasant is Orthodox, but he is forced to work on Sunday, because... six days a week he goes to corvée. The peasant says that he has three sons and three daughters, the eldest is only ten years old. To keep his family from starving, he has to work at night. He works diligently for himself, but only barely for his master. He is the only worker in the family, but the master has many. The peasant envies the quitrent and state peasants, it is easier for them to live, then he re-harnesses the horses so that they can rest, while he himself works without rest. The traveler mentally curses all the exploiting landowners and himself for offending his Petrushka when he was drunk.
Miracle
The traveler meets with a university friend, Chelishchev, who talks about his adventure in the raging Baltic, where he almost died because an official refused to send help, saying: “It’s not my position.” Now Chelishchev is leaving the city - “a host of lions”, so as not to see these villains.
Spasskaya field
The traveler got caught in the rain and asked to go into the hut to dry off. There he hears his husband's story about an official who loves “oysters” (oysters). For fulfilling his whim - delivering oysters - he gives ranks and awards from the state treasury. The rain has stopped. The traveler continued his journey with a companion who had asked for it. A fellow traveler tells his story of how he was a merchant, trusted dishonest people, was put on trial, his wife died during childbirth, which began due to worries a month earlier. A friend helped this unfortunate man escape. The traveler wants to help the fugitive, in a dream he imagines himself as an omnipotent ruler, whom everyone admires. This dream reveals to him the wanderer Straight-View, she removes the thorns from his eyes that prevent him from seeing the truth. The author states that the tsar was known among the people as “a deceiver, a hypocrite, a pernicious comedian.” Radishchev shows the discrepancy between Catherine's words and deeds; the ostentatious splendor, the lush, decorative façade of the empire hides behind it terrible scenes of oppression. Pryovzora turns to the king with words of contempt and anger: “Know that you are... the first robber, the first traitor of general silence, the fiercest enemy, directing his anger at the inside of the weak.” Radishchev shows that there are no good kings; they pour out their favors only on the unworthy. Podberezye The traveler meets a young man going to St. Petersburg to study with his uncle. Here are the young man's thoughts about the detrimental lack of an education system for the country. He hopes that the descendants will be happier in this regard, because... will be able to study. Novgorod A traveler admires the city, remembering its heroic past and how Ivan the Terrible set out to destroy Novgorod Republic. The author is outraged: what right did the tsar have to “appropriate Novgorod”? The traveler then goes to his friend, Karp Dementich, who married his son. Everyone sits at the table together (host, young people, guest). The traveler draws portraits of his hosts. And the merchant talks about his affairs. Just as he was “launched around the world,” now the son is trading. Armored Women The traveler goes to the sacred hill and hears the menacing voice of the Almighty: “Why did you want to know the secret?” “What are you looking for, foolish child?” Where the “great city” once was, the traveler sees only poor shacks. In Zaitsev, the Traveler meets his friend Krestyankin, who once served and then retired. Krestyankin, a very conscientious and warm-hearted man, was the chairman of the criminal chamber, but left his position, seeing the futility of his efforts. Krestyankin talks about a certain nobleman who began his career as a court stoker, and tells about the atrocities of this unscrupulous man. The peasants could not stand the bullying of the landowner's family and killed everyone. The peasant justified the “culprits” who had been driven to murder by the landowner. No matter how hard Krestyankin fought for a fair solution to this case, nothing happened. They were executed. And he resigned so as not to be an accomplice to this crime. The traveler receives a letter that tells about a strange wedding between “a 78-year-old young man and a 62-year-old young woman,” a certain widow who was engaged in pimping, and in her old age decided to marry the baron. He marries for money, and in her old age she wants to be called “Your Highness.” The author says that without the Buryndas the light would not have lasted even three days; he is outraged by the absurdity of what is happening.
Sacrum
Seeing the separation of the father from his sons going to work, the traveler recalls that out of one hundred serving nobles, ninety-eight “become rakes.” He grieves that he too will soon have to part with his eldest son. The author’s reasoning leads him to the conclusion: “Tell the truth, loving father, tell me, true citizen! Don't you want to strangle your son rather than let him go into service? Because in the service everyone cares about their own pockets, and not about the good of their homeland.” The landowner, calling on the traveler to witness how hard it is for him to part with his sons, tells them that they do not owe him anything, but must work for the good of the fatherland, for this he raised and cared for them, taught them sciences and forced them to think. He admonishes his sons not to stray from the true path, not to lose their pure and high souls.
Yazhelbitsy
Driving past the cemetery, the traveler sees a heartbreaking scene when a father, rushing at his son’s coffin, does not allow him to be buried, crying that they are not burying him with his son in order to stop his torment. For he is guilty that his son was born weak and sick and suffered so much as long as he lived. The traveler mentally reasons that he, too, probably passed on to his sons diseases with the vices of his youth.
Valdai
This ancient town is famous for the amorous affection of unmarried women. The traveler says that everyone knows “Valdai bagels and shameless girls.” Next, he tells the legend of a sinful monk who drowned in a lake during a storm while swimming to his beloved.
Edrovo
The traveler sees many elegant women and girls. He admires their healthy appearance, reproaching the noblewomen for disfiguring their figures by wearing corsets, and then dying from childbirth, because they have been spoiling their bodies for years for the sake of fashion. The traveler talks to Annushka, who at first behaves sternly, and then, getting into conversation, said that her father died, she lives with her mother and sister, and wants to get married. But they ask a hundred rubles for the groom. Vanyukha wants to go to St. Petersburg to earn money. But the traveler says: “Don’t let him go there, there he will learn to drink and get out of the habit of peasant labor.” He wants to give money, but the family won’t take it. He is amazed by their nobility.
Khotilov
Project in the future
Written on behalf of another traveler, even more progressive in his views than Radishchev. Our traveler finds papers left by his brother. Reading them, he finds arguments similar to his thoughts about the harmfulness of slavery, the evil nature of landowners, and the lack of enlightenment.
Vyshny Volochok
The traveler admires the locks and man-made canals. He talks about a landowner who treated peasants like slaves. They worked for him all day, and he gave them only meager food. The peasants did not have their own plots or livestock. And this “barbarian” flourished. The author calls on the peasants to destroy the estate and tools of this nonhuman, who treats them like oxen.
Vydropusk (again written from someone else’s notes)
Project of the future
The author says that the kings imagined themselves to be gods, surrounded themselves with a hundred servants and imagined that they were useful to the fatherland. But the author is sure that this order needs to be changed. The future is education. Only then will there be justice when people become equal.
Torzhok
The traveler meets a man who wants to open a free printing house. What follows is a discussion about the harmfulness of censorship. “What harm will it do if books are printed without a police stamp?” The author claims that the benefit of this is obvious: “Rulers are not free to separate the people from the truth.” Author in “ Brief narrative on the origin of censorship” says that censorship and the Inquisition have the same roots. And tells the history of printing and censorship in the West. And in Russia... in Russia, what happened with censorship, he promises to tell “another time.”
Copper
The traveler sees a round dance of young women and girls. And then there is a description of the shameful public sale of peasants. A 75-year-old man is waiting to see who will give it to him. His 80-year-old wife was the nurse of the mother of a young master who mercilessly sold his peasants. There is also a 40-year-old woman, the master’s wet nurse, and the entire peasant family, including the baby, going under the hammer. It is scary for a traveler to see this barbarity.
Tver
The traveler listens to the arguments of the tavern interlocutor “at lunch” about the poetry of Lomonosov, Sumarokov and Trediakovsky. The interlocutor reads excerpts from Radishchev’s ode “Liberty,” allegedly written by him, which he is taking to St. Petersburg to publish. The traveler liked the poem, but he did not have time to tell the author about it, because... he left quickly.
Gorodnya
Here the traveler sees a recruitment drive, hears the screams and cries of the peasants, and learns about the many violations and injustices happening during this process. The traveler listens to the story of the servant Vanka, who was raised and taught together with a young master, called Vanyusha, and sent abroad not as a slave, but as a comrade. But the old master favored him, and the young master hated him and was jealous of his success. The old man died. The young master got married, and his wife hated Ivan, humiliated him in every possible way, and then decided to marry him to a dishonored courtyard girl. Ivan called the landowner an “inhuman woman,” and then he was sent to become a soldier. Ivan is happy about this fate. Then the traveler saw three peasants whom the landowner sold as recruits, because... he needed a new carriage. The author is amazed at the lawlessness happening around.
Zavidovo
The traveler sees a warrior in a grenadier's hat, who, demanding horses, threatens the headman with a whip. By order of the headman, the traveler's fresh horses were taken away and given to the grenadier. The traveler is outraged by this order of things. What can you do?
Wedge
The traveler listens to the mournful song of the blind man, and then gives him a ruble. The old man is surprised by the generous alms. He's more excited about the birthday cake than the money. For the ruble can lead someone into temptation, and it will be stolen. Then the traveler gives the old man his scarf from his neck.
Pawns
The traveler treats the child with sugar, and his mother tells her son: “Take the master’s food.” The traveler is surprised why this is bar food. The peasant woman replies that she has nothing to buy sugar with, but they drink it at the bar because they don’t get the money themselves. The peasant woman is sure that these are the tears of slaves. The traveler saw that the owner's bread consisted of three parts of chaff and one part of unsown flour. He looked around for the first time and was horrified by the wretched surroundings. With anger he exclaims: “Cruel-hearted landowner! Look at the children of the peasants who are under your control!”, calls on the exploiters to come to their senses.
Black mud
The traveler meets the wedding train, but is very sad, because... They are going down the aisle under the compulsion of their master.
A word about Lomonosov
The author, passing by the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, entered it in order to honor the grave of the great Lomonosov with his presence. He remembers life path a great scientist striving for knowledge. Lomonosov eagerly studied everything that could be learned at that time and studied poetry. The author comes to the conclusion that Lomonosov was great in all matters that he touched.
And now it’s Moscow! Moscow!
The first, main task of P is the fight against serfdom, the fight against human oppression in general. R. proves that serfdom It is unprofitable from the point of view of the national economy that it reduces the amount of material goods obtained by a given people, in particular in Russia. He puts forward the thesis that forced labor is free, that a person works for himself better than for the oppressor. R. fundamentally denies the right of one person to oppress another.
The idea of the corruption of landowners precisely because they are landowners is carried out throughout P. When depicting landowners, R. does not give exceptional figures; These are not rare individuals, not random phenomena in the class of “slave owners,” but rather normal cases, typical phenomena. Moral corruption has poisoned this class. In the entire book, with the exception of the old master in the chapter “Pride”, who is only briefly mentioned, and, of course, the ideal father in “Krestsy”, necessary for the presentation of Radishchev’s principles of education, there are only 2 noblemen who violate general rule: this is the traveler himself and Mr. Krestyankin from the chapter “Zaitsevo”. The landowner class in R.'s depiction consists mainly of creatures who have lost the right to the title of man and citizen.
R. contrasts the decay of the landowner class with an enthusiastic assessment of the merits folk character. The peasants are strong in spirit, they are healthy both morally and physically.
R. shows serfdom as a terrible evil from the very different points views. He shows that it is unfair, paints cruel pictures of the wild tyranny of the landowners, abuse of the serfs, and their unlimited exploitation. He proves that serfdom is illegal.
The solution to the issue of serfdom determines Radishchev’s attitude to the problems of the poetic existence of Russia. Bureaucracy, various parts of the government machine and various representatives it goes through a whole string of images and sketches. R. emphasizes the inhumanity, stupidity, and cruelty of the entire system of power in Russia.
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Born in 1769 in Moscow. Young Krylov studied little and unsystematically. He was ten years old when his father, Andrei Prokhorovich, who was at that moment a minor official in Tver, died. Andrei Krylov “didn’t study science,” but he loved to read and instilled his love in his son. He himself taught the boy to read and write and left him a chest of books as an inheritance. Further education Krylov received thanks to the patronage of Nikolai Alexandrovich Lvov, who read the poems of the young poet. In his youth, he lived a lot in Lvov’s house, studied with his children, and simply listened to the conversations of writers and artists who came to visit. At the age of fourteen he ended up in St. Petersburg, where his mother went to ask for a pension. Then he got a job in the St. Petersburg Treasury Chamber. However, he was not too interested in official matters. In first place among Krylov’s hobbies were literary studies and visiting the theater. Librettos came from his pen comic operas Coffee pot And Rabid Family, tragedy Cleopatra (has not reached us) And Philomel, comedy Writer in the hallway. These works did not bring the young author either money or fame, but helped him get into the circle of St. Petersburg writers. He was patronized by the famous playwright Ya.B. Knyazhnin, but the proud young man, deciding that he was being mocked in the “master’s” house, broke up with his older friend.
Since the late 80s, the main activity has been in the field of journalism. In 1789, he published the magazine “Mail of Spirits” for eight months. He was 20 years old. PD, according to Gukovsky, is one of the most remarkable magazines of the 18th century. However, it doesn't look much like a magazine. This is a collection of essays in the form of correspondence between gnomes, sylphs, etc. and the wizard Malikulmulk. The entire magazine is anonymous. Most likely, it was written entirely by Krylov, or at least all the material was processed by him. There was an opinion that Radishchev collaborated in the PD. The names of Rachmaninov and Emin are also mentioned. The PD was an organ of radical ideology. Krylov attacks the entire system of power and culture in his journal. He exposes judges and officials, bigots and hypocrites, and is not afraid to attack the royal power itself. K also raises economic issues in the PD, and fights against the dominance of foreign goods, and in connection with this stands his fight against gallomania. However, Krylov also attacks Russian merchants. The democratic beliefs of the PD are manifested quite clearly. The magazine also attacks serfdom. In addition, he opposes the rationalism of the French enlighteners. PD did not look away from the topic of the day. Her satire hits on very specific facts social life Russia at the end of the reign of Catherine2. A lot of space in the PD is devoted to literary polemics, primarily with Knyazhnin. The extraordinary courage of the magazine and its radicalism could not help but attract the attention of the government. Krylov had to take care of preserving the magazine through literary cover-ups. At the end of the publication he then writes a jingoistic feuilleton about Turkish war, then glorifies Catherine in prose and even in poetry. In PD there are bright and broad sketches of everyday life, the desire to build character, in places even elements of a realistic novel about a poor, impeccable person. Of course, Krylov’s fantasy is not given seriously, but only as a compositional and satirical motif. PD ceased with the August issue of 1789. The magazine had few subscribers, but the reason for its closure, apparently, was government pressure.
In 1790 he retired, deciding to devote himself entirely to literary activity. He became the owner of a printing house and in January 1792, together with his friend, the writer Klushin, began publishing the magazine “Spectator,” which was already enjoying greater popularity. The greatest success of “The Spectator” was brought by the works of Krylov himself Kaib, an eastern story, fairy tale Nights, Eulogy for my grandfather. In the story "Kaib" we see Rousseauistic motifs characteristic of the young Krylov: happiness and virtue flourish away from the world, in a deep forest, in solitude. It is emphasized here that withdrawal from the world is not at all a noble idyll. Krylov exposes this same noble idyll in Kaib’s meeting with the shepherd. Instead of a happy Arcadian shepherd, he shows a real and, of course, Russian peasant, hungry, poor and not at all complacent. in this story, Krylov also exposes the odic lies of the nobility. The main theme of the story is Russian autocracy times of Krylov. The oriental flavor and the transfer of the action to the east could no longer deceive anyone. In Kaiba, the issue of monarchy is brought to the fore. In "A Eulogy for My Grandfather"- in the foreground is the question of serfdom. The number of subscribers grew. In 1793 the magazine was renamed “St. Petersburg Mercury”. By this time, his publishers focused primarily on constant ironic attacks on Karamzin and his followers. The publisher of Mercury was alien to Karamzin’s reformist work, which seemed to him artificial and overly susceptible to Western influences. At the end of 1793, the publication of the St. Petersburg Mercury ceased, and Krylov left St. Petersburg for several years. Some fragmentary information suggests that he lived for some time in Moscow, where he played cards a lot and recklessly. Apparently, he wandered around the province, living on the estates of his friends. In 1797, Krylov went to the estate of Prince S.F. Golitsyn, where he apparently was his secretary and teacher of his children. It was for the Golitsyns’ home performance that the play was written in 1799-1800 Trumph or Podschipa . In the evil caricature of the stupid, arrogant and evil warrior Trump, one could easily discern Paul I, who did not like the author primarily for his admiration for the Prussian army and King Frederick II. The irony was so caustic that the play was first published in Russia only in 1871. Meaning Trumpha not only in its political overtones. What is more important is that the very form of “joke tragedy” parodied classical tragedy with its high style and in many ways meant the author’s rejection of those aesthetic ideas to which he had been faithful over the previous decades. After the death of Paul I, Prince Golitsyn was appointed governor-general of Riga, and Krylov served as his secretary for two years. In 1803 he retired again and, apparently, again spent the next two years in continuous travel around Russia and card game. It was during these years, about which little is known, that the playwright and journalist began to write fables. It is known that in 1805 Krylov showed in Moscow famous poet and fabulist I.I. Dmitriev his translation of two fables by La Fontaine: Oak and cane And The picky bride. Dmitriev highly appreciated the translation and was the first to note that the author had found his true calling. The poet himself did not immediately understand this. In 1806 he published only three fables, after which he returned to dramaturgy. He stopped writing for the theater and every year he devoted more and more attention to working on fables. In 1808 he had already published 17 fables, including the famous Elephant and pug. In 1809, the first collection was published, which immediately made its author truly famous. In total, before the end of his life, he wrote more than 200 fables, which were combined into nine books. He worked until last days- last thing lifetime edition Friends and acquaintances of the writer received fables in 1844 along with notice of the death of their author. At first, Krylov’s work was dominated by translations or adaptations of the famous French fables by La Fontaine, ( Dragonfly and ant, The Wolf and the Lamb), but gradually he began to find more and more independent plots, many of which were related to topical events Russian life. Thus, fables became a reaction to various political events Quartet, Swan, Pike and Cancer, Wolf at the kennel. More abstract subjects formed the basis Curious, Hermit and bear and others. However, fables written “on the topic of the day” very soon also began to be perceived as more generalized works. The events that gave rise to their writing were quickly forgotten, and the fables themselves turned into favorite reading in all educated families. Working in a new genre dramatically changed Krylov's literary reputation. If the first half of his life passed practically in obscurity, full of material problems and deprivations, then in maturity he was surrounded by honors and universal respect. Editions of his books sold in huge circulations for that time. On national character His language and his use of characters from Russian folklore attracted the attention of all critics. The writer remained hostile to Westernism throughout his life. It is no coincidence that he joined literary society“Conversation of lovers of Russian literature,” who defended the ancient Russian style and did not recognize Karamzin’s language reform. In parallel with popular recognition, there was also official recognition. From 1810, Krylov was first an assistant librarian and then a librarian at the Imperial Public Library in St. Petersburg. At the same time, he received a repeatedly increased pension “in respect of his excellent talents in Russian literature" Was elected a member Russian Academy, was awarded a gold medal for literary merit and received many other awards and honors. One of characteristic features Krylov's popularity includes numerous semi-legendary stories about his laziness, sloppiness, gluttony, and wit. Already celebrating the fiftieth anniversary creative activity the fabulist in 1838 turned into a truly national celebration. Krylov died in 1844 in St. Petersburg.